WHAT IS QUANTUM THEORY:-

In theoretical physics, quantum field theory (QFT) is a theoretical framework that

combines classical field theory, special relativity, and quantum mechanics. QFT is used
in particle physics to construct physical models of subatomic particles and in condensed
matter physics to construct models of quasiparticles.

QFT treats particles as excited states (also called quanta) of their underlying quantum fields,
which are more fundamental than the particles. The quantum field of a particle is determined by
minimization of the Lagrangian, a functional of fields associated with the particle. Interactions
between particles are described by interaction terms in the Lagrangian involving their
corresponding quantum fields. Each interaction can be visually represented by Feynman
diagrams according to perturbation theory in quantum mechanics.

History of quantum field theory:-

Quantum field theory emerged from the work of generations of theoretical physicists
spanning much of the 20th century. Its development began in the 1920s with the
description of interactions between light and electrons, culminating in the first quantum
field theory—quantum electrodynamics. A major theoretical obstacle soon followed with
the appearance and persistence of various infinities in perturbative calculations, a
problem only resolved in the 1950s with the invention of the renormalization procedure.
A second major barrier came with QFT's apparent inability to describe the weak and
strong interactions, to the point where some theorists called for the abandonment of the
field theoretic approach. The development of gauge theory and the completion of the
Standard Model in the 1970s led to a renaissance of quantum field theory.

ELECTRODYNAMICS:- Quantum field theory naturally began with the study of

electromagnetic interactions, as the electromagnetic field was the only known classical field as of the
1920s.

Through the works of Born, Heisenberg, and Pascual Jordan in 1925–1926, a quantum theory of the
free electromagnetic field (one with no interactions with matter) was developed via canonical
quantization by treating the electromagnetic field as a set of quantum harmonic oscillators.[8]: 1 With
the exclusion of interactions, however, such a theory was yet incapable of making quantitative
predictions about the real world.

In his seminal 1927 paper The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation, Dirac
coined the term quantum electrodynamics (QED), a theory that adds upon the terms describing the
free electromagnetic field an additional interaction term between electric current density and
the electromagnetic vector potential. Using first-order perturbation theory, he successfully explained
the phenomenon of spontaneous emission. According to the uncertainty principle in quantum
mechanics, quantum harmonic oscillators cannot remain stationary, but they have a non-zero
minimum energy and must always be oscillating, even in the lowest energy state (the ground state).
Therefore, even in a perfect vacuum, there remains an oscillating electromagnetic field having zero-
point energy. It is this quantum fluctuation of electromagnetic fields in the vacuum that "stimulates"
the spontaneous emission of radiation by electrons in atoms. Dirac's theory was hugely successful in
explaining both the emission and absorption of radiation by atoms; by applying second-order
perturbation theory, it was able to account for the scattering of photons, resonance fluorescence and
non-relativistic Compton scattering. Nonetheless, the application of higher-order perturbation theory
was plagued with problematic infinities in calculations.[6]: 71

In 1928, Dirac wrote down a wave equation that described relativistic electrons—the Dirac equation.
It had the following important consequences: the spin of an electron is 1/2; the electron g-factor is 2;
it led to the correct Sommerfeld formula for the fine structure of the hydrogen atom; and it could be
used to derive the Klein–Nishina formula for relativistic Compton scattering. Although the results
were fruitful, the theory also apparently implied the existence of negative energy states, which would
cause atoms to be unstable, since they could always decay to lower energy states by the emission
of radiation.[6]: 71–72

Quantum field theory results from the combination of classical field theory, quantum
mechanics, and special relativity:

Quantum mechanics:-

The four major domains of the modern physics:-

Theoretical background:-
Quantum field theory results from the combination of classical
field theory, quantum mechanics, and special relativity.

Classical field:- A classical field theory is a physical theory that predicts how one or
more physical fields interact with matter through field equations, without considering
effects ofquantization; theories that incorporate quantum mechanics are called quantum
field theories

Quantum mechanics:- Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that

provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic
particles. It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, quantum field
theory, quantum technology, and quantum information science.

Special relivity :-In physics, the special theory of relativity, or special relativity for
short, is a scientific theory regarding the relationship between space and time. In Albert
Einstein's original treatment, the theory is based on two postulates

Theoretical physics:- Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs

mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain
and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to experimental physics, which uses
experimental tools to probe these phenomena.

