Received: 17 January 2017 | Revised: 13 March 2017 | Accepted: 26 April 2017

DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.13383

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The impact of cooking method on the phenolic composition,

total antioxidant activity and starch digestibility of rice
(Oryza sativa L.)

T. Chmiel | I. E. Saputro | B. Kusznierewicz | A. Bartoszek

Department of Food Chemistry, Technology

and Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry,
Abstract
Gdansk University of Technology, This study investigated changes in the phenolic composition, total antioxidant activity (TAA) and
Narutowicza 11/12 St., 80-233, Gdan
sk, starch digestibility in white and brown rice due to three different cooking procedures, and subse-
Poland
quent reheating of cooked rice after storage. Among the analyzed samples, brown rice showed the
Correspondence
highest TAA and phenolic content (622.5 mg/kg DW). All cooking methods resulted in significant
T. Chmiel, Department of Food Chemistry,
Technology and Biotechnology, Faculty of decrease of phenolic content and TAA of rice (p < 0.05). The greatest loss was observed after
Chemistry, Gdansk University of processing in rice cooker, which reduced phenolic content of both brown and polished rice by
Technology, Narutowicza 11/12 St.,
30% and ABTS radical-scavenging activity by 20 and 28%, respectively. In general, the levels of
80-233 Gdan
sk, Poland.
polyphenols and TAA of cooked rice tended to further decline after storage and reheating, but to
Email: tomasz.chmiel@pg.gda.pl
a much lesser extent when rice was prepared using microwaves. The application of in vitro diges-
Funding information
National Centre for Research and tion system disclosed that the microwave cooking resulted in the highest starch digestibility
Development, Grant/Award Number: among cooking methods used.
LIDER/029/605/L-4/12/NCBR/2013
Practical applications
Rice is one of the most commonly consumed staple foods worldwide. Scientific and epidemiologi-
cal studies have showed that their phytochemicals exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
antihypertensive and chemopreventive effects. Therefore, their high consumption, easy availability
throughout the year and use as an additive to meat and high-fat foods may make rice, especially in
the form of whole grains, potentially important chemopreventive component of the diet. The
appropriate cooking procedure of rice is crucial for preservation of bioactive compounds as well as
digestion of starch and thus duration of the glycemic response. Preferably, this study is focused on
the evaluation of the effect of cooking methods on the health-related quality of rice. The results
provide practical advice that the consumption of freshly cooked rice ensures its highest nutritional
quality, while rice microwaving is recommended both when cooked rice will be reheated after stor-
age (e.g., in restaurants) and accelerated starch digestion is in favor.

1 | INTRODUCTION traditional African starch sources, for example, cassava roots or sor-
ghum that additionally may contain residues of toxic cyanogenic com-
Cereals are estimated to provide about 42% of daily energy supply ponents when not processed properly.
required by human organism. Globally, 19% of this caloric demand is Currently, there are more than 120,000 rice varieties recognized
covered by rice (Oryza sativa L.), which is a major foodstuff for more worldwide, but their properties not always ensure economically sound
than half of the world’s population (Setyaningsih, Saputro, Palma, & quality and productivity (Wang et al., 2014). To ensure world food
Barroso, 2015). With the expanding human population, especially in security, many companies work on creation of new hybrid strains that
regions where rice is or has become recently a main staple food, also are bred to withstand pest, to resist unfavorable environmental condi-
the demand for its increased production is expected. Such a continent tions and to produce more grains (Zeigler, 2014). With the exception
is Africa, where rice consumption has been on increase for past three of rice genetically modified to synthesize b-carotene, known as “golden
decades, because its preparation takes much less time than that of rice” that was developed to address vitamin A deficiencies, relatively

J Food Process Preserv. 2018;42:e13383. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpp V

C 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | 1 of 12
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13383
2 of 12 | CHMIEL ET AL.

little attention is paid to the health promoting value of this crop. How- In recent years, the digestibility of starchy food products, such as
ever, besides the contribution of rice to the total human calorie intake, rice, is widely studied due to its direct correlation with the rate and the
as well as providing nutrients such as proteins (20–31 g/kg cooked duration of the glycemic response in humans. Previous reports indi-
rice; 65–75 g/kg raw rice) and mineral elements (P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, cated that to manage the diet for patients, raw or partially cooked
Zn, Cu, and Mn) (USDA National Nutrient Database; http://ndb.nal. starch could be considered as a low glycemic index (GI) food resource,
usda.gov), rice contains also non-nutrients with proven benefits for as GI is easily changed by starch gelatinization (Singh, Dartois, & Kaur,
human health (Deng et al., 2013). These are tryptophan derivatives 2010). Generally, rice is consumed after gelatinization by adding water
(Setyaningsih et al., 2015), but in particular phenolic compounds whose during cooking process, which results in increased enzymatic hydrolysis
most emphasized bioactivity is high antioxidant capacity and capability and thus more efficient starch digestion. In contrast, it was observed
of scavenging free radicals (Qiu, Liu, & Beta, 2010). As a consequence, that storage of cooked rice at the refrigerated temperatures may lead
a number of studies on the determination of phenolic composition and to a reduction in starch digestibility and estimated GI. However, there
total antioxidant activity (TAA) of rice were carried out (Walter et al., are only few papers dealing with the influence of thermal processing of
2013; Zaupa, Calani, Del Rio, Brighenti, & Pellegrini, 2015; Zhang, the rice grains on their starch digestibility (Tamura, Singh, Kaur, &
Shao, Bao, & Beta, 2015; Zhou, Robards, Helliwell, & Blanchard, 2004). Ogawa, 2016). For example, Khatoon and Prakash (2006) who studied
Phenolic compounds that occur in rice grains include anthocyanins, the nutritional quality of microwave and pressure cooked rice found
flavan-3-ols, flavanols, phenolic acids and their aldehydes (Qiu et al., that the amount of hydrolyzed starch did not differ significantly among
2010; Setyaningsih et al., 2015; Zaupa et al., 2015). The most abundant cooking methods used, while Li, Han, Xu, Xiong, and Zhao (2014)
are phenolic acids derived from hydroxybenzoic acid and hydroxycin- observed higher starch digestibility of microwaved rice compared to
namic acid (Goufo & Trindade, 2014). Phenolic compounds display that heated in conductive way.
many beneficial effects on human health. Scientific and epidemiological As there are only few reports on the fate of individual phytochemi-
studies of bioactive properties of whole grain rice and dietary rice cals in rice after the traditional thermal processing and hardly any for
bran showed that their phytochemicals exhibit antioxidant, anti- rice submitted to microwave cooking, the main purpose of this study
infladigesmmatory (Shao & Bao, 2015), antihypertensive (Massaretto, was to determine the composition of phenolic compounds and TAA in
Madureira Alves, Mussi de Mira, Karaoglanovic Carmona, & Lanfer unpolished and polished rice and to evaluate the effect of different
Marquez, 2011) and chemopreventive effects against several types of domestic cooking methods (i.e., electro-domestic rice cooker [RC],
cancer, such as colon, breast, lung and liver cancer (Dipti et al., 2012; microwave oven [MC], and boiling in water [BW]) as well as reheating
Henderson et al., 2012; Mannan, Sarker, Kabir, Rahman, & Alam, 2014). of cooked rice after storage on the stability of these bioactive phyto-
Moreover, the polyphenols distributed in bran layer of rice may reduce chemicals. To compare the starch digestibility of rice prepared by vari-
the risk of some chronic diseases including cardiovascular disorders, ous cooking procedures, an in vitro gastro-intestinal digestion was also
type II diabetes and obesity, as well as play an important role in the inhi- performed. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first that

