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Wavelets and Fractals in Earth System Sciences 1st
Edition E. Chandrasekhar Digital Instant Download
Author(s): E. Chandrasekhar, V. P. Dimri, V. M. Gadre
ISBN(s): 9781466553606, 146655360X
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 21.63 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
Wavelets and Fractals
in
Earth System Sciences
Editors
E. Chandrasekhar
V. P. Dimri
V. M. Gadre
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Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................... vii

Preface ......................................................................................................................ix
Contributors ......................................................................................................... xiii
1. Introduction to Wavelets and Fractals ........................................................1

E. Chandrasekhar and V. P. Dimri
2. Construction of Wavelets: Principles and Practices .............................. 29

Manish Sharma, Ashish V. Vanmali, and Vikram M. Gadre
3. Genesis of Wavelet Transform Types and Applications ...................... 93

N. Sundararajan and N. Vasudha
4. Multiscale Processing: A Boon for Self-Similar Data,

Data Compression, Singularities, and Noise Removal....................... 117
Ratnesh S. Sengar, Venkateswararao Cherukuri, Arpit Agarwal, and
Vikram M. Gadre
5. Fractals and Wavelets in Applied Geophysics with

Some Examples............................................................................................ 155
R. P. Srivastava
6. Role of Multifractal Studies in Earthquake Prediction...................... 177

S. S. Teotia and Dinesh Kumar
7. Geomagnetic Jerks: A Study Using Complex Wavelets ...................... 195

E. Chandrasekhar, Pothana Prasad, and V. G. Gurijala
8. Application of Wavelet Transforms to Paleomonsoon Data

from Speleothems....................................................................................... 219
M. G. Yadava, Y. Bhattacharya, and R. Ramesh
9. Unraveling Nonstationary Behavior in Rainfall Anomaly and

Tree- Ring Data: A Wavelet Perspective ................................................. 229
Prasanta K. Panigrahi, Yugarsi Ghosh, and Deepayan Bhadra
10. Phase Field Modeling of the Evolution of Solid–Solid and

Solid–Liquid Boundaries: Fourier and Wavelet Implementations... 247
M. P. Gururajan, Mira Mitra, S. B. Amol, and E. Chandrasekhar
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC v

Foreword
Wavelets were invented by the French geophysicist Jean Morlet, so it is most

appropriate that the Department of Earth Sciences at the Indian Institute of
Technology Bombay (IITB), with support from the Ministry of Earth Sciences
and the Department of Space, organized an interesting meeting on wavelets
and fractals in earth sciences at IITB early last year. The story of Morlet’s
invention is well known, and has been narrated in tributes given by Yves
Meyer and Pierre Goupillaud. The wavelet idea had some precursors in the
form of techniques to provide information on frequency scales in running
time, as the human ear does so naturally in music and speech for its owner.
An example of the kind of problem that such techniques attempt to handle
is the decomposition of a signal whose frequency is constant over relatively
short times but otherwise keeps varying throughout (as it happens famil-
iarly in Indian music). Classical Fourier series cannot handle such inherently
nonstationary phenomena. Morlet’s achievement consisted of devising a sys-
tem that was most appropriate for this class of problems; a 2-D transform of
a 1-D transient, nonstationary signal could be deined, and furthermore, the
relation could be inverted to reconstruct the original signal from the trans-
form. The signals that Morlet was handling were those encountered in pros-
pecting for oil, which was the business run by his employer; here, the waves
transmitted into and relected back from different layers in the soil return to
the surface, with different frequencies at different times. Morlet’s irst article
on the subject seemed so far-out and abstract to the geophysical journal he
submitted it to that it was rejected. However, a collaboration with a theoreti-
cal physicist, Alex Grossmann, led to an elegant formulation that was math-
ematically convincing and sharply crystallized the wavelet idea.
Since then, work on wavelets has grown very rapidly. As often happens
with new ideas, the irst reactions of skepticism to Morlet’s work were
quickly followed by great appreciation after the publication of the Morlet–
Grossmann article in 1984. There is now a whole series of wavelets of dif-
ferent kinds for different applications that range from data compression
to image processing, and the detection of hidden order in apparently cha-
otic signals. Many books are now available on the subject—from relatively
abstract mathematical treatments to books such as Wavelets for Dummies. The
technique has been used not only in seismology and oil prospecting but also
in meteorology, luid dynamics, quantum physics, data analysis and com-
pression, characterization of archeological structures or volcanic activity,
and so on, to multiscale iltering and processing in electrical engineering.
There are discrete and continuous transforms, 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D transforms,
those that are good at detecting sharp lines and others in smoothing them
out. The list is long.
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC vii

viii Foreword
This volume covers a great deal of this ground. Although it has a legiti-
mate emphasis on geophysical applications, there are also chapters by elec-
trical, aerospace, and materials engineers. The revolution that wavelets
have wrought is that they provide, for the irst time, a set of versatile tools
that would be the default choice if today one is investigating transient non-
stationary processes or data of any kind. This book should help to bring out
the richness of wavelet (and fractal) methods now available, and introduce
them to new entrants to research by offering a good mix of theory and spe-
ciic applications in many different ields.
I wish to compliment the Indian geophysical and engineering communi-
ties for getting together to organize this very useful, timely and stimulating
meeting.
Roddam Narasimha
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for
Advanced Scientiic Research
Bangalore
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface
The subject of wavelet analysis and fractal analysis is fast developing and
has drawn a great deal of attention in varied disciplines of science and engi-
neering. Over the past couple of decades, wavelets, multiresolution analysis,
and multifractal analysis have been formalized into a thorough mathemati-
cal framework and have found a variety of applications with a signiicant
effect on several branches of earth system sciences, such as seismology, well-
logging, potential ield studies, geomagnetism and space magnetism, atmo-
spheric turbulence, space–time rainfall, ocean wind waves, luid dynamics,
sealoor bathymetry, oil and gas exploration, and climate change studies
among others. It is certain that there will be plenty of applications of wave-
lets and fractals in earth sciences in the years to come.
This book primarily addresses the important question “Why not another
book?” instead of “Why another book” on wavelets and fractals? Com-
mensurate with the rapid progress in the application of wavelets and fractals
in all ields of science and engineering in general, and in earth sciences, in
particular, the available books and other forms of literature on these novel
signal analysis tools are alarmingly few. This has been the motivation for
us to edit this book. Through this book, we attempt to highlight the role of
such advanced data processing techniques in present-day research in vari-
ous ields of earth system sciences. The book is composed of a unique collec-
tion of a wide range of application-oriented research topics in a multitude of
ields in earth system sciences and presents the same under one umbrella.
The book consists of 10 chapters, providing a well-balanced blend of infor-
mation about the role of wavelets, fractals, and multifractal analyses with the
latest examples of their application in various research topics. We admit that
the reader may ind some basic concepts of continuous and discrete wavelet
transformation techniques being repeated in some chapters. Given the dif-
ferent perspectives and wide applications of these techniques in different
ields of science, it was felt necessary to retain this repetition for the sake of
continuity in the text, particularly when such information is important and
relevant to the research content of the chapter, for its better understanding.
The chapters are written by experts in their respective ields. Starting from
the fundamental concepts of the theory of wavelets and fractals, their appli-
cation in a variety of ields in earth sciences is described. The construction of
wavelets, second-generation wavelets, the role of fractals in earthquake pre-
diction, the application of wavelets in geomagnetism, potential ield studies,
atmospheric rainfall anomalies, paleoclimate studies, and phase ield model-
ing constitute the book.
In Chapter 1, the fundamental concepts of wavelets and fractals and their
use in various branches of geosciences research are discussed albeit without
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ix

