Chap 13 : Nuclei

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 Introduction
Does the nucleus have a We have learnt that in
structure, just as the atom every atom, the positive
does? charge and mass are
densely concentrated at
If so, what are the the centre of the atom
constituents of the forming its nucleus.
nucleus?

How are these held If an atom is enlarged to the

together? size of a classroom, the
nucleus would be of the size
In this chapter, we shall of pinhead. Nevertheless, the
look for answers to such nucleus contains most (more
questions than 99.9%) of the mass of
an atom.

6
 Composition of a Nucleus
Proton & neutrons are main building
blocks of the nuclei.

The proton gives +ve charge while

protons & neutrons together give it
mass.

Proton:
Positive charge 1.6 × 10−19 ÿ
Mass 1.6726 × 10−27 ýĄ (1836 times
of rest mass of electron)

Neutron: neutral
Mass 1.6749 × 10−27 ýĄ (slightly
greater than proton)

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 Nucleons
Neutrons and protons are
identical particles in the sense
that their masses are nearly the
same and the nuclear force does
not distinguish them.

So the neutrons and protons

have common name, the
nucleons.

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 Composition of a Nucleus
Nucleons: Protons & Neutrons which
are present in the nuclei of atoms
are collectively known as nucleons.

Atomic number (ý): The number of

protons in the nucleus is called the
atomic number of the elements. It is
denoted by Z.

Mass number (�㕨): The total number

of protons and neutrons present in a
nucleus is called the mass number of
the elements. It is denoted by A.

Nuclear mass: The total mass of the

protons and neutrons present in a
nucleus is called the nuclear mass.

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 Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones & Isomers
Isotopes: The atoms of an
element which have the
same atomic number but
diferent mass number.

1
1�㔻 ĂÿāāÿĂÿ ,
2
1�㔻 āĂĂāĂÿÿĂÿ & 31�㔻(āÿÿāÿÿĂÿ)
(A diferent, Z same)

Isobars: The atoms of an

element which have the
diferent atomic number
but same mass number.

3
1�㔻þĀā 32�㔻Ă
(A same, Z diferent)

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 Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones & Isomers
Isotones:

The nuclides having the same

number of neutrons.
17ÿþ and 19þ are isotones as
37 39

ā = ý 2 ý = 20

Isomers:
These are the nuclei with
same atomic number and
same mass number but
existing in diferent energy
states. ( A same, Z same)

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 Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones & Isomers

12
 Atomic Masses
Atomic mass unit (unit of mass):
ÿþĀĀ āă āĀĂ 12
ÿ þāāÿ The mass of an atom is very small,
1Ă = compared to a kilogram; for example
12 the mass of carbon-12 atom is
1.992678 × 10−26 ýĄ, which is very
1.992647 × 10−26 small, not convenient unit for
= kg
12 expressing the mass of atoms. So amu
(Atomic Mass unit) is deoned.
= 1.660539 × 10−27 ýĄ Expressed as u or amu

Mass of carbon-12 atom equals to

12 atomic mass units

1
One atomic mass is deoned as ā/ of
12
the actual mass of carbon 12 atom.
1 amu = 1 u = 1.660565 × 10−27 ýĄ

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 Atomic Masses
Atomic mass unit (unit of mass):
Ā �㔚�㔦�㔮 = Ā. ĀĀÿÿĀÿ × Āÿ−āā �㖌ā

Electron Volt (unit of energy):

1Ăþ = 1.602 × 10−19 ý
1 ĀĂþ = 106 Ăþ = 1.602 × 10−13 ý