bition of cholesterol oxidation (Dipti et al., 2012; Shao & Bao, 2015). systematically examines the relationship between culinary procedure
Previous studies have shown that thermal treatment of cereals and rice starch digestibility.

generally cause a significant reduction in the phenolic content and anti-

oxidant capacity mainly due to their release from bound forms, degra- 2 | MATERIALS AND METHODS
dation, polymerization, oxidation and conversion to Maillard reaction
products (Massaretto et al., 2011). Considering the effect of rice 2.1 | Chemicals and biochemicals
cooking, a decrease of phenolic compounds in pigmented and non- The determination of TAA were carried out with the use of the
pigmented rice was also observed, with a higher reduction in pig-
, Poland):
following chemicals obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Poznan
mented varieties (Finocchiaro et al., 2007). For example, Massaretto trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid) as a
et al. (2011) reported a 50% loss of total phenolic content in red rice, standard antioxidant, radicals ABTS (2,20 -azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazo-
whereas no significant effect was recorded in white one. A detrimental line-6-sulfonic acid diammonium salt), and DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-pic-
effect of thermal treatment was also noted on anthocyanins of black rylhydrazyl), as well as Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (FCR) supplied by
rice, especially in roasted or pressure cooked samples in which respec- Merck (Darmstadt, Germany).
tively 94 and 80% of total anthocyanins were degraded, for example, For chromatographic analyses, HPLC-grade methanol and formic
cyanidin-3-glucoside into protocatechuic acid (Hiemori, Koh, & Mitch- acid from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) were used. Water was purified
ell, 2009; Surh & Koh, 2014). Similarly, domestic cooking methods of using QPLUS185 system from EMD Millipore (Billerica, MA, USA). The
different rice varieties caused a significant decrease in the level of phe- quantification of polyphenols was based on standard curves generated
nolic compounds, with the highest lost (27–38%) in samples cooked by for phenolic compounds (concentration range 0.05–10 mg/L) expected
boiling (Zaupa et al., 2015). Apparently, much less is known about the to occur in rice: caffeic acid (CAF), chlorogenic acid (CHL), isovanillic
influence of microwave cooking on rice polyphenols, although it has acid (IVA), p-coumaric acid (p-COU), p-hydroxybenzaldehyde (p-HB),
been shown that type of processing is less destructive for this type of and syringic acid (SYR) obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, ferulic acid (FER),
phytochemicals (Piasek et al., 2011). p-hydroxybenzoic acid (p-HBA), protocatechuic acid (PRO),
CHMIEL ET AL. | 3 of 12

protocatechuic aldehyde (PRA), sinapic acid (SIN), vanillic acid (VAA), 2015, The GDCh Scientific Forum Chemistry [Chemie 2015], Dresden,
vanillin (VAN) obtained from Fluka (Buchs, Switzerland), and isoferulic Germany). The UAE conditions were as follows: solvent (80% metha-
acid (IFA) purchased from Extrasynthese (Genay, France). Stock solu- nol); amplitude (47%); cycle (0.4 s); pH of solvent (4.25); temperature
tions of standards were prepared in aqueous methanol 50:50 (vol/vol) (45 8C); solvent-to-sample ratio (5:1) (vol/wt); and extraction time
and stored in a freezer at 220 8C until use. (25 min). After extraction, the samples were centrifuged at 4,500 rpm,
The digestibility of rice samples was examined with the aid of 4 8C for 6 min. The clear supernatant was collected and dried using vac-
enzymes recommended by Minekus et al. (2014). Pepsin from porcine uum rotary evaporator at 65 8C. The extract was then adjusted with
gastric mucosa (powder, 250 U/mg solid), pancreatin from porcine methanol to 1 mL and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm, 4 8C for 5 min.
pancreas (83 USP), amyloglucosidase from Aspergillus niger, (powder,
70 U/mg), glucose oxidase/peroxidase reagent (assay kit GAGO20) 2.4 | Determination of phenolic compounds
were derived from Sigma-Aldrich. Hemoglobin from bovine blood, por-
The analyses of rice phenolic compounds were carried out using an
cine bile extract, 2-amino-2-(hydroxymethyl)-1,3-propanediol (Tris), p-
Agilent 1200 series HPLC system coupled with diode array detector
toluenesulfonyl-L-arginine methyl ester (TAME), and inorganic salts of
(DAD). The Kinetex XB-C18 100A column (150 mm 3 4.6 mm, 5 mm
appropriate grade were also purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.
particle size) was used for the separation of rice phenolic compounds.
The mobile phase was a binary solvent system consisting of phase A
2.2 | Sample preparation
(water with 4.8% formic acid) and phase B (methanol). The flow rate
Two types of rice samples were used in this study: polished and unpol- was 0.8 mL/min and the injection volume was 10 lL. Elution was con-
ished rice. The samples of milled rice included basmati rice of Sun Clad ducted with a linear gradient program as follows: 5–50% B in 20 min,
brand (aromatic, white, long grain rice grown in India) and Thai jasmine 50–100% B in 5 min, and held at 100% B for 5 min. Absorbance spec-
rice of Golden Phoenix brand (aromatic, long grain rice from Thailand). tra were recorded between 190 and 700 nm every 2 s with a band-
The whole grain brown rice produced by Beta Food Company from width of 4 nm, while the chromatograms were monitored at 254, 270,
Thailand was used as a sample of unpolished rice throughout this and 325 nm to monitor hydroxybenzoic acids, phenolic aldehydes, and