x Preface
many of the mathematical details. The concept of multifractals and their

necessity for the effective understanding of complex geophysical phenom-
ena such as earthquakes is also explained in this chapter. Finally, the relation
between wavelets and fractals and the advantage of wavelet-based fractal
analysis in studying the signals is discussed.
Chapter 2 builds up the whole philosophy of ilter banks as a template for
the construction of wavelets. Beginning with the Haar wavelet and using that
as a platform to explain the close relation between ilter banks and wavelets,
the authors explain the need for “higher order” ilter banks in wavelet analy-
sis. Besides explaining the construction of some classes of orthogonal and
biorthogonal wavelets, the authors present some of their own approaches
for designing ilter banks keeping the uncertainty or time–frequency band-
width product as a criterion for optimization. Some designs are presented
along with their performance in a compression application, which is very
relevant to solving problems in the ield of earth sciences.
Chapter 3 presents the genesis of wavelet transform. It discusses the
development of second-generation wavelets and their construction. A com-
prehensive review of some applications of wavelet transform in the ield of
geophysics, particularly in potential ields, is highlighted.
Chapter 4 discusses multiresolution decomposition as a way to create mul-
tiscale relationships that help to identify the self-similarity and singularity
properties in the data. It emphasizes the point: Why is multiscale representa-
tion very useful in studies such as data compression and noise removal? The
role of wavelets in data compression is especially useful to store large vol-
umes of geological maps, subsurface geophysical models, and remote sens-
ing images.
Chapter 5 discusses some examples of the application of fractals and wave-
lets in geophysics. The most generally used “box-counting” method to deter-
mine the fractal dimension is detailed with an illustrative example of ield
data. An important application of wavelets to reduce the runtime for solving
large matrices in gradient-based inversion of geophysical data is explained,
as well as providing an example of the application of wavelets in analyzing
potential ield data.
Chapter 6 highlights the application of multifractals in earthquake pre-
diction studies. Temporal variations of heterogeneity in seismicity using
multifractal analysis have been reported in various tectonic regions for both
microseismicity as well as macroseismicity data. By examining the general-
ized fractal dimension Dq and the spatiotemporal variation of Dq spectra,
representative of seismicity pattern and their distribution in any region, the
role of multifractals in earthquake prediction is highlighted.
Chapter 7 explains the role of wavelets in the ield of geomagnetism. It
introduces complex wavelets and their application in understanding the
phase characteristics of geomagnetic jerks, which occur due to the differen-
tial luid low on the surface of the outer core. This study, carried out using
global magnetic observatory data from approximately eight decades, helps

Preface xi
in understanding their space–time and time–frequency localization char-

acteristics. Geomagnetic jerks, having a period of about one year, manifest
sudden changes in the slope of geomagnetic secular variations. Phase char-
acteristics of geomagnetic jerks aid in better understanding the direction of
outer core luid motions responsible for the generation of geomagnetic jerks.
This chapter also highlights the hemispherical differences observed in the
nature of occurrences of geomagnetic jerks.
A unique application of wavelets in studying the paleomonsoon data from
speleothems is detailed in Chapter 8. Stable oxygen isotope variations in
cave calcite (CaCO3, stalactites and stalagmites), collectively known as spe-
leothems, are used for paleomonsoon reconstruction. In this chapter, the
authors present wavelet transformation together with multitaper analysis of
the same data, and explain how the use of different ilters can help identify
hidden signals pertaining to solar modulation of the monsoon.
Another unique application of wavelets is in studying tree-ring data that
is helpful for understanding rainfall anomalies and climate studies, which is
detailed in Chapter 9. In this chapter, the authors highlight the different peri-
odicities that they have obtained in their analysis of rainfall data, and tree-
ring data and the good correlation among them. They also discuss insights
on their effect on various present-day global phenomena.
Application of wavelet transformation in the studies of the kind presented
in Chapters 8 and 9 are very rare and thus this book enjoys the privilege of
having such rare discussions on such important areas of research, which are
beneicial for monsoon and climate change studies.
Finally in Chapter 10, another unique application of wavelet transforma-
tion, namely, that of solving nonlinear partial differential equations (specii-
cally, those from a phase ield model), is presented. Phase ield models are
widely used in the ield of materials science and engineering to study micro-
structures and to understand the solid–solid and solid–liquid boundaries.
By carrying out a suitable nondimensionalization, these models can also
be used to study boundaries at macro scales such as crust–mantle (solid–
solid) and mantle–core (solid–liquid) boundaries. In this chapter, the authors
describe how phase ield models based on the Cahn–Hilliard (CH) equation
can be used to understand the phase transition dynamics and the resultant
(stress assisted) microstructural evolution of the interface between a non-
hydrostatically stressed mineral and its solution. They also present results
from a Fourier spectral implementation for the two-dimensional CH equa-
tion (with elastic stress effects), and a wavelet-collocation implementation for
the one-dimensional CH equation (without elastic stress effects).
Some key features of the book are
• Prior knowledge of wavelets and fractals is not required to under-

stand this book because each chapter introduces the needed con-
cepts of wavelets and fractals.

xii Preface
• Focused set of applications centered on themes of thrust areas of

present-day research in science and engineering.
• Healthy combination of basics and advanced material.
• Serves as excellent introductory material and also as an advanced
reference text for students and researchers.
We place on record our sincere thanks to the Ministry of Earth Sciences,

Government of India, ISRO (GBP) and ISRO (RESPOND) of the Department
of Space, Government of India, for inancial support. We express our sincere
thanks and deep sense of gratitude to Prof. Roddam Narasimha, FRS, for
readily agreeing to write the Foreword for this book and for his timely advice
and moral support. We also express our sincere thanks to all the contribu-
tors of the chapters and the reviewers for helping us with their constructive
criticism and meticulous reviews of the chapters. Finally, we thank the staff
of CRC Press, Taylor & Francis group, particularly, Aastha Sharma, Marsha
Pronin, and Rachel Holt and others for their kind cooperation and support
throughout the evolution of this book.
E. Chandrasekhar
V. P. Dimri
Vikram M. Gadre
MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product

information, please contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: (508) 647-7000
Fax: (508) 647-7001
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Web: http://www.mathworks.com

Contributors
Arpit Agarwal V. P. Dimri

Department of Electrical CSIR-National Geophysical
Engineering Research Institute
Indian Institute of Technology Uppal Hyderabad, India
Bombay
Mumbai, India Vikram M. Gadre
Department of Electrical
S. B. Amol Engineering
Department of Metallurgical Indian Institute of Technology
Engineering and Material Science Bombay
Indian Institute of Technology Mumbai, India
Bombay
Mumbai, India Yugarsi Ghosh
Department of Electronics and
Deepayan Bhadra Communication Engineering
Department of Instrumentation and National Institute of Technology
Control Engineering Tiruchirappalli, India
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli, India V. G. Gurijala
Department of Earth Sciences
Y. Bhattacharya Indian Institute of Technology
Center for Solar-Terrestrial Research Bombay
New Jersey Institute of Technology Mumbai, India
Newark, New Jersey
M. P. Gururajan
E. Chandrasekhar Department of Metallurgical
Department of Earth Sciences Engineering and Material Science
Indian Institute of Technology Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay Bombay
Mumbai, India Mumbai, India
Venkateswararao Cherukuri Dinesh Kumar

