Module 4

Air Quality
Methods of Measurement: Gaseous pollutants, Particulate pollutants
Air quality measurement focuses on assessing the concentration of both gaseous and particulate pollutants in the
atmosphere. Each type requires specific instruments and techniques for accurate measurement.
1. Gaseous Pollutants Measurement
 Pollutants: Common gaseous pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO), ozone (O₃), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
 Methods of Measurement:
o Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) Sensors: Used primarily for CO and CO₂, this technique measures
the absorption of infrared light by gases.
o Chemiluminescence: This method is widely used for measuring nitrogen oxides. NO reacts with
ozone to produce light, which is then measured.
o UV Fluorescence: Commonly used for SO₂ measurement, as it fluoresces when exposed to
ultraviolet light.
o Electrochemical Sensors: Portable sensors that can detect various gases based on electrochemical
reactions.
o Flame Ionization Detectors (FID): Used for measuring VOCs, where organic compounds are
ionized in a hydrogen flame, creating an electrical signal.
2. Particulate Pollutants Measurement
 Pollutants: Particulate Matter (PM) is categorized based on size, such as PM₂.₅ (particles with a diameter
less than 2.5 micrometers) and PM₁₀.
 Methods of Measurement:
o Gravimetric Method: Air is passed through a filter that captures particulate matter. The filter is
weighed before and after to determine the concentration.
o Beta Attenuation Monitoring (BAM): Measures the mass of particulates by passing beta radiation
through the particles collected on a filter.
o Optical Methods (Light Scattering): Instruments like DustTrak or photometers estimate particle
concentration based on light scattering.
o Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM): Measures the mass of particulate matter
collected on a filter by detecting changes in oscillation frequency of a tapered element.
o High-Volume Samplers: Collect particles on filters over a fixed period; often used for PM₁₀
measurements.

Air Quality Standards and Indices:

Air quality standards and indices are essential tools for assessing and communicating air quality. They set permissible
pollutant concentration limits to protect human health and the environment.
1. Air Quality Standards
These are regulatory limits on the concentration of pollutants in the air, set by government and environmental agencies
to protect public health and ecosystems. Standards vary by country and often focus on pollutants known to harm
human health.
  Common Air Quality Standards (e.g., set by the EPA, WHO, CPCB):
o PM₂.₅ (Particulate Matter with diameter ≤ 2.5 µm): 24-hour and annual limits due to its ability to
penetrate deep into the lungs.
o PM₁₀ (Particulate Matter with diameter ≤ 10 µm): Also has 24-hour and annual limits.

o SO₂ (Sulfur Dioxide): Short-term limits to prevent respiratory issues.

o NO₂ (Nitrogen Dioxide): Often has both short-term (1-hour) and long-term (annual) limits.

o CO (Carbon Monoxide): Short-term limits (8-hour and 1-hour) due to its risk to cardiovascular
health.
o O₃ (Ozone): Short-term limits since high levels can cause respiratory problems.

o Lead: Monitored for long-term exposure impacts, especially harmful to children.

 Key Organizations and Standards:

o EPA (Environmental Protection Agency, USA): Sets the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for criteria pollutants.
o WHO (World Health Organization): Provides global air quality guidelines to protect health.

o CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board, India): Sets national standards in India and updates them
periodically.
2. Air Quality Index (AQI)
The AQI is a simplified, color-coded tool that communicates air quality levels and their health implications for the
public. AQI values are calculated based on pollutant concentrations and indicate how clean or polluted the air is on a
scale, with specific health recommendations.
 AQI Ranges and Categories (General Example):
o 0-50 (Good): Air quality is satisfactory, and pollution poses little or no risk.

o 51-100 (Moderate): Air quality is acceptable, though some pollutants may be a concern for sensitive
individuals.
o 101-150 (Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups): Sensitive individuals (e.g., children, elderly, those with
respiratory conditions) may experience health effects.
o 151-200 (Unhealthy): Everyone may begin to experience health effects, and sensitive groups may
experience more serious health effects.
o 201-300 (Very Unhealthy): Health alert; everyone may experience more serious health effects.

o 301-500 (Hazardous): Health warnings of emergency conditions; the entire population is likely to be
affected.
 Pollutants Used in AQI Calculation:
o The AQI is calculated for major pollutants: PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, CO, NO₂, SO₂, and O₃. The highest
concentration value among these determines the overall AQI level for that location.
3. Applications of Standards and Indices
 Public Health Protection: Standards and AQI provide the public and authorities with necessary information
to protect health, especially during high pollution events.
 Regulatory Compliance: Industries and other entities monitor emissions to ensure they comply with
regulatory standards.
  Policy and Planning: Standards guide urban planning, pollution control strategies, and environmental
policies.