sk,
study. All rice samples were purchased in local grocery shops, Gdan hydroxycinnamic acids, respectively.
Poland. The uncooked rice samples (50 g) were powdered by labora-
tory mill for 1 min prior to extraction. The milling process was stopped
2.5 | Determination of total antioxidant activity by
after 30 s to avoid overheating. The fine rice powder was stored at
spectrophotometry
220 8C until analysis.
Samples of jasmine, basmati and brown rice grains for the study of TAA of rice samples was determined by the spectrophotometric batch
the effect of thermal treatment were weighed 150, 150, and 100 g, assays employing ABTS, DPPH, and FCR reagents as reported by Kusz-
respectively. They were washed on a sieve with tap water three times. nierewicz et al. (2012). All determinations were carried out in 48-well
Then purified water was added to rice with a ratio of rice and water plates, and absorbance was measured using a TECAN Infinite M200
1:2 (wt/vol) and soaked for 10 min. Rice was cooked using three differ- spectrophotometer (Tecan Group Ltd., Männedorf, Switzerland). The
ent cooking methods, that is, in RC for 21 min (jasmine and basmati) series of dilutions of trolox standard solution was carried out to give a
and 25 min (brown); in MC at power 450 W for 20 min (jasmine and final concentration within the range of 0.1–1.0, 0.05–0.3, and 0.1–
basmati) and 25 min (brown); and BW for 24 min (jasmine and basmati) 1.4 mg/mL for ABTS, DPPH and FCR assays, respectively. Subse-
and 30 min (brown). The cooking time was set in accordance with the quently, the appropriate volume (10, 30, and 100 mL) of rice extracts or
manufacturer’s recommendations and to provide the same cooking trolox solutions were reacted with 1 mL of ABTS, DPPH or FCR solu-
degree of rice (fully cooked) using all these methods. Finally, cooked tions, and then the absorbance was measured after 10 min at 734,
rice samples were left to cool down and then transferred to stripped 515, and 750 nm, respectively. TAA of rice samples was expressed as
plastic bags. All cooked rice samples were divided into three portions. trolox equivalents (mg TE/g DW) on the basis of the calibration curves.
First portion was kept at 220 8C until analysis. Second and third por-
tion were stored in a refrigerator (4 8C) for 6 and 24 hr, respectively, 2.6 | In vitro starch digestion protocol
prior to reheating process. The remaining samples were reheated in the
A harmonized in vitro starch digestion of rice samples was carried out
microwave oven at 450 W for 3 min. All samples were frozen and
using a method reported by Minekus et al. (2014). The electrolyte stock
freeze dried.
solutions of simulated salivary fluid (SSF), simulated gastric fluid (SGF),
and simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) were prepared as given in Table 1.
2.3 | Extraction of phenolic compounds
The enzyme activity of pepsin is based on certificate of analysis from
Each rice sample (10 g) was weighed and placed in an extraction tube. supplier (503 U/mg). The trypsin activity in pancreatin is based on
Then, 50 mL of solvent was added into the extraction vessel. The TAME assay (5.06 U/mg) as described in Supporting Information. The
ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was carried out under conditions amount of pancreatin added was based on the trypsin assay and
optimized in the previous study (Saputro i.e. pers. comm., 1 September amounted to 100 TAME units per mL of intestinal phase content.
4 of 12 | CHMIEL ET AL.

T AB LE 1 Preparation of electrolyte stock solutions of digestion fluids: SSF, SGF, and SIFa

SSF, pH 7 SGF, pH 3 SIF, pH 7

Volume of Final Volume of Final Volume of Final
Stock concentration stock added concentration stock added concentration stock added concentration
Component (mol/L) to 0.4 L (mL)b (mmol/L) to 0.4 L (mL)b (mmol/L) to 0.4 L (mL)b (mmol/L)

KCl 0.5 15.1 15.1 6.9 6.9 6.8 6.8

KH2PO4 0.5 3.7 3.7 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8

NaHCO3 1.0 6.8 13.6 12.5 25.0 42.5 85.0

NaCl 2.0 – – 11.8 47.2 9.6 38.4

MgCl2(H2O)6 0.15 0.5 0.15 0.4 0.12 1.1 0.33

(NH4)2CO3 0.5 0.06 0.06 0.5 0.5 – –

HClc 6.0 0.09 1.1 1.3 15.6 0.7 8.4

Abbreviations: SGF 5 simulated gastric fluid; SIF 5 simulated intestinal fluid; SSG 5 simulated salivary fluid.
a
The electrolyte stock solutions are 1.253 concentrated. The addition of enzymes, bile salts, CaCl2, and water will result in the correct electrolyte
concentration in the final digestion mixture.
b
The amounts are calculated for a final volume of 500 mL for each digestion fluid.
c
HCl was added for pH adjustment.

2.6.1 | Oral phase solution, 2.44 mL of bile solution, 40 mL of 0.3 mol/L CaCl2, 35 mL of

The cooked rice (20 g) was minced using an electric mincer. The sample 5 mol/L NaOH, and 1.486 mL of purified water to reach finally pH 7.

was weighed (5 g) and transferred into falcon tube of 50 mL. Each Then, reaction mixtures were incubated at 37 8C for 2 hr. The sampling

preparation was carried out in duplicate, where one of the tubes was (2 mL each) was carried out after the incubation for 30, 60, 90, and
used for gastric phase analysis and another tube was used for intestinal 120 min (I-30, I-60, I-90, and I-120). Subsequently, 8 mL of ethanol
phase analysis. The rice samples were diluted with 4 mL of SSF electro- was added into the samples and they were immediately frozen in liquid
lyte stock solution, followed by 25 mL of 0.3 mol/L CaCl2 and 0.975 mL nitrogen in order to stop the enzymatic reactions of intestinal phase.
of purified water. Then, the reaction mixture was incubated at 37 8C
for 2 min. 2.7 | Glucose assay
2.6.2 | Gastric phase Immediately before the assay, the samples collected during the in vitro

Preparation of the porcine pepsin solution was carried out by dissolv- digestion were thawed and centrifuged at 5,000 rpm, 4 8C for 10 min.

ing 600 mg of porcine pepsin in 7.55 mL of purified water to obtain The gastric phase samples (G-30 and G-120), intestinal phase sample
activity of 2,000 U/mL in the final mixture of gastric digesta. After oral (I-30) and intestinal phase samples (I-60, I-90, and I-120) were diluted
phase, duplicate digests were pooled and mixed with 8 mL of SGF elec- 5, 50, and 100 times, respectively with purified water. Then, the glu-
trolyte stock solution, 1 mL of porcine pepsin solution, 5 mL of 0.3 mol/ cose released during digestion was determined based on the protocol
L CaCl2, 0.23 mL of 5 mol/L HCl, and 0.765 mL of purified water to from Sigma-Aldrich applied by other researchers (Tamura et al., 2016)
reach pH 3 in the final solution. Then, the reaction mixtures were incu- and expressed as hydrolyzed starch during the amount of time elapsed.
bated at 37 8C for 2 hr. The gastric phase sampling was carried out Detailed procedure of the glucose assay is outlined in Supporting
after 30 and 120 min (G-30 and G-120) incubation in duplicate (2.5 mL Information.
each). Subsequently, sodium bicarbonate (1 mol/L) was added into
samples in order to stop the reactions of gastric phase. The samples 3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
were frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at 280 8C until further
analyses. 3.1 | Determination of phenolic compounds in raw
2.6.3 | Intestinal phase
and cooked rice