Department of Electrical Department of Geophysics
Engineering University of Kurukshetra
Indian Institute of Technology Kurukshetra, India
Bombay
Mumbai, India
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC xiii

xiv Contributors
Mira Mitra R. P. Srivastava

Department of Aerospace National Geophysical Research
Engineering Institute
Indian Institute of Technology Uppal, Hyderabad, India
Bombay
Mumbai, India N. Sundararajan
Department of Earth Science
Sultan Qaboos University
Prasanta K. Panigrahi
Muscat Sultanate of Oman
Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Science
S. S. Teotia
Engineering Research (IISER)
Department of Geophysics
Kolkata
University of Kurukshetra
Kolkata, India
Kurukshetra, India
Pothana Prasad
Ashish V. Vanmali
Department of Earth Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology
Engineering
Bombay
Mumbai, India
Bombay
Mumbai, India
R. Ramesh
Geosciences Division
N. Vasudha
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)
Department of Mathematics
Ahmedabad, India
Vasavi College of Engineering
Hyderabad, India
Ratnesh S. Sengar
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
M. G. Yadava
Mumbai, India
Geosciences Division
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)
Manish Sharma
Ahmedabad, India
Engineering
Bombay
Mumbai, India

1
Introduction to Wavelets and Fractals
E. Chandrasekhar and V. P. Dimri
CONTENTS
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
Wavelets ...............................................................................................................1
Fractals ................................................................................................................. 4
Basic Theory and Mathematical Concepts of Wavelets and Fractals .............. 5
Wavelets ...............................................................................................................5
Some Properties of Wavelets ........................................................................ 7
Continuous Wavelet Transformation.......................................................... 8
Discrete Wavelet Transformation ................................................................ 9
Fractals in Time Series Analysis ..................................................................... 11
Different Methods to Estimate Fractal Dimensions ............................... 13
Geophysical Signiicance of Wavelets and Fractals.......................................... 16
Wavelets in Geophysics ................................................................................... 16
Fractals in Geophysics ..................................................................................... 18
Relation between Wavelets and Fractals ........................................................... 18
Methodology for Wavelet-Based Fractal Analysis ...................................... 20
Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 20
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................ 21
References............................................................................................................... 21
Introduction
Wavelets
The early 1800s saw a revolution in the understanding of mathematical func-
tions when Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier, in his groundbreaking observa-
tions, proclaimed that any mathematical function can be represented as a
combination of several sines and cosines. This way, because the underlying
frequencies of sine and cosines were known, it became easier to distinguish
the frequencies of interest present in the signal under investigation. With the
advent of subsequent thorough mathematical formalism for this transforma-
tion, the Fourier transform (FT) came into existence and is still used exten-
sively to solve a variety of problems in science and engineering.
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1

2 Wavelets and Fractals in Earth System Sciences
The sine and cosine functions are the basis functions in Fourier theory,
which for any frequency is ininitely oscillatory in time and thus is not
compactly supported (i.e., mathematically, the Fourier basis functions do
not belong to the L2(Rn) functional space). As a result, Fourier theory can
determine only the presence of all frequencies in the signal and cannot esti-
mate when in time these frequencies of interest occur (also known as time
localization). For example, if you have three signals in time-domain, with
the irst signal having a low-frequency part followed by a high-frequency
part (Figure 1.1a), the second signal having a high-frequency part followed
by a low-frequency part (Figure 1.1b), and the third signal is a combination
of both these frequencies (Figure 1.1c), then the Fourier transformation in
all three cases will yield the same spectra (barring the small ripples that
you observe in the irst two cases in their FT spectra that arise because of
Gibbs phenomenon due to sudden frequency transitions; Figure 1.1). Now,
the question is, how can the spectra of three different signals be the same?
The answer is, this is the limitation of FT. This explains that FT can only tell
us what frequencies are present in the signal and their respective average
amplitude. Nothing more, nothing less. In other words, with FT, only the
frequency localization is possible, but not the time localization.
1 1
0 0.5
Amplitude
(a)
–1 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
1 1
0 0.5
Amplitude
–1 (b) 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
1 1
0 0.5
–1 (c) 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 100 200 300 400
Number of samples Frequency (Hz)
FIGURE 1.1
Example of three different signals with similar Fourier spectra. The left panels show (a) low-
frequency signal appended with its high-frequency counterpart, (b) high-frequency signal
appended with its low-frequency counterpart, and (c) a combination of both frequencies shown
in (a) and (b). Their respective Fourier spectra are shown in the right panels.

Introduction to Wavelets and Fractals 3
However, it is becoming increasingly important and necessary to study

some signals based not only on the frequency content but also on their time
of occurrence (also called time–frequency localization) for a correct under-
standing and interpretation of the physical processes that generate such
signals.
For example, knowledge of the behavior of the Earth’s magnetic ield varia-
tions at different times over different regions is always important to under-
stand the spatiotemporal behavior of certain frequency characteristics of
these variations (see Chapter 7 of this book and references therein). Similarly,
in geophysical well-log data analysis, because different subsurface rock for-
mations have different physical properties, which in turn relect respective
frequency characteristics, it becomes important to identify the locations of
these frequencies (read formations) as a function of depth (space–frequency
localization), particularly if these formations are oil-bearing/gas-bearing
zones (see for example, Chandrasekhar and Rao).
Recognizing the drawback of FT, Gabor (1946) developed its small vari-
ant, called windowed FT (WFT) or short-time FT. The underlying principle
of this technique is to break up the signal into smaller sections with ixed
window length and Fourier analyze each section for its frequency content.
Mathematical representation of the WFT of a time function f(t) and a window
function g(t) is given by
WFTg (τ , s) = Fg (τ , s) =
∫ f (t)g(t − τ)e
−∞
− i 2 πst
dt (1.1)
Fg(τ, s), which is essentially the FT of f(t) and g(t − τ), represents the ampli-
tude and phase of the signal over time and frequency. |Fg(τ, s)|2 gives the
spectrogram of f(t). In WFT, although the short lengths of data are considered
at each step, the main transformation again is FT, whose basis functions, as
mentioned above, are ininitely supported and therefore the problem of time–
frequency localization still persists. Furthermore, because the window length
is ixed at each step in WFT, the resolution in the entire time–frequency plane
will be the same (see Graps 1995; Mallat 1999). This is the drawback of WFT.
Alternatively, although a wider window gives good frequency resolution, a
narrower window gives good time resolution (Polikar 2001), indicating that
they are governed by the uncertainty relation. Hence, WFT also was found
not to be suitable where time–frequency or space–frequency localization is
important.
Later, Banks (1975), with his complex demodulation technique, came out
with some improvements in time–frequency localization of long-period
geomagnetic data. This technique helped to determine the instantaneous
power levels of the required frequency in the selected frequency band
as a function of time. These are known as demodulates. Because each