2)while developing special relativity, Albert Einstein was concerned with the Lorentz
transformation which left Maxwell's equations invariant, but was apparently uninterested
in the Michelson–Morley experiment on Earth's drift through a luminiferous aether.[1]
Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric
effect, previously an experimental result lacking a theoretical formulation.

Quantum electrodynamics:- In particle physics, quantum electrodynamics

(QED) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it
describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement
between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved. QED mathematically
describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of
exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical
electromagnetism giving a complete account of matter and light interaction.

Infinity renormalization:-
Renormalization:- Renormalization is a collection of techniques in quantum field
theory, the statistical mechanics of fields, and the theory of self-similar geometric
structures, that are used to treat infinities arising in calculated quantities by altering
values of these quantities to compensate for effects of their self-interactions. But even if
no infinities arose in loop diagrams in quantum field theory, it could be shown that it
would be necessary to renormalize the mass and fields appearing in the original
Lagrangian.

2) an electron theory may begin by postulating an electron with an initial mass and
charge. In quantum field theory a cloud of virtual particles, such as photons, positrons,
and others surrounds and interacts with the initial electron. Accounting for the
interactions of the surrounding particles (e.g. collisions at different energies) shows that
the electron-system behaves as if it had a different mass and charge than initially
postulated. Renormalization, in this example, mathematically replaces the initially
postulated mass and charge of an electron with the experimentally observed mass and
charge. Mathematics and experiments prove that positrons and more massive particles
like protons exhibit precisely the same observed charge as the electron – even in the
presence of much stronger interactions and more intense clouds of virtual particles.

3) Renormalization specifies relationships between parameters in the theory when

parameters describing large distance scales differ from parameters describing small
distance scales. Physically, the pileup of contributions from an infinity of scales involved
in a problem may then result in further infinities. When describing spacetime as a
continuum, certain statistical and quantum mechanical constructions are not well-
defined. To define them, or make them unambiguous, a continuum limit must carefully
remove "construction scaffolding" of lattices at various scales. Renormalization
procedures are based on the requirement that certain physical quantities (such as the
mass and charge of an electron) equal observed (experimental) values. That is, the
experimental value of the physical quantity yields practical applications, but due to their
empirical nature the observed measurement represents areas of quantum field theory
that require deeper derivation from theoretical bases.

Non-renormalizability:-
Given the tremendous success of QED, many theorists believed, in the few years after
1949, that QFT could soon provide an understanding of all microscopic phenomena, not
only the interactions between photons, electrons, and positrons. Contrary to this
optimism, QFT entered yet another period of depression that lasted for almost two
decades, The first obstacle was the limited applicability of the renormalization
procedure. In perturbative calculations in QED, all infinite quantities could be eliminated
by redefining a small (finite) number of physical quantities (namely the mass and charge
of the electron). Dyson proved in 1949 that this is only possible for a small class of
theories called "renormalizable theories", of which QED is an example. However, most
theories, including the Fermi theory of the weak interaction, are "non-renormalizable".
Any perturbative calculation in these theories beyond the first order would result in
infinities that could not be removed by redefining a finite number of physical quantities

2) The second major problem stemmed from the limited validity of the Feynman diagram method,
which is based on a series expansion in perturbation theory. In order for the series to converge and
low-order calculations to be a good approximation, the coupling constant, in which the series is
expanded, must be a sufficiently small number. The coupling constant in QED is the fine-structure
constant α ≈ 1/137, which is small enough that only the simplest, lowest order, Feynman diagrams
need to be considered in realistic calculations. In contrast, the coupling constant in the strong
interaction is roughly of the order of one, making complicated, higher order, Feynman diagrams just
as important as simple ones. There was thus no way of deriving reliable quantitative predictions for
the strong interaction using perturbative QFT methods, With these difficulties looming, many
theorists began to turn away from QFT. Some focused on symmetry principles and conservation
laws, while others picked up the old S-matrix theory of Wheeler and Heisenberg. QFT was used
heuristically as guiding principles, but not as a basis for quantitative calculations.

Standard-Model:-
The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the
four known fundamental forces (electromagnetic, weak and strong
interactions – excluding gravity) in the universe and classifying all known
elementary particles. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half
of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists worldwide,[1] with
the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental
confirmation of the existence of quarks. Since then, proof of the top quark
(1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have added
further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model
has predicted various properties of weak neutral currents and the W and Z
bosons with great accuracy.