Preparation of the pancreatin solution was carried out by dissolving The validated UAE/HPLC-DAD method (Supporting Information Table
11.12 g of pancreatin in 70.31 mL of SIF electrolyte stock solution to S1) was applied to extract and analyze polished (jasmine and basmati)
reach activity of 100 U/mL TAME in the final mixture of intestinal and unpolished (brown) rice grains. The phenolic profiles of raw and
digesta. Preparation of the bile solution was carried out by dissolving cooked rice samples were evaluated to establish the effect of cooking
bile extract in purified water to reach the concentration of 10 mmol/L process on the stability of polyphenols.
in the final mixture. Bile solution was stirred at 37 8C for 30 min. The Phenolic compounds in rice extract were tentatively identified by
liquid “food” digested during gastric step (20 mL) was mixed with matching retention time of detected peaks with that of phenolic stand-
11 mL of SIF electrolyte stock solution followed by 5 mL of pancreatin ards. Based on these parameters, rice extracts were found to contain
CHMIEL ET AL. | 5 of 12

FIGURE 1 The HPLC-DAD chromatograms obtained at the detection wavelength of 270 nm (left) and 325 nm (right) for brown rice in the
form of (a) raw grains, (b) processed in electro-domestic rice cooker, and samples reheated after (c) 6 hr, and (d) 24 hr of storage. The num-
bers refer to the peak appearance in the chromatogram: (1) protocatechuic acid (PRO), (2) protocatechuic aldehyde (PRA), (3) p-hydroxyben-
zoic acid (p-HBA), (4) chlorogenic acid (CHL), (5) p-hydroxybenzaldehyde (p-HB), (6) caffeic acid (CAF), (7) vanillic acid (VAA), (8) isovanillic
acid (IVA), (9) syringic acid (SYR), (10) vanillin (VAN), (11) p-coumaric acid (p-COU), (12) ferulic acid (FER), (13) sinapic acid (SIN), and (14)
isoferulic acid (IFA)

14 phenolic compounds (Figure 1) that were identified and quantified. rice with the concentration ranging from 3.4 to 84.0 and from 12.4 to
The achieved differences between retention times of phenolic stand- 362.0 mg/kg DW in non-pigmented and pigmented rice grains, respec-
ards and polyphenols detected in rice extracts were below 0.8%. After- tively (Shao & Bao, 2015; Tian, Nakamura, & Kayahara, 2004; Zaupa
wards, the identity of the peaks was confirmed by comparing their et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2004).
spectra with spectral profile of individual standards, as well as by spik- As can be seen in Table 2, the second most abundant compounds
ing method. were p-coumaric acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid and syringic acid, consti-
The levels of polyphenols in raw rice samples are shown in Table tuting about 15–17% of the phenolic fraction depending on the variety
2. The results disclosed that brown rice exhibited the highest total con- of rice. The concentration of p-coumaric and ferulic acids found in the
tent of phenolic compounds (630.2 mg/kg DW), followed by jasmine three rice varieties studied is in accordance with that reported for
(175.6 mg/kg DW), and basmati rice (171.3 mg/kg DW). These levels some varieties of brown (155.1–362.0 mg FER/kg DW; 22.0–
mainly corresponded to the amount of ferulic acid that contributed up 152.0 mg p-COU/kg DW) and white rice (53.3–84.0 mg FER/kg DW;
to 33% of the total phenolic compounds in the grains. For that reason, 3.6–11.0 mg p-COU/kg DW) (Tian et al., 2004; Zhou et al., 2004)
ferulic acid was the most predominant compound in the rice grain sam- However, Vichapong, Sookserm, Srijesdaruk, Swatsitang, and Srijaranai
ples evaluated. In several previous studies, ferulic acid was also found (2010), analyzing unpolished and polished Thai brown rice, observed a
to be the most abundant phenolic acid determined in all varieties of lower level of these compounds equal to 6.8–108.1 and 2.2–83.3 mg/
 6 of 12
|

T AB LE 2 The content of individual phenolic compounds (mg/kg DW)a in rice cooked by different methods and reheated in microwave

Aldehydesb Hydroxybenzoic acidsb Hydroxycinnamic acidsb

Rice Cooking
variety method PRA p-HB VAN PRO p-HBA VAA IVA SYR CHL CAF p-COU FER SIN IFA

Brown Raw 12.66 6 0.51 36.82 6 3.26 57.84 6 3.73 8.68 6 0.52 29.49 6 3.15 78.81 6 1.42 4.60 6 0.16 24.99 6 1.79 17.75 6 2.48 46.77 6 0.08 91.32 6 7.17 198.88 6 7.51 7.85 6 0.34 13.79 6 1.76
BW (1) 11.01 6 1.35 29.71 6 2.97 37.37 6 2.04 6.09 6 0.51 24.25 6 1.80 65.97 6 1.92 3.82 6 0.17 8.01 6 0.72 15.46 6 1.66 38.14 6 4.88 73.02 6 5.06 159.24 6 0.41 6.89 6 0.05 7.96 6 0.31
(2) 7.77 6 0.87 26.49 6 1.32 31.50 6 1.34 5.50 6 0.02 23.89 6 0.36 61.89 6 1.74 3.70 6 0.31 7.45 6 0.23 10.46 6 0.22 25.03 6 0.47 65.40 6 1.93 147.42 6 4.79 6.33 6 0.23 6.58 6 0.46
(3) 4.41 6 0.26 25.25 6 1.51 30.48 6 1.00 5.37 6 0.30 22.76 6 1.47 59.41 6 1.63 3.09 6 0.13 7.31 6 0.47 9.82 6 0.80 24.76 6 1.12 61.87 6 2.66 146.58 6 1.67 6.18 6 0.21 5.03 6 0.32
RC (1) 8.61 6 1.05 26.10 6 1.55 36.45 6 2.89 5.30 6 0.09 21.49 6 1.39 62.87 6 3.58 2.99 6 0.18 7.25 6 0.76 13.42 6 1.48 33.65 6 2.44 64.90 6 0.92 152.78 6 7.24 6.59 6 0.26 6.22 6 1.11
(2) 8.07 6 0.64 22.52 6 1.46 28.95 6 1.88 4.72 6 0.11 20.10 6 1.25 58.49 6 1.58 2.77 6 0.48 6.42 6 0.97 11.41 6 0.39 24.05 6 1.92 64.47 6 0.53 141.70 6 4.06 5.87 6 0.76 4.94 6 0.25
(3) 7.32 6 0.10 18.90 6 0.21 25.22 6 2.25 4.65 6 0.01 18.87 6 1.33 44.91 6 2.55 2.78 6 0.05 5.87 6 0.49 8.00 6 0.06 20.01 6 0.91 48.46 6 3.49 112.10 6 5.77 5.23 6 0.01 4.44 6 0.42
MC (1) 10.43 6 1.12 26.88 6 1.83 35.14 6 0.95 6.91 6 0.47 22.48 6 2.23 67.12 6 6.25 3.48 6 0.38 8.02 6 1.28 12.95 6 0.49 34.60 6 3.12 66.25 6 0.84 158.15 6 0.62 6.86 6 0.42 6.94 6 0.51
(2) 8.85 6 0.67 21.29 6 0.74 32.80 6 0.44 5.45 6 0.59 22.19 6 1.21 60.76 6 2.52 3.25 6 0.06 6.70 6 0.45 9.78 6 0.25 23.98 6 0.50 65.00 6 2.16 146.68 6 5.80 6.13 6 0.04 4.42 6 0.18
(3) 6.33 6 0.52 16.96 6 0.25 23.89 6 1.40 4.60 6 0.22 15.03 6 0.35 38.40 6 3.57 2.69 6 0.17 5.35 6 0.29 6.52 6 0.28 18.05 6 0.89 40.11 6 2.54 127.17 6 5.63 4.35 6 0.19 4.37 6 0.26