demodulate represents the time-local estimate of amplitude and phase of

selected frequency in the entire data sequence, they can be treated as inde-
pendent entities and thus it becomes very useful to examine each demod-
ulate separately for their time–frequency characteristics in a given time
series (Chandrasekhar 2000). Despite providing the instantaneous power
spectrum and phase, the main drawback of this technique is that it does
not have constant Q frequency resolution and also lacks a thorough math-
ematical framework (Zhang and Paulson 1997). The Q factor of a window
(also called the idelity factor) deines the ratio of center frequency of the
ilter to its bandwidth.
The uncertainty relation explains that, to have a better resolution of time
and frequency, there must be a window function deined whose width
should be allowed to vary inversely with the frequency. This facilitates in
having a constant Q frequency resolution, and thus the wavelet is born!
Oscillatory short waves, having inite amplitude and inite time duration,
are known as wavelets. These time-limited waves can be successfully utilized
to analyze the signals under investigation and provide not only the effective
time–frequency localization of signals but also identify the hidden disconti-
nuities or spikes of interest in the given signals. Wavelets thus facilitate the
correct interpretation and understanding of the spatiotemporal behavior of
various signals, which otherwise, is not possible with the FT.
Fractals
Fractal theory was not invented in a day by Benoit B. Mandelbrot, who coined
this term to open a new discipline of mathematics that deals with nondiffer-
entiable curves and geometrical shapes. Until Karl Weierstrass presented his
work at the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences on July 18, 1872, mathemat-
ics was conined to the study of differentiable functions. Weierstrass showed
that for a positive integer a and 0 < b < 1, the analytical function
∑ b cos(a πx)
n= 1
n n
(1.2)
was not differentiable.

There are a few others, whose works are closely related to fractal theory,
such as Von Koch, Julia, Fatou, and Hausdorff, who laid the foundations that
were generously exploited by Mandelbrot to establish a fascinating branch of
mathematics to analyze the natural geometrical shapes and more precisely
quantify the length, area, and volume of these shapes. It was a landmark
essay entitled, “How long is the coast of Britain? Statistical self-similarity
and fractional dimension,” written by Mandelbrot (1967), in which he related
the work of his predecessors to real-world problems, namely, coastlines,

clouds, mountains, and many other natural shapes, which he claimed are
self-similar* and devised a method to quantify the geometrical properties
of these shapes with the help of a dimension, which he termed as the frac-
tal dimension. It is important to mention that as stated above, the fractal
theory provides a framework to study irregular shapes as they exist, instead
of approximating them using regular geometry, as has been done hitherto.
For example, earth is approximated as a sphere, coastlines are approximated
with straight lines, and many other natural shapes to the corresponding
nearby (or closer) regular geometry, simply for the sake of mathematical
convenience.
The concept of fractals is not conined to the study of geometrical shapes,
as it might seem from the above introduction, rather it has been extended to
the analysis of numerical data, for example, the variation of some physical
properties of the earth with depth, spatial, and time series data from vari-
ous branches of science including complex and extreme events (Sharma et
al. 2012).
In the following sections, we provide a brief description of the mathemati-
cal concepts of wavelets and fractals, and their superiority over the existing
signal processing tools, particularly, FT. We briely discuss the methodol-
ogy of continuous and discrete wavelet transformation and fractal analysis,
whereas more details of these techniques are given in other chapters. Finally,
we discuss the geophysical signiicance of these novel data analysis tools.
Basic Theory and Mathematical Concepts

of Wavelets and Fractals
Wavelets
The word wavelet refers to a small wave, having inite length in space (ideally,
functions representing such waves will be zero outside a inite time interval;
also known as compactly supported) and is represented as a real-valued func-
tion, ψ(t), adhering to the following conditions (Percival and Walden 2000)
∫ ψ(t) dt = 0
−∞
(1.3)
and
* If an object retains its original shape even after decomposing into smaller parts, then that
object is said to have self-similar characteristics and is a fractal. Examples: Cantor set, Julia
set, Caulilower, cobweb, etc.

∫ ψ (t) dt = 1
−∞
2
(1.4)
Equation 1.3 deines the admissibility condition, which explains that the
wavelet function, ψ(t), must be oscillatory in time and that it integrates to
zero (i.e., having zero average). Equation 1.4 deines the regularity condition,
which explains that the wavelet function, ψ(t), must be inite in length and is
square integrable (having inite energy). The wavelet function, ψ(t), signify-
ing the time–frequency localization is given by
1  t − τ
ψ τ, s (t) = ψ  (1.5)
s  s 
where s (>0) indicates the scale and τ indicates the translation parameter.
Equation 1.5 facilitates the provision to allow the width of the window func-
tion s to vary inversely with the frequency. Accordingly, s is analogous to
frequency, in the sense that higher scales correspond to the low frequency
content of the signal and lower scales correspond to high frequency con-
f
tent of the signal. The frequency–scale relation is given by f = c , where
s∆t
fc denotes the central frequency of the wavelet, Δt the sampling interval,
and f the frequency corresponding to the scale. The translation parameter
τ is linked to the time location of the wavelet function. As the wavelet is
dilated and shifted during its operation on the signal (see subsections on
Some Properties of Wavelets), it provides time-scale information in the trans-
formed domain. A number of wavelets satisfy the conditions prescribed in
Equations 1.3 and 1.4, and thus they form what is called “wavelet families.”
The function ψ(t) is called “analyzing wavelet” or “mother wavelet.” More
details about the fundamentals of wavelet theory can be found in Daubechies
(1992) and Mallat (1999, and references therein).
The continuous wavelet transformation (CWT) of a function, f(t), is the
result of its inner product with the wavelet function (Equation 1.3), given
by
1  t − τ
CWTτ , s =
s ∫ f (t) ⋅ ψ 
 s 
dt (1.6)
where, f(t), ψ(t) ∈ L2(R). Equation 1.6 explains that the wavelet transformation
gives a measure of the similarity between the signal and the wavelet func-
tion. Such a measure at any particular scale s0 and translation τ0, is identiied
by a wavelet coeficient. The larger the value of this coeficient, the higher the

similarity between the signal and the wavelet at (τ0, s0) and vice versa. Higher
wavelet coeficients indicate the high degree of suitability of the wavelet to
study the signal. Another important point to note here is that, when s is close
to zero, the CWT coeficients at that scale characterize the location of the sin-
gularity (if present) in the signal, in the neighborhood of τ. Central to this is
its application to detect sudden jumps (transients) and/or discontinuities in
the data and analyze fractals (see Mallat 1999).
From Equation 1.6, it can be understood that the CWT of a one-
dimensional function is two-dimensional. Furthermore, it can also be
shown that the CWT of a two-dimensional function is four-dimensional,
and so on.
Some Properties of Wavelets
Vanishing Moments
The regularity condition (Equation 1.4) imposes an additional constraint
on the wavelet function and makes the wavelet transform decrease quickly
with decreasing s. This can be better explained with the concept of vanish-
ing moments of the wavelet. If the wavelet coeficients for mth order polyno-
mial are zero, then that wavelet is said to have m vanishing moments. This
means that any polynomial up to order m − 1 can be represented entirely in
scaling function space. In other words, a wavelet has m vanishing moments
if its scaling function (also known as “father wavelet”) can generate polyno-
mials to a degree ≤ m − 1 (see section on Discrete Wavelet Transformation
for more details about scaling function). Alternatively, another simple way
of deining wavelet vanishing moments is if the FT of the wavelet ψ(t) is m
times continuously differentiable, then the wavelet is said to have m vanish-
ing moments (see Chandrasekhar and Rao 2012). Together with regularity
condition, vanishing moments of the wavelet decide the fast decay of the
wavelet.
Compact Support
This property explains that the wavelet vanishes outside a inite time inter-
val. Shorter intervals indicate higher compactness of the wavelet and vice
versa.
Translational Invariance
Another important property of wavelets is the translational invariance
property, which explains that even a small time shift in the wavelet func-
tion results in a corresponding shift in the CWT output. Let us examine
this.
Let fδt(t) = f(t − δt) be the translation of f(t) by a small time shift, δt. The CWT
of fδt(t) is