Although the Standard Model is believed to be theoretically self-

consistent[note 1] and has demonstrated some success in providing
experimental predictions, it leaves some physical phenomena unexplained
and so falls short of being a complete theory of fundamental interactions.[3]
For example, it does not fully explain baryon asymmetry, incorporate the
full theory of gravitation[4] as described by general relativity, or account for
the universe's accelerating expansion as possibly described by dark
energy. The model does not contain any viable dark matter particle that
possesses all of the required properties deduced from observational
cosmology. It also does not incorporate neutrino oscillations and their non-
zero masses.

The development of the Standard Model was driven by theoretical and

experimental particle physicists alike. The Standard Model is a paradigm of
a quantum field theory for theorists, exhibiting a wide range of phenomena
including spontaneous symmetry breaking, anomalies, and non-
perturbative behavior. It is used as a basis for building more exotic models
that incorporate hypothetical particles, extra dimensions, and elaborate
symmetries (such as super symmetry) to explain experimental results at
variance with the Standard Model, such as the existence of dark matter and
neutrino oscillations.

The 4 quantum fields are:- gravity, gravity, electromagnetism, the

strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force
1)electromagnetism:- In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs
between particles with electric charge via electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic force is one of
the four fundamental forces of nature. It is the dominant force in the interactions
of atoms and molecules. Electromagnetism can be thought of as a combination
of electrostatics and magnetism, two distinct but closely intertwined phenomena. Electromagnetic
forces occur between any two charged particles, causing an attraction between particles with
opposite charges and repulsion between particles with the same charge, while magnetism is an
interaction that occurs exclusively between charged particles in relative motion. These two effects
combine to create electromagnetic fields in the vicinity of charged particles, which can accelerate
other charged particles via the Lorentz force. At high energy, the weak force and electromagnetic
force are unified as a single electroweak force.

The electromagnetic force is responsible for many of the chemical and physical phenomena
observed in daily life. The electrostatic attraction between atomic nuclei and their electrons holds
atoms together. Electric forces also allow different atoms to combine into molecules, including
the macromolecules such as proteins that form the basis of life. Meanwhile, magnetic interactions
between the spin and angular momentum magnetic moments of electrons also play a role in
chemical reactivity; such relationships are studied in spin chemistry. Electromagnetism also plays a
crucial role in modern technology: electrical energy production, transformation and distribution; light,
heat, and sound production and detection; fiber optic and wireless communication; sensors;
computation; electrolysis; electroplating; and mechanical motors and actuators.

Electromagnetism has been studied since ancient times. Many ancient civilizations, including
the Greeks and the Mayans created wide-ranging theories to explain lightning, static electricity, and
the attraction between magnetized pieces of iron ore. However, it wasn't until the late 18th century
that scientists began to develop a mathematical basis for understanding the nature of
electromagnetic interactions. In the 18th and 19th centuries, prominent scientists and
mathematicians such as Coulomb, Gauss and Faraday developed namesake laws which helped to
explain the formation and interaction of electromagnetic fields. This process culminated in the 1860s
with the discovery of Maxwell's equations, a set of four partial differential equations which provide a
complete description of classical electromagnetic fields. Besides providing a sound mathematical
basis for the relationships between electricity and magnetism that scientists had been exploring for
centuries, Maxwell's equations also predicted the existence of self-sustaining electromagnetic
waves. Maxwell postulated that such waves make up visible light, which was later shown to be true.
Indeed, gamma-rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible, infrared radiation, microwaves and radio waves were
all determined to be electromagnetic radiation differing only in their range of frequencies.

In the modern era, scientists have continued to refine the theorem of electromagnetism to take into
account the effects of modern physics, including quantum mechanics and relativity. Indeed, the
theoretical implications of electromagnetism, particularly the establishment of the speed of light
based on properties of the "medium" of propagation (permeability and permittivity), helped
inspire Einstein's theory of special relativity in 1905. Meanwhile, the field of quantum
electrodynamics (QED) has modified Maxwell's equations to be consistent with the quantized nature
of matter. In QED, the electromagnetic field is expressed in terms of discrete particles known
as photons, which are also the physical quanta of light. Today, there exist many problems in
electromagnetism that remain unsolved, such as the existence of magnetic monopoles, Abraham–
Minkowski controversy, and the mechanism by which some organisms can
sense electric and magnetic fields.