Jasmine Raw 6.26 6 0.96 13.00 6 1.09 17.17 6 0.25 ND 28.14 6 0.35 22.18 6 0.09 2.46 6 0.18 5.50 6 0.29 5.45 6 0.07 5.64 6 0.11 15.33 6 1.44 48.46 6 2.76 6.04 6 0.68 TR
BW (1) 4.86 6 0.08 7.15 6 0.07 14.40 6 1.10 ND 12.49 6 0.35 20.01 6 0.17 1.96 6 0.04 4.65 6 0.20 4.06 6 0.04 3.94 6 0.05 13.88 6 0.39 35.79 6 1.09 2.64 6 0.03 TR
(2) 3.39 6 0.15 6.24 6 0.56 12.34 6 0.51 ND 10.85 6 0.93 16.62 6 1.33 1.95 6 0.01 4.21 6 0.01 3.77 6 0.27 3.85 6 0.39 12.51 6 1.19 29.10 6 3.04 2.41 6 0.17 TR
(3) 3.14 6 0.18 5.78 6 0.13 12.61 6 0.46 ND 9.40 6 0.40 15.19 6 0.17 1.92 6 0.14 4.01 6 0.08 3.74 6 0.03 3.27 6 0.04 10.49 6 0.69 24.40 6 0.91 2.36 6 0.16 TR
RC (1) 3.95 6 0.20 5.13 6 0.87 12.93 6 0.48 ND 13.50 6 1.02 20.13 6 1.17 2.07 6 0.20 4.74 6 0.51 3.65 6 0.23 2.70 6 0.09 13.88 6 0.57 34.38 6 1.40 4.86 6 0.12 TR
(2) 3.02 6 0.22 4.42 6 0.09 11.96 6 1.04 ND 12.38 6 0.09 17.73 6 0.39 1.96 6 0.34 4.50 6 0.05 3.56 6 0.05 2.66 6 0.20 13.46 6 0.23 30.78 6 0.35 4.49 6 0.24 TR
(3) 2.85 6 0.15 4.25 6 0.55 11.72 6 0.09 ND 10.34 6 0.61 15.71 6 0.57 2.00 6 0.04 4.17 6 0.07 3.46 6 0.01 2.48 6 0.15 10.91 6 0.26 25.98 6 2.13 4.23 6 0.37 TR
MC (1) 5.01 6 0.87 6.79 6 0.43 14.80 6 0.23 ND 11.29 6 0.32 17.65 6 0.81 2.03 6 0.09 4.24 6 0.24 3.94 6 0.11 4.20 6 0.06 12.96 6 0.91 30.46 6 1.35 4.72 6 0.45 TR
(2) 4.43 6 0.57 5.94 6 0.19 12.07 6 0.52 ND 11.23 6 0.46 17.00 6 0.34 1.82 6 0.01 4.13 6 0.09 3.72 6 0.11 3.61 6 0.02 12.60 6 1.19 29.59 6 0.90 3.44 6 0.19 TR
(3) 3.16 6 0.02 5.73 6 0.72 11.97 6 0.57 ND 10.76 6 1.02 17.09 6 1.14 1.81 6 0.21 3.97 6 0.12 3.46 6 0.07 2.94 6 0.17 12.21 6 0.57 27.63 6 1.54 2.93 6 0.14 TR

Basmati Raw 16.30 6 0.70 4.99 6 0.33 8.12 6 0.41 ND 7.09 6 0.34 8.09 6 0.35 2.38 6 0.17 28.41 6 2.11 15.26 6 1.06 4.90 6 0.16 12.23 6 1.34 56.16 6 3.16 7.43 6 0.05 TR
BW (1) 13.00 6 1.77 4.37 6 0.17 6.13 6 0.84 ND 6.39 6 0.38 6.03 6 0.57 1.84 6 0.05 25.16 6 0.52 11.71 6 0.25 4.03 6 0.27 9.53 6 0.68 45.63 6 2.74 6.61 6 0.44 TR
(2) 8.74 6 0.36 4.00 6 0.16 5.71 6 0.16 ND 4.66 6 0.76 5.27 6 0.40 1.75 6 0.07 21.27 6 1.54 9.81 6 1.38 2.94 6 0.01 9.30 6 0.71 40.92 6 2.00 4.49 6 0.36 TR
(3) 8.91 6 0.50 3.73 6 0.50 5.12 6 0.20 ND 4.33 6 0.50 4.84 6 0.30 1.74 6 0.13 19.83 6 1.67 8.87 6 0.95 2.76 6 0.01 7.93 6 0.69 34.42 6 2.65 3.00 6 0.21 TR
RC (1) 8.00 6 2.39 3.63 6 0.38 6.00 6 0.21 ND 4.84 6 0.81 5.34 6 0.83 1.90 6 0.14 22.48 6 1.38 9.38 6 0.42 3.26 6 0.15 9.20 6 0.38 41.42 6 3.70 4.06 6 0.39 TR
(2) 7.63 6 0.75 3.48 6 0.09 5.86 6 0.43 ND 4.60 6 0.15 4.99 6 0.32 1.81 6 0.01 18.74 6 1.27 8.83 6 0.12 2.91 6 0.12 8.28 6 1.01 36.00 6 2.50 2.93 6 0.23 TR
(3) 5.62 6 0.33 3.42 6 0.06 5.11 6 0.74 ND 4.05 6 0.25 4.55 6 0.09 1.57 6 0.06 16.27 6 0.73 7.79 6 0.31 2.60 6 0.02 6.71 6 0.18 31.64 6 2.23 2.96 6 0.27 TR
MC (1) 11.00 6 2.53 4.52 6 0.42 7.17 6 0.57 ND 5.51 6 0.16 7.10 6 0.41 2.05 6 0.05 23.64 6 0.60 11.28 6 0.66 3.20 6 0.36 11.00 6 0.76 48.53 6 3.76 4.66 6 0.17 TR
(2) 10.50 6 0.46 3.98 6 0.27 6.20 6 0.27 ND 5.27 6 0.46 5.81 6 0.05 1.92 6 0.15 21.70 6 1.40 10.20 6 0.82 2.84 6 0.15 10.37 6 0.72 43.82 6 2.45 2.97 6 0.19 TR
(3) 9.42 6 1.23 3.47 6 0.09 6.28 6 0.15 ND 5.36 6 0.13 5.21 6 0.15 1.89 6 0.06 21.30 6 0.30 8.98 6 0.24 2.78 6 0.01 9.10 6 0.04 41.39 6 0.97 2.58 6 0.06 TR