∞
1  t − τ
s ∫
CWT fδt (τ , s) = f (t − δt)ψ  dt
 s 
−∞
∞
1  t′ − (τ − δt) 
s ∫
= f (t′)ψ   dt where t′ = t − δt (1.7)
 s
−∞
= CWT f (τ − δt , s)
Since the output is shifted the same way as the input signal, the CWT is
translation-invariant. Similarly, the shift-invariant property for discrete
wavelet transsform (DWT), in which the shifts are in dyadic scales can
also be shown. For further details, the reader is referred to Ma and Tang
(2001).
The discussion that we have had thus far on wavelets directly relates to
the information that you will ind in the following chapters. Hence, we limit
our discussion to these aspects only. More details about different types of
wavelets, their properties and applications, can be found in the respective
chapters that follow. The reader is also advised to look into some fundamen-
tal books by Mallat (1999), Daubechies (1992), Chui (1992), Kaiser (1994), and
Percival and Walden (2000), to cite a few.
Continuous Wavelet Transformation

In CWT (Equation 1.6), the signal to be transformed is convolved with
the mother wavelet and the transformation is computed for different seg-
ments of the data by varying τ and s. Because the wavelet window can
be scaled (shrunk or expanded) at different levels of analysis, the time
localization of high-frequency components of the signal and frequency
localization of low-frequency components of the signal can be effectively
identiied. In wavelet analysis, the wavelet window is irst placed at the
start of the signal. The signal and wavelet are convolved and the CWT
coeficients are estimated. Next, the wavelet is translated (shifted in time)
along the signal by a small amount and the CWT coeficients are again
computed. This process is repeated until the end of the signal is reached.
Next, the wavelet window is dilated (or stretched) by a small amount and
placed at the start of the signal and the above process is repeated at that
scale, at all translations. Likewise, wavelet spectra are calculated for many
scales. Figure 1.2 describes the pictorial representation of the above opera-
tion. Finally, all the CWT coeficients computed at different dilations and
translations are expressed in the form of scalograms, explaining the time-
scale representations of the signal. Because of this, the wavelets are known
as “mathematical microscopes.”

(a)

S1
CW ts = C1
(b)
τ=1
Scale = S1
CWT coefficients = C1, C2
(c)
τ=n
Scale = S1
CWT coefficients = C1, C2, C3, C4, . . . . . , Cn
FIGURE 1.2
Pictorial representation of stepwise calculation of CWT coeficients. First, the CWT coeficients,
when the wavelet with a translation τ = 0 and dilation s = 1 are computed (a). Next, the coefi-
cients, when the wavelet with a translation τ = 1, without changing the dilation are obtained (b).
Likewise, for the same “s” of the wavelet, the coeficients, C1… Cn are obtained. Next, the steps
described in (a) through (c) are repeated for different dilations of the wavelet. Then, a complete
scalogram depicting the time-scale representation of the signal under study is obtained.
Discrete Wavelet Transformation

Although the transformation obtained by shifting the wavelet continuously
along the signal is called CWT, the transformation obtained by shifting the
wavelet in discrete steps, with step-length equal to 2j (j = 1, 2,… n), is called
DWT. It is important to note here that DWT will also be translational invari-
ant (see subsection on Translational Invariance), only if the translations are
in steps of 2j (j = 1, 2,… n), in which case, it is called dyadic wavelet transfor-
mation. In DWT, a discrete set of wavelet scales and translations are used.
In fact, the DWT operation is similar to digital iltering. DWT is computed
using Mallat’s algorithm (Mallat 1989), which essentially employs successive
low-pass and high-pass iltering. First, the signal (X[n]) to be transformed
is decomposed into high-frequency (H[n]) and low-frequency components

(L[n]) (also known as detailed and approximate coeficients, respectively).

The detailed coeficients are known as level 1 coeficients. Then the approxi-
mate coeficients (low-frequency components) are again decomposed into
the next level of detailed and approximate coeficients, and so on. Figure
1.3 depicts the DWT tree; a pictorial representation of the DWT process. At
this point, it is important to understand exactly what happens at each level
of decomposition when the signal under investigation is divided into low-
frequency and high-frequency components. First, this enhances the reso-
lution in frequency, thereby reducing its uncertainty by half. Accordingly,
each of the iltered bands will have a band occupancy of ω/2, which can be
sampled at ω (cf. Nyquist theorem and its band pass extension). This decima-
tion by 2 halves the time resolution as the entire signal after the irst level
of decomposition is represented by only half the number of samples. Thus,
in the second level of decomposition, while the half-band low-pass iltering
removes half of the frequencies, the decimation by 2 doubles the scale. With
this approach, while the time resolution in the signal gets improved at high
X(n)
H(n) L(n)
2 2
Level 1
DWT coefficients
H(n) L(n)
2 2
Level 2
DWT coefficients
H(n) L(n)
2 2
Level 3
DWT coefficients
FIGURE 1.3
The DWT tree. The number “2” in the circles represents the decimation factor. See text for a
detailed description of this tree.

frequencies, the frequency resolution is improved at low frequencies. Such

a process is repeated until the desired levels of resolution in frequency are
reached. However, the important point to note here is that at every wavelet
operation, only half of the spectrum is covered. This means an ininite num-
ber of operations are needed to complete DWT. The solution to this problem
does not lie in computing the DWT all the way down to zero with wavelet
spectra, but to calculate up to a reasonable level, when it is small enough. The
scaling function of the wavelet is used to check this. The scaling function
is just a signal with a low-pass spectrum. The entire DWT operation can be
summarized as follows: In DWT, if we analyze a signal using the combina-
tion of scaling function and wavelet function, the scaling function contrib-
utes to the calculation of the low-pass spectrum, whereas the rest is done
by the wavelet function. The DWT of the original signal is then obtained by
concatenating all the coeficients, H[n] and L[n], starting from the last level
of decomposition. More details regarding DWT are given in Chapters 2, 3,
and 4.
Fractals in Time Series Analysis

Often, geophysical data are in the form of time–space series (Dimri 1992). It
has a combination of stochastic, trend, and periodic components (Malamud
and Turcotte 1999). To know the stochastic component, one must compute the
statistical distribution of values and persistence. The most commonly used
method to determine persistence is spectral analysis, in which the power
spectrum of a time series is plotted against the frequency (or wave number
in case of a space series) and the value of a slope, known as the scaling expo-
nent (e.g., β), giving an estimation of persistence (Dimri et al. 2012), which
could be weak or strong. There exists a relation between β, the Euclidean
dimension (E), and fractal dimension (D) of data as
D=E−1−β (1.8)
Persistence of the time series is a measure of correlation between adjacent

values of the time series. The uncorrelated or random data with zero persis-
tence is the white noise or β = 0. The time series is antipersistent if adjacent
values are anticorrelated, that is, β < 0. The time series is persistent if adjacent
values are positively correlated with each other. For β > 0, the series is posi-
tively correlated.
The density, susceptibility distribution, and relectivity sequence of many
boreholes around the globe have been investigated. The power spectral
density of density, susceptibility distributions, and relectivity sequences
of some of the boreholes are shown to follow a fractal distribution (Dimri
2000a). The power spectrum of susceptibility distributions from 4 km depth
of the German Continental Deep Drilling Project (KTB) was computed by