Ambient Air Quality Standard

Ambient Air Quality Standards (AAQS) are regulatory limits set for the concentration of specific pollutants in
outdoor air. These standards are designed to protect public health and the environment by limiting exposure to harmful
pollutants. Different countries and organizations, such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the World
Health Organization (WHO), and the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in India, set their own ambient air
quality standards.
Key Pollutants in Ambient Air Quality Standards
1. Particulate Matter (PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅):
o PM₂.₅: Particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller. These fine particles can penetrate
deep into the lungs and are associated with cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.
o PM₁₀: Particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers or smaller. These larger particles can cause
respiratory issues but do not penetrate as deeply as PM₂.₅.
2. Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂):
o SO₂ is a gas that can irritate the respiratory system. It is primarily produced by industrial processes,
power plants, and burning fossil fuels.
3. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂):
o NO₂ is a byproduct of combustion, such as from motor vehicles and industrial processes. Long-term
exposure can lead to respiratory problems and worsen asthma.
4. Carbon Monoxide (CO):
o CO is a colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. High levels of CO
can lead to poisoning, impairing the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.
5. Ozone (O₃):
o Ground-level ozone forms through chemical reactions between volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in sunlight. It can cause respiratory issues and is a major component of
smog.
6. Lead (Pb):
o Lead was historically used in fuels and paints and can have severe neurological effects, particularly in
children. While lead emissions have decreased, it remains a monitored pollutant.
Structure of Ambient Air Quality Standards
Ambient air quality standards typically include:
 Concentration Limits: Measured in micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m³) or parts per million (ppm).
 Averaging Time: The time over which pollutant concentration is averaged, which may be hourly, 8-hour, 24-
hour, or annual depending on the pollutant.
 Primary Standards: Set to protect human health, especially vulnerable populations like children, elderly, and
those with preexisting health conditions.
 Secondary Standards: Set to protect the environment, property, and visibility.

NAAQS
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are a set of regulatory limits established by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the Clean Air Act. NAAQS define the maximum permissible levels of
specific air pollutants in the ambient (outdoor) air to protect public health and the environment. These standards apply
across the United States and are enforced by state and federal agencies.
Primary and Secondary NAAQS
1. Primary Standards: Set to protect human health, including sensitive groups like children, the elderly, and
individuals with respiratory conditions.
2. Secondary Standards: Established to protect the environment, including wildlife, crops, buildings, and
visibility.
Criteria Pollutants under NAAQS
The EPA has identified six "criteria pollutants" that are regulated under NAAQS based on their potential health and
environmental impacts:
1. Particulate Matter (PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅):
o PM₂.₅: Particles ≤ 2.5 micrometers; can penetrate deep into the lungs, causing respiratory and
cardiovascular issues.
o PM₁₀: Particles ≤ 10 micrometers; larger than PM₂.₅ but still harmful, especially to the respiratory
system.
2. Ozone (O₃):
o Ground-level ozone forms when pollutants like volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) react in sunlight. High levels can cause respiratory issues and are a major component of
smog.
3. Carbon Monoxide (CO):
o A colorless, odorless gas from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, CO impairs oxygen transport in
the blood, posing health risks, especially to those with heart conditions.
4. Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂):
o Emitted mainly from burning fossil fuels, SO₂ can irritate the respiratory system, particularly in
people with asthma or respiratory diseases.
5. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂):
o Produced by vehicles and industrial combustion, NO₂ can aggravate respiratory conditions and
contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone and particulate matter.
6. Lead (Pb):
o Previously prevalent in gasoline and paints, lead can cause neurological effects, especially in children.

Emission Standard
Emission Standards are regulatory limits set on the amount of specific pollutants that can be released into the
atmosphere from sources such as vehicles, industrial facilities, and power plants. These standards are implemented to
reduce pollution, protect public health, and mitigate environmental impacts such as acid rain, smog, and climate
change.
Key Components of Emission Standards
1. Pollutants Regulated:
o Commonly regulated pollutants include:

 Carbon Monoxide (CO): Released by vehicles and industrial processes, CO reduces oxygen
in the bloodstream.
  Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Emitted from combustion engines, NOx contributes to smog, acid
rain, and respiratory issues.
 Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): Primarily from coal and oil burning, SO₂ can cause acid rain and
respiratory problems.
 Particulate Matter (PM): Emitted by vehicles, factories, and construction, PM affects
respiratory health and visibility.
 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Emitted by vehicles, paints, and industrial solvents,
VOCs react with NOx to form ground-level ozone.
 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): Includes CO₂, methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O), which
contribute to climate change.
2. Sources Regulated:
o Mobile Sources: Includes vehicles such as cars, trucks, buses, and aircraft.

o Stationary Sources: Includes power plants, factories, and industrial facilities.