Abbreviations: BW 5 boiling in water; MC 5 microwave oven; RC 5 rice cooker; ND 5 not detected (<LOD); TR 5 trace amount; (1) 5 freshly cooked rice; (2) 5 cooked rice reheated after storage in a fridge
for 6 hr; (3) 5 cooked rice reheated after storage in a fridge for 24 hr.
a
Values are expressed as mean 6 standard deviation of triplicate measurements.
b
The name of individual phenolic compounds abbreviated as in Figure 1.
CHMIEL
ET AL.
CHMIEL ET AL. | 7 of 12

FIGURE 2 The levels of TAA and polyphenols content determined by HPLC in different rice varieties, raw (Raw) and cooked in a rice
cooker (RC), microwave oven (MC), or boiling water (BW). For a given rice variety submitted to indicated cooking methods, the results
obtained from the same spectrophotometric assay or HPLC analysis marked with different letters are significantly different (Fisher’s LSD
test; p < 0.05)

kg DW of ferulic and p-coumaric acids, respectively. Meanwhile, the rice varieties (8.1–57.8 mg/kg DW) was above its odor threshold
study of Italian white rice variety showed a significantly higher total (OT 5 0.058 mg/kg) and thus could contribute significantly to the
content of both phenolic acids (
5–10-fold), including free and bound aroma of these samples. Only few researchers focused on the evalua-
forms (Zaupa et al., 2015). These comparative data on ferulic and p- tion of vanillin content in rice grains and reported very low amounts,
coumaric acids, which serve as main substrates to form the basic skele- equal to 0.03–0.40 mg/kg (Mathure, Wakte, Jawali, & Nadaf, 2011), in
ton of all flavonoid derivatives in rice grain (Shao & Bao, 2015), indi- contrast to our findings. Our results emphasize the role of vanillin as an
cated that their contents in white and brown rice, not surprisingly, important ingredient of rice aroma and flavor besides 2-acetyl-1-
depend strongly on the variety, geographical origin, type of processing pyrroline with characteristic sweet, cooked rice and popcorn like aroma
as well as extraction method used. The levels of p-hydroxybenzoic and (OT 5 0.001 mg/kg).
syringic acids, dominant components of phenolic profile of the jasmine In general, the concentration of phenolic compounds evidently
and basmati rice grains, are higher than that reported in other studies decreases when the grains are subjected to polishing process. This find-
of nonpigmented (white) varieties (Shao, Xu, Sun, Bao, & Beta, 2014; ing is reasonable taking into consideration that the rice bran is removed
Tian et al., 2004; Vichapong et al., 2010; Zaupa et al., 2015; Zhou during polishing process (Zhang et al., 2015). Another study on the
et al., 2004). The obtained results showed that vanillic acid contributing determination of phenolic compounds in different parts of rice grain
up to 12.6% of total phenolics was also found at higher concentrations confirmed that phenolic acids in bran ensure the highest contribution
compared to previous literature reports on white (0.3–8.5 mg/kg DW) to the total phenolic content in the grain compared to endosperm and
and colored rice grains (0.4–15.0 mg/kg DW) (Shao & Bao, 2015; Tian embryo (Shao & Bao, 2015; Shao et al., 2014). Hence, bran removal
et al., 2004; Vichapong et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2004). process during polishing of dehulled rice to obtain milled rice, the form
In contrary, the studied rice varieties were characterized by trace that is generally consumed, reduces the concentration of phenolic com-
levels of protocatechuic and isovanillic acids (<2% of the total phe- pounds in the grain. In present study, the level of total polyphenols in
nolics in grain). To the best of our knowledge, the presence of isovanil- unpolished grains was 3.5-fold higher than in polished ones.
lic acid in rice grains have not been reported before. Moreover,
protocatechuic acid, the most abundant free phenolic acid found in pig-
3.2 | The impact of cooking on phenolic composition
mented rice (red and black varieties) (Shao & Bao, 2015), was not
detected in the present study of polished rice samples using the HPLC- The results concerning the content of total and individual polyphenols
DAD, but it can be quantified in whole grain brown rice (8.7 mg/kg in the studied rice varieties subjected to different cooking process are
DW). With the exception of both these acids, the other phenolic com- shown in Figure 2 and Table 2. In general, the levels of polyphenols in
pounds constituted a medium portion (2.0–9.8%) of the phenolic pro- both polished and unpolished rice tended to decline after cooking. In
file of analyzed rice samples. Among them, vanillin has been indicated order to determine the significance of differences between the level of
as one of the major aroma constituents of basmati, glutinous and fine- polyphenols in raw and cooked rice samples, the statistical analysis
grained rice, as well as cooked rice (Nadaf, Mathure, & Jawali, 2016). It based on one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. Sig-
was observed that the content of this phenolic aldehyde in all studied nificant differences in the content of phenolic compounds in rice
8 of 12 | CHMIEL ET AL.