20.0 (a) 20.0 (d) –10.0 (g)

ln(PSD)
16.0 16.0 –15.0
β = –1.02 β = –0.9 β = –2.2
12.0 12.0 –20.0

–2.0 0.0 2.0 –4.0 0.0 4.0 –4.0 0.0 4.0
30.0 (b) 20.0 (e) 4.0 (h)
ln(PSD)
β = –1.5
20.0 18.0 0.0
β = –0.9
β = –1.25
10.0 16.0 –4.0
–4.0 0.0 4.0 –2.0 0.0 2.0 –4.0 0.0 4.0
20.0 (c) 20.0 (f ) 4.0 (i)
ln(PSD)
16.0 16.0 0.0
β = –0.9
β = –1.3 β = –0.9
12.0 12.0 –4.0
–2.0 0.0 2.0 –2.0 0.0 2.0 –4.0 0.0 4.0
ln(wave number) ln(wave number) ln(wave number)
FIGURE 1.4
Log-log plot of wave number versus psd (in db) (a) for ODP Borehole complex impedance data;
(b) of resistivity data for depth range one, KTB (VB); (c) of resistivity data for depth range two,
KTB (VB); (d) of resistivity data for depth range three KTB (VB); (e) of resistivity data for depth
range 1.6 to 2 km, of KTB (VB) a test case; (f) of resistivity data for depth range 2.0 to 2.5 km, of
KTB (VB) a test case; (g) of conductivity data of KTB (HB); (h) of chargeability data for depth
range one of KTB (VB); and (i) of chargeability data for depth range three of KTB (VB). (After
Vedanti, N., and Dimri, V.P., Indian J. Mar. Sci. 32(4), 273–278, 2003.)
Maus and Dimri (1995a). It can also be observed in Figures 1.4 and 1.5 that
there exists a fractal behavior in the electrical and thermal properties of the
continental crust (Vedanti and Dimri 2003; Vedanti et al. 2011). From these
investigations, it can be clearly seen that the power spectrum is not lat but
rather it follows some scaling laws.
Now, once it is known that the physical properties follow a fractal behav-
ior, it entails the reformulation of the mathematical formulae in frequency
domain for existing techniques in geophysics that have been derived based
on the Gaussian/random distribution of the physical properties. Such
an approach was irst developed by Spector and Grant (1970) and Naidu
(1970), and was used to estimate the thickness of sedimentary basin from
gravity and magnetic data. This method is known as the spectral analysis

l v e)
0
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–5
Power
ower spectrum)
Linear (power)
–10
–15

–20
y = –1.8897 x – 7.5384
–25
FIGURE 1.5
Log-log plot of power spectrum of heat production data versus wave number for the Hidaka meta-
morphic belt (Hokkaido, Japan). Best linear it gives a scaling exponent of 1.9, indicating the pres-
ence of fractal behavior in the data set. Nature of linear it indicates strong correlation between the
adjacent points and substantiate power–law regime in the data. (After Vedanti et al. 2001).
method and was also used by Negi et al. (1986) to estimate the thickness of
the basalt in the Deccan Volcanic Province. However, for the fractal distribu-
tion of physical properties, a new method called scaling spectral method
was developed and applied for various case studies of potential ield data
(Pilkington and Todoeschuck 1993; Maus and Dimri 1994, 1996; Fedi et al.
1997; Dimri 2000c; Bansal and Dimri 1999, 2005; and Bansal et al. 2006).
Different Methods to Estimate Fractal Dimensions

The essence of fractal analysis is the estimation of fractal dimension. With the
use of fractal dimension, one can measure the length of a curve or area of rug-
ged boundaries, or the volume of uneven surfaces, more precisely. Before the
use of fractal dimensions, one was forced to use the Euclidean concept in which
geometrical shapes consisting of straight-line polygons have the integer dimen-
sion values 1, 2, and 3 for a line, area, and volume, respectively. Mathematically,
the length, L of a curve is a function of the size of the measuring instrument,
for example, a scale of length ε. The relationship between L and ε is given by
L = A (1/ε)d (1.9)
where A is a constant and d is the “measured fractal dimension.” Evaluating

the logarithm of Equation 1.9 on both sides, the parameter, “d” can be
obtained by
log L = log A + d log(1/ε) (1.10)

Therefore, if we plot log L versus log (1/ε), we get a straight line whose
slope gives the required value for d. One can show that the measured dimen-
sion, d, is related to the conventionally deined fractal dimension D by the
relation:
D=1+d (1.11)
If we calculate d for the coastline of Britain using the above procedure, we

get a value of 0.28. Thus, we obtain the fractal dimension as 1.28. Therefore,
the fractal dimension of the coastline of Britain is a fractional number (i.e.,
not an integer) between 1 and 2. The important point is that the fractal
dimension is greater than the topological dimension (the topological dimen-
sion of a one-dimensional object is 1, in this case, the coastline). On the other
hand, if we measure D for objects such as circles, we ind that fractal dimen-
sion equals the topological dimension (both are equal to 1). Natural objects
such as coastlines, exhibit fractal characteristics only over a limited range of
scales, that is, the straight line behavior in the log-log plot used to calculate
d holds only for a certain range of ε, that is, measuring length (Rangarajan
2000).
For complex cases such as heterogeneity in seismicity and luid turbulence
(Frisch and Parisi 1985), a single fractal dimension cannot explain the pro-
cess. Such cases are best modeled using multifractals. Moharir (2000) dem-
onstrated that the sum of two fractal processes is not a fractal. In such a case,
a generalized fractal dimension, Dq, as a function of q, which varies from −∞
to +∞ was introduced. Hentshel and Procaccia (1983) presented Dq as
Dq = (1/q − 1)lim  log


r→0 
(∑ {P (r)} ) / log r 
i
q
(1.12)
where Pi(r) is the probability that the events fall into a box with a size r. In the
case of q = 0, 1, and 2: D0 coincides with the capacity dimension (Dc); D1 with
the information dimension (Di) and D2, to the correlation dimension (Dcorr).
In general, the relation D0 > D1 > D2 >…D∞ occurs within Dq. The multifrac-
tal analysis of complex phenomena involves estimation of the generalized
dimension Dq irst and the Dq − q relation curve. There are various methods
to determine Dq as given below.
Box Counting Method

It is a very popular method to estimate fractal dimension. In this method,
the data are initially superimposed on a square grid of size r0. The unit r02
is sequentially divided into small squares of size ri = r0/2, r0/4, r0/8, etc. The
number of squares N(ri) intersected by at least one feature is counted each
time. If the system is a self-similar structure, the relation between N(ri) and
fractal dimension D is given by