3. Types of Standards:
o Technology-Based Standards: Mandates the use of specific pollution control technologies, such as
catalytic converters for vehicles.
o Performance-Based Standards: Sets limits on the quantity of pollutants that can be emitted,
allowing flexibility in how to achieve compliance.
Example Emission Standards
 Vehicle Emission Standards: Limit emissions from tailpipes to control pollutants like CO, NOx, and PM.
Examples include:
o Euro Standards (Europe): Euro 6 standard requires NOx emissions from diesel cars to be below 0.08
g/km.
o CAFE Standards (USA): Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards set fuel efficiency and
CO₂ emissions targets for vehicle manufacturers.
 Industrial Emission Standards: Limit emissions from factories, power plants, and other industrial facilities.
o SO₂ and NOx Standards: Often implemented in power plants to reduce acid rain formation. For
example, the EPA’s Acid Rain Program limits SO₂ emissions from power plants.
o Greenhouse Gas Limits: Many countries have adopted regulations to limit CO₂ and other GHGs
under climate agreements, like the Paris Agreement.
Implementation and Compliance
 Monitoring and Reporting: Emission sources are required to measure, report, and sometimes publicly
disclose emissions data to regulatory bodies.
 Permits and Fines: Facilities may need permits to operate within emission limits. Non-compliance can result
in fines, legal action, or operational shutdowns.
Air Quality Indices (AQI) are standardized measures that provide a quick understanding of air quality levels and
their potential health effects. AQI simplifies complex air pollution data into a single, easy-to-understand value that
represents the air quality at a specific location and time. The AQI typically uses color-coded categories to indicate the
severity of pollution and its potential health impacts on the population.
Key Components of the AQI
1. Pollutants Included in AQI Calculation:
 o The AQI is calculated based on concentrations of specific air pollutants that have known health
effects. These commonly include:
 Particulate Matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀): Fine particles (PM₂.₅) and inhalable particles
(PM₁₀) can penetrate the respiratory system and pose health risks.
 Ozone (O₃): Ground-level ozone is harmful to respiratory health, especially for children, the
elderly, and those with respiratory conditions.
 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂): Exposure to NO₂ can aggravate lung diseases and lead to
respiratory symptoms.
 Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): SO₂ irritates the respiratory system and can exacerbate conditions like
asthma.
 Carbon Monoxide (CO): High levels of CO reduce oxygen in the blood and can be
dangerous, particularly for people with cardiovascular conditions.
2. AQI Calculation and Ranges:
o The AQI assigns a value to each pollutant based on its concentration. The pollutant with the highest
AQI value determines the overall AQI for the location.
o AQI values are generally divided into categories, each representing a level of health concern:

3. Health Recommendations Based on AQI:

o Good to Moderate (0-100): Minimal to moderate impact; outdoor activities are generally safe.

o Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups (101-150): Sensitive groups (children, elderly, and those with
respiratory or heart conditions) should limit prolonged outdoor exertion.
o Unhealthy (151-200): General public may experience health effects; sensitive groups should avoid
outdoor activities.
o Very Unhealthy (201-300): Health alert for everyone; outdoor activities should be avoided by all.

o Hazardous (301-500): Emergency conditions with significant health risks for the entire population;
everyone should avoid outdoor exertion.
AQI Systems Around the World
Different countries have developed AQI systems tailored to their specific air quality challenges:
 USA: The EPA calculates AQI daily, focusing on PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, O₃, CO, SO₂, and NO₂, with values
communicated to the public via apps, websites, and signs.
 India: The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in India uses an AQI that also considers PM₂.₅, PM₁₀,
CO, SO₂, NO₂, O₃, and NH₃, along with other pollutants.
 China: Uses an AQI system similar to the U.S. EPA's but often registers higher pollution levels, with PM₂.₅
and PM₁₀ as primary pollutants in many urban areas.
Benefits of the AQI
 Public Awareness: The AQI helps people understand the quality of the air they breathe and take appropriate
health precautions.
 Policy and Planning: Governments and regulatory agencies can use AQI data to create policies aimed at
reducing pollution levels.
 Real-Time Decisions: AQI data allow individuals and organizations to make informed decisions regarding
outdoor activities and work.