samples were found and thus Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) (Table 2). As shown in Figure 3 the levels of polyphenols in the
test was applied. LSD revealed that the initial levels of polyphenols in reheated samples were lower than in freshly cooked rice. The reduc-
rice grains were significantly higher than the ones in cooked rice tion of these phytochemicals due to reheating was 7–15 and 12–33%
(brown rice, p 5 0.0001; jasmine rice, p 5 0.001; and basmati rice, for cooked rice reheated after 6 and 24 hr, respectively. The results of
p 5 0.025), regardless of cooking method (Figure 1). Among three one-way ANOVA indicted that reheating of jasmine and basmati rice
processing methods, cooking using RC caused the highest reduction of prepared by MC did not affect the level of phenolic compounds in stat-
phenolic content (29–31%), followed by microwaving (18–33%), and istically significant way. Similarly, the detrimental effect of reheating
boiling (18–28%). However, the differences in the loss of polyphenols process on phenolic content in basmati rice previously cooked in RC
depending on the cooking method used were not statistically signifi- was not observed. Nevertheless, statistically significant loss of polyphe-
cant. Previous study on the evaluation of the effect of thermal treat- nols was noted in all samples of brown rice reheated after 6 and 24 hr
ment on rice phenolics also confirmed that domestic cooking causes a (F  2.937, p  0.019), regardless of the cooking method as shown in
significant loss of phenolic compounds in rice grains prepared by boil- Figure 3. In the case of jasmine and basmati rice boiled in water as well
ing (27–38%) and risotto (8–33%) procedures (Zaupa et al., 2015), as jasmine grains prepared using RC, only the reheating after longer
which is in accordance with our findings. In addition, the lowest reduc- storage (24 hr) resulted in a significant decrease of phenolic content
tion of total phenolic content during cooking process, especially by (F  2.789, p  0.024), with the highest lost (23–25%) determined in
microwaves and boiling was observed in basmati rice, while the highest samples cooked by boiling. Therefore, it is advisable to consume the
was found in jasmine rice. rice right after it was cooked. In addition, the obtained results suggest
Considering the impact of rice cooking on the level of phenolic that preparation of polished rice varieties using microwaves leads to a

acids, the reduction of hydroxycinnamates (20–30%) in brown and jas- higher stability of phenolic phytochemicals during storage and reheat-

mine varieties was higher than hydroxybenzoates (26–40%), while the ing process in comparison to other cooking methods (9 and 14% loss

opposite effect was observed for basmati rice. Only in unpolished after 6 and 24 hr of storage). Thus, consumption of reheated rice that

brown rice, syringic and isoferulic acids were significantly affected by was previously prepared in a MC is also recommended.

all thermal processing methods, with the highest lost found in grains Summarizing the effect of rice cooking on the phenolic composi-

cooked using RC. As shown in Figure 1 and Table 2, their concentration tion, the thermal processing, especially cooking using RC, generally
resulted in a decrease in the content of such compounds. As described
dropped two- and threefold, respectively. In the case of jasmine rice,
before, the reduction of phenolic content in rice grain is probably asso-
the cooking process resulted in the highest loss of p-hydroxybenzoic
ciated with the instability of these compounds at high temperature dur-
acid (52–60%), as well as its corresponding aldehyde (p-HB), regardless
ing thermal process (Liazid, Palma, Brigui, & Barroso, 2007), and thus
of the type of thermal treatment used. On the other hand, vanillic acid
may provide their release from bound forms, degradation, polymeriza-
was found to be the most thermally stable hydroxybenzoic acid in both
tion and the formation of Maillard reaction products (Massaretto et al.,
jasmine and brown rice grains cooked by different methods; its content
2011; Zaupa et al., 2015). Furthermore, the presence of oxygen and
decline did not exceed 20%. Regarding the hydroxycinnamic acids,
moisture, in higher temperature could accelerate the oxidative degrada-
sinapic acid and p-coumaric acid were the least sensitive to thermal
tion of phenolic compounds (Min, McClung, & Chen, 2014). Consider-
treatment in brown and jasmine varieties, respectively. Their degrada-
ing the complete absorption of the cooking water by the rice grains
tion was hardly observed, especially during boiling, probably due to the
during all three cooking procedures used, it can be stated that the
binding of these phenolic acids to the cell wall polysaccharides and lig-
losses of phenolic compounds resulted mainly from the thermal and
nin (Zaupa et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2004). Taking into account the
oxidative degradation.
effect of cooking on individual phenolic compounds in basmati rice, it
was observed that their contents were affected differently between
3.3 | The impact of cooking method on antioxidant
the three processing methods. For example, the concentration of
sinapic acid and protocatechuic aldehyde decreased during cooking in
capacity
RC and MC by half and one-third, respectively, whereas BW affected TAA of three rice samples in a form of raw and cooked grains was
their level to a much lesser extent (11 and 20%) as shown in Table 2. measured employing ABTS, DPPH radicals and FCR assay (Figure 2).
In the case of three phenolic aldehydes, the thermal treatment of The results disclosed that, for raw rice samples, brown rice exhibited
studied rice varieties using RC caused the highest loss of these com- the highest TAA (1.62, 6.03, and 6.71 mg TE/g DW for DPPH, ABTS
pounds (34–40%). In general, these compounds behaved differently and FCR assay, respectively), followed by basmati (1.10, 2.48, and
among varieties and between the three processing methods used. Only 5.44 mg TE/g DW for DPPH, ABTS and FCR assay, respectively) and
the content of vanillin in brown rice and p-hydroxybenzoic aldehyde in jasmine varieties (0.96, 2.29, and 5.32 mg TE/g DW for DPPH, ABTS
jasmine rice were affected by all cooking methods to a comparable and FCR assay, respectively). As shown in Figure 2, polished rice grains
extent. were characterized by comparable level of antioxidant activity, while
Rice is also often consumed after reheating the cooked rice. There- unpolished brown rice exhibited significantly higher value of TAA,
fore, the content of phenolic compounds in the rice samples stored at especially when determined as ABTS radical scavenging activity. A total
4 8C and then reheated in a MC after 6 and 24 hr, were also evaluated of 2.5-fold lower TAA of white (undermilled and milled) rice grains
CHMIEL ET AL. | 9 of 12

FIGURE 3 The reduction of polyphenol contents (left panels) and TAA (right panels) by reheating rice samples prepared in: rice cooker
(RC), boiling water (BW), or microwave oven (MC) and stored in a refrigerator for 6 and 24 hr. TAA was determined by ABTS assay.
Different letters for the results obtained for the same rice variety correspond to significant differences (Fisher’s LSD test; p < 0.05) among
cooking methods and storage time

compared to the brown ones were also reported by Finocchiaro et al. by Finocchiaro et al. (2007). These reductions of TAA of cooked rice
(2007) using ABTS assay. Furthermore, our results obtained for basmati were probably due to the decline of phenolic level in grains during
and jasmine rice samples are consistent with TAA of white rice vari- cooking. The strong positive correlation observed between the TAA
eties (0.60–0.87 mg TE/g DW) evaluated by DPPH spectrophotometric and total content of phenolic compounds in cooked rice samples, as
test during previous studies (Zhang et al., 2015). confirmed by the Pearson coefficient (ABTS r 5 0.993; DPPH
The different cooking methods of the rice grains also affected TAA r 5 0.993; FCR r 5 0.836), also indicate that these compounds are the
(Figure 2), which was similarly altered as the total phenolic content. main components responsible for the TAA of rice. A similar relationship
The one-way ANOVA (p < 0.05) revealed that the three cooking proc- for rice grains (Surh & Koh, 2014; Walter et al., 2013), as well as other
esses produced a significant reduction of TAA of rice. Among the three cereals such as wheat, oats, sorghum, and flaxseed was reported by
processing methods, rice cooking in RC caused the highest reduction other researches (Choi, Jeong, & Lee, 2007; Velioglu, Mazza, Gao, &
of TAA, ranging from 13 to 47% according to DPPH, ABTS, and FCR Oomah, 1998).
assays, followed by preparation of rice in boiling water (14–42%), and The level of TAA of cooked rice reheated after 6 and 24 hr of prior
MC (11–29%). In brown and white boiled rice, a loss of 20–30% of the refrigeration were also evaluated. In general, the reheating of rice
initial antioxidant activity, measured by ABTS assay, was also observed resulted in a decrease in TAA in all three varieties (Figure 3). The
10 of 12 | CHMIEL ET AL.