D
r 
N (ri ) ∝  0  (1.13)
 ri 
where D is interpreted as the fractal dimension of the lineament/drainage

system. The fractal dimension D can be determined from the slope of the
plot of log N(ri) versus log (r0/ri).
Fixed-Size Algorithm
This is a generalization of the correlation method. In this method, the esti-
mation of scaling of mass (e.g., number of earthquakes) within the circle of
radius r increases with r. The dimension Dq is estimated from the scaling of
mass with size for ixed-sized circles:
log 〈M (<r)q = 1〉 ≈ (q − 1) Dq log r (1.14)
Here, M(<r) is the mass within the ixed radius, 〈〉 means the average of the
mass for ixed size of the circle. The mass can be the number of data sets
under consideration. The method is reported to be effective for determining
the spectrum for q > 0 (Grassberger et al. 1988), but it is unstable for negative
q when the data are limited.
Fixed-Mass Algorithm
This is also a generalization of the correlation method. The algorithm is
the same as that used in the ixed radius method. Here, the smallest radius
within which a ixed mass m can be included increases as the mass increases.
The relationship to be used is
log 〈R (< m)−(q − 1) D〉 ≈ −(q − 1) log m (1.15)
The notations are similar to Equation 1.14. This method is reported to

be superior to the previous one for calculating the spectrum for negative q
(Grassberger et al. 1988). The applications for earthquake data are shown by
several other workers (for example, see Hirata 1989; Hirabayashi et al. 1992).
Correlation Integral Method

In this method, the local density function ni(r) is deined by the following
equation:
(
ni (r ) = 1
N −1 ){lim ∑(r − x − x )}
i j (1.16)

where N is the number of data points recorded with a temporal resolution

period, (r − |xi − xj|) is the Heaviside function that counts how many pairs of
points (xi, xj) fall within the scaling radius, r.
(r − |xi − xj|) = 0, if (r − |xi − xj|) < 0 (1.17)
= 1 if (r − |xi − xj|) > 0 (1.18)
To study the multifractal behavior of time series of earthquakes, r is

replaced by scaling time t (Wang and Lee 1996) and (|xi − xj|) by the inter-
occurrence time (|ti − tj|). Therefore, a generalized correlation integral Cq(t)
for the interoccurrence time t is deined by the equation
{∑ }
1 q−1
Cq (t) =  (ni (t))q−1  N (1.19)
 
Using this correlation integral, the temporal generalized fractal dimension

Dq is then deined by the scaling relation as
Cq(t) ~ tDq (1.20)
The generalized fractal dimension Dq is determined by plotting Cq(t) ver-

sus t on a log-log graph. Applications of multifractals to earthquake data
have been shown by Sunmonu et al. (2001) and Teotia (2000). There is a sepa-
rate chapter on multifractals by Teotia and Kumar (2013).
Geophysical Significance of Wavelets and Fractals

Wavelets in Geophysics
Wavelet transformation has evolved due to the insuficient resolution that
FT and WFT offered in determining the time–frequency localization in
nonstationary signals.* Because the geophysical signals are, by nature, non-
stationary, wavelets play a key role in understanding and interpreting the
geophysical data more meaningfully. Jean Morlet, a French geophysicist,
irst noticed the importance of wavelets in the improved understanding
of seismic signals when he provided a better interpretation of the subsur-
face geology by analyzing the backscattered seismic signals using wavelets
* These are the signals whose statistical properties, such as mean, standard deviation, and oth-
ers, are time variant.

(Morlet 1981). Later, a thorough mathematical formalism for CWT was made
(Goupillaud et al. 1984; Grossmann and Morlet 1984; Grossmann et al. 1989).
Recognizing the important limited spatial support that wavelets offer, Farge
(1992) employed wavelets to analyze turbulent lows. Wavelet studies of
low patterns later found many applications in solving problems of atmo-
spheric turbulence (Katul et al. 1994; Narasimha 2007, to cite a few), climate
studies (Lau and Weng 1995; Torrence and Compo 1998), and space–time
rainfall studies (Narasimha and Kailas 2001; Labat et al. 2005; Bhattacharya
and Narasimha 2007; Azad et al. 2008). Suitable applications have also been
found in geomagnetism. Alexandrescu et al. (1995) and Adhikari et al. (2009)
studied the sudden jumps (called geomagnetic jerks) observed in decadal
variations of geomagnetic ields using wavelet analysis, as wavelet analysis
is best suited for identifying the discontinuities or abrupt changes in the sig-
nals. Geomagnetic jerks, which usually have a time span of 1 year, arise due
to the combination of a steady low and a simple time-varying, axisymmet-
ric, equatorially symmetric, toroidal zonal low of the core luid (Bloxham
et al. 2002). Studies of geomagnetic jerks are important to understand lower
mantle conductivity (Alexandrescu et al. 1999). A detailed study on the
phase characteristics of geomagnetic jerks using complex wavelets is pro-
vided in Chapter 7 of this book (Chandrasekhar et al. 2013). More recently,
Kunagu et al. (2013), while studying the characterization of external source
ields, applied CWT to 10 years of CHAMP satellite magnetic data and iden-
tiied some unmodeled signals in geomagnetic ield models. Kunagu and
Chandrasekhar (2013) later implemented the results of Kunagu et al. (2013)
for geomagnetic induction studies. Moreau et al. (1997, 1999), Sailhac et al.
(2000, 2009), and Sailhac and Gibert (2003) employed CWT to interpret the
geophysical potential ield data and to identify the sources of potential ields.
Wavelet analysis also found important applications in the analysis and com-
prehensive understanding of geophysical well-log data, and provided space
localizations of different subsurface formations. Wavelet analysis helped to
estimate the preferential low paths and the existence of low barriers within
the reservoir rocks (Jansen and Kelkar 1997), to determine high-frequency
sedimentary cycles of oil source rocks (Prokoph and Agterberg 2000), to
identify reservoir anomalies from pressure transient data (Panda et al. 2000;
Soliman et al. 2001), for detection of cyclic patterns in well-log data (Rivera
et al. 2004) and to the gamma ray log data to identify depths to the top of the
formation zones (Choudhury et al. 2007). By making a histogram analysis of
wavelet coeficients, Chandrasekhar and Rao (2012) optimized the suitable
wavelet for studying the geophysical well-log data.
In this book, various other applications and developments in wavelet-based
and fractal-based data analysis techniques in various processes of Earth sys-
tem sciences, namely, paleoclimate studies, a study of non-stationary behav-
iour of rainfall anomalies using tree-ring data, phase ield modeling studies
and seismology and earthquake prediction studies using multifractal analy-
ses, etc., are detailed in respective chapters.

Fractals in Geophysics
Various applications of fractals, particularly in the ield of earth sciences,
are given in the books by Mandelbrot (1983), Turcottee (1992), Feder (1988),
Dimri (2000a, 2005a), Dimri et al. (2012), and Srivastava (2013; this volume).
A collection of articles on geophysical applications is edited by Scholz and
Mandelbrot (1989). Also, the application of fractals in a potential ield sur-
vey design is given in Dimri (1998) and Srivastava et al. (2007). An appli-
cation-oriented text on fractal application in reservoir engineering is given
by Hardy and Beier (1994) and Dimri et al. (2012). Fractal theory has been
extensively used in exploration geophysics, particularly in the interpretation
of gravity and magnetic data (Pilkington and Todoeschuck 1993; Maus and
Dimri 1994, 1995a,b, 1996; Bansal and Dimri 1999, 2005; Bansal et al. 2006;
Fedi et al. 1997; Dimri and Srivastava 2005; Srivastava et al. 2009), and in
seismic data (Tommy et al. 2001; Srivastava and Sen 2009, 2010). The applica-
tion of monofractals and multifractals has been demonstrated in earthquake
and tsunami studies [Teotia 2000; Teotia and Kumar 2013 (this volume);
Sunmonu and Dimri 1999, 2000; Sunmonu et al. 2001; Mandal et al. 2005;
Dimri 2005b; Dimri and Srivastava 2007]. Fractal theory can be applied in
soil properties (Dimri 2000b; Ahmadi et al. 2011), biodiversity (Dimri and
Ravi Prakash 2001), and chaotic studies (Dimri et al. 2011). Attempts have
also been made to understand crustal heat production in the thermal regime
of the continents (Dimri and Vedanti 2005; Vedanti et al. 2011). Those inter-
ested in the mathematical development of fractal theory are encouraged to
follow Falconer (1990).
Geophysical data are often nonstationary or time-varying. There are vari-
ous methods to convert the time-varying series into piecewise (time invari-
ant) stationary series (Wang 1969; Dimri 1986; Bansal and Dimri 1999), as
well as other methods such as Kalman iltering and adaptive approaches
(Dimri 1992). Dimri and Srivatsava (1987, 1990) used such an approach for
seismic deconvolution problems. After the discovery of wavelets, a combined
approach of wavelets and fractals for realistic geology studies was found to
be very useful in a series of articles by Dimri et al. (2005), Chamoli and Dimri
(2007), and Chamoli et al. (2006, 2007, 2010, 2011).
Relation between Wavelets and Fractals

By now, we understand the concepts of wavelets and fractals. As seen in the
previous section, there are several methods to determine the fractal dimen-
sion (see Wang et al. 2003 for a review). In addition to the above methods,
spectral methods (i.e., Fourier and wavelet methods) are also used to esti-
mate the fractal dimension. McCoy and Walden (1996) and Wang et al. (2003)
show that among the spectral methods, the wavelet method gives a better

estimate of fractal dimension than the Fourier method. In this section, we

further discuss the relation between wavelets and fractals and the advantage
of wavelet-based fractal analysis of nonstationary geophysical signals.
Let us consider the example of a Haar wavelet. Figure 1.6 explains that the
scaling function, φ(t), of the Haar wavelet can be expressed as a sum of its
dilated and translated versions, for example, φ(2t) (Figure 1.6a) and φ(2t − 1)
(Figure 1.6b). Mathematically, it is expressed as
φ(t) = φ(2t) + φ(2t − 1) (1.21)
which gives the scaling function for a Haar wavelet (Figure 1.6c).
A close observation of these scaling functions clearly explains the self-
similar nature of the Haar wavelet at different scales, which can be effec-
tively employed for studying the self-similar nature of fractal images using
the Haar wavelet. Wavelet transformation proves to be a very eficient tool
for analyzing fractal objects. Chapter 4 of this book (and references therein)
offers more details of such a description of multiresolution wavelet analysis
of fractal images. Using the real Gaussian wavelet, Arneodo et al. (1988) com-
puted the wavelet transform of the standard triadic Cantor set and showed
that the wavelet transform allows us to capture the full complexity of the
self-similar properties of multifractals. They also claim that the application
of the wavelet transform to a variety of physical situations such as perco-
lation, growth phenomena, and fully developed turbulence to name a few,
looks very promising. Of late, the use of wavelets in analyzing fractal imag-
ing has gained unprecedented importance. Davis (1998) provides a detailed
explanation on the advantages of wavelet based analysis of fractal image
compression. By comparing the conventional fractal coding algorithm based
on an iterated function system (IFS) employed on the famous “Lenna” and
“Baboon” images, and by developing a multiresolution fractal coding algo-
rithm to analyze the above images using the Daubechies wavelet of order 2
(db2), Cesbron and Malassenet (1997) demonstrate the advantage of the lat-
ter technique in image compression methods. Recently, Lopez and Aldana
(2007) adopted wavelet-based fractal analysis and waveform classiiers to
determine fractal parameters from geophysical well-log data.
( ( (
1.0 1.0 1.0
0 0.5 0.5 1.0 0 0.5 1.0
FIGURE 1.6
The scaling functions of Haar wavelet functions: (a) φ(2t), (b) φ(2t − 1), and (c) their sum, φ(t),
representing the self-similar nature of the wavelet at different translations and dilations.

Methodology for Wavelet-Based Fractal Analysis

For wavelet-based fractal analysis, irst the variance of the wavelet coefi-
cients is obtained at each level of decomposition. Then the log-variance is
plotted against the scale. The linear portions in such plots correspond to a
power–law process over a particular frequency region, indicating the fractal
nature of the phenomena in that frequency range. The slope of the line can
be related with the exponent of the power–law process (Percival and Guttorp
1994). Akay (1995) has employed the above methodology and determined the
dimension of the echocardiac signals. Using the log-variance of the wavelet
coeficients obtained using db2 wavelet (which has self-similar character-
istics), Huang and Morimoto (2008) determined the fractal dimension (also
known as Hurst exponent) for the El Niño/La Niña episodes. In wavelet-
based fractal analysis, because the relation between fractal dimension and
scale is established, the fractal dimension obtained through this method,
will in fact characterize the signal (a well-log signal or a seismic signal) that
could be associated with different sedimentary formations. Enescu et al.
(2004) studied the multifractal and correlation properties of real and simu-
lated time series of earthquakes, using a wavelet-based multifractal analysis
and quantitatively described the complex temporal patterns of seismicity,
their multifractal and clustering properties in particular. Further research
in various ields of science and engineering are actively progressing on the
application of wavelet-based fractal analysis of nonlinear signals with wave-
let coeficients obtained by two-dimensional wavelet transformation.
Conclusions
In this chapter, we have explained the fundamental concepts of wavelets
and fractals and their advantages over conventional signal processing tech-
niques in various problems from different ields of science and engineer-
ing research. We have also explained (by describing simple examples) and
showed the need for these novel wavelet and fractal signal analysis tools to
understand these signals in a better and wider perspective. Highlighting
the role of wavelets, fractals, and multifractals—particularly in geosciences
research—we have provided a number of examples in which these novel
signal analysis tools have proven to be very effective. While discussing the
relation between wavelets and fractals, we have highlighted the role of wave-
lets in fractal analysis of geophysical data as well as in image compression
techniques. The reader is expected to read all the chapters of this volume and
some more books and other literature to have a broader understanding of the
subject for its further use in the analysis of a variety of nonstationary signals.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank two anonymous referees for their meticulous reviews,
which have improved the quality of this chapter.
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Foreword ............................................................................................................... vii

1. Introduction to Wavelets and Fractals ........................................................1

2. Construction of Wavelets: Principles and Practices .............................. 29

3. Genesis of Wavelet Transform Types and Applications ...................... 93

4. Multiscale Processing: A Boon for Self-Similar Data,

5. Fractals and Wavelets in Applied Geophysics with

6. Role of Multifractal Studies in Earthquake Prediction...................... 177

7. Geomagnetic Jerks: A Study Using Complex Wavelets ...................... 195

8. Application of Wavelet Transforms to Paleomonsoon Data

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Wavelets were invented by the French geophysicist Jean Morlet, so it is most

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many of the mathematical details. The concept of multifractals and their

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in understanding their space–time and time–frequency localization char-

• Prior knowledge of wavelets and fractals is not required to under-

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• Focused set of applications centered on themes of thrust areas of

We place on record our sincere thanks to the Ministry of Earth Sciences,

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product

The MathWorks, Inc.

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Arpit Agarwal V. P. Dimri

Venkateswararao Cherukuri Dinesh Kumar

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Mira Mitra R. P. Srivastava

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E. Chandrasekhar and V. P. Dimri

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However, it is becoming increasingly important and necessary to study

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demodulate represents the time-local estimate of amplitude and phase of

was not differentiable.

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Basic Theory and Mathematical Concepts

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Some Properties of Wavelets

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