reduction of ABTS radical scavenging activity ranged from 0.3 to 50

and 3 to 81% for rice samples reheated after storage in a fridge for 6
and 24 hr, respectively. As shown in Figure 3, statistically insignificant
effect of reheating on the level of TAA was only observed in brown
rice cooked in RC. Similarly, the one-way ANOVA revealed that reheat-
ing of brown rice prepared by two other cooking methods did not sig-
nificantly affect the TAA only after shorter storage period of 6 hr.
These findings are not correlated with the results showing the impact
of reheating on the phenolic content in brown rice, which tended to
decline during this process. The observed opposite effect was probably
due to diversified contribution of phenolic compounds to total antioxi-
dant potential of plant foods, such as rice grains, as well as the possibil-
ity of synergistic, additive, and antagonistic interactions that may occur
between polyphenols and other components of sample matrix during
processing as also indicated by Finocchiaro et al. (2007). In the case of
polished rice varieties, the reheating process caused a statistically sig-
nificant decline of TAA values for both basmati (F  2.475, p  0.038)
and jasmine (F  4.390, p  0.002) rice grains, regardless of the storage
time and thermal processing method applied. The highest reduction in
the level of TAA due to reheating of rice was observed in samples pre-
pared by boiling which agrees well with the loss of polyphenols (Figure
3). A previous study revealing the decrease of TAA of pigmented and
non-pigmented rice grains submitted to the thermal treatment sug-
gested that such reduction was due to the degradation or leaching of FIGURE 4 Comparison of starch digestion for (a) polished
(jasmine) and (b) unpolished (brown) rice submitted to various
soluble compounds, mainly free phenolics (Zaupa et al., 2015). How-
cooking processes: RC—in a rice cooker, MC—in a microwave oven,
ever, the absorption of all the cooking water by the rice during thermal
and BW—boiled in water. The digesta samples were collected after
treatment in our study indicated that decrease of TAA is most likely a given time (in minutes) of the gastric (G) and intestinal (I) phase.
related to the thermal and oxidative degradation of phenolic The results of two independent in vitro digestion trials are shown.
compounds. For a given rice type and time of gastrointestinal digestion, the
results of starch digestibility marked with different letters are
significantly different (p < 0.05) among cooking methods used
3.4 | In vitro starch digestibility
In this part of study, one sample of each type of rice was analyzed. The Prakash (2006) also reported similar findings for microwave and pres-

brown rice was used as unpolished rice sample. Due to the growing sure cooked rice. Nevertheless, among the three different cooking

volume of jasmine rice trade in the last decade, from 1.7 million tons in methods, the highest amount of digested starch in polished jasmine
2005 to 2.5 million tons in 2013 (Mohanty, 2013), this variety was rice (209.1 g/kg FW) was reproducibly determined for sample cooked
selected as polished rice sample for starch digestion analysis. in MC. Similarly, the microwave cooking of unpolished rice resulted in
Figure 4 shows the changes in the digestion of starch in homoge- a significantly higher (194.0 g/kg FW; p < 0.05) starch digestibility after
nized cooked rice samples submitted to various cooking procedures 2 hr of simulated intestinal digestion (I-120) in comparison to other cul-
during the simulated in vitro digestion. Throughout the course of simu- inary procedures, as shown in Figure 4b. This finding is probably due to
lated gastric digestion (up to 120 min; G-120), no starch hydrolysis was differences in heat transfer during rice cooking. Thermal radiation
observed, which was attributed to the absence of amylases in the gas- occurs in the MC, while the conduction takes place during BW or RC
tric juice and is consistent with the results of previous studies (Tamura procedure. This results in a greater swelling and smaller gaps between
et al., 2016). granulates of rice starch heated by microwave and thus higher starch
Afterwards, the starch hydrolysis occurred due to the action of digestibility as suggested by Li et al. (2014). Hence, it is advisable to
pancreatic enzymes fed into the simulated intestinal digestion. Starch cook rice with the aid of a MC when accelerated starch digestion is in
digestion in homogenized samples for RC, MC and BW during the pro- favor. A corresponding study on starch digestion of cooked rice pre-
cess sharply increased from nearly-zero level (
0.7 g/kg fresh weight pared by different cooking time also confirmed that the cooking pro-
[FW]) to 50.1, 56.7, and 42.4 g/kg FW of jasmine rice and 42.8, 49.0, cess increased the rate of hydrolysis by gelatinizing the starch which
and 38.0 g/kg FW of brown rice after 30 min of simulated intestinal makes it available for enzymatic reactions (Tamura et al., 2016). Addi-
digestion (I-30), respectively. The results also indicated that the amount tionally, it has been suggested that the mechanical processes, including
of hydrolyzed starch in cooked jasmine rice samples occurred at a com- chewing, may enhance the interaction of starch with amylases that
parable level regardless of the cooking method used. Khatoon and leads to higher rates of starch hydrolysis.
CHMIEL ET AL. | 11 of 12

4 | CONCLUSIONS rice bran: Current status and future prospects. Advances in Nutrition,
3, 643–653.

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anthocyanins in black rice (Oryza sativa L. japonica var. SBR). Journal
successfully applied to determine and monitor the phenolic composi-
of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57, 1908–1914.
tion of unpolished and polished rice before and after cooking by three
Khatoon, N., & Prakash, J. (2006). Nutritional quality of microwave and
different methods, as well as after reheating refrigerated cooked rice. pressure cooked rice (Oryza sativa) varieties. Food Science and Tech-
As expected, brown rice grains showed the highest TAA and phenolic nology International, 12, 297–305.
content among the analyzed samples. However, in all rice samples Kusznierewicz, B., Piekarska, A., Mrugalska, B., Konieczka, P., Namie
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thermal processing in the rice cooker. In the case of reheating, gener- TLC with DPPH visualization. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemis-
ally the levels of phenolic compounds and TAA tended to decline even try, 60, 1755–1763.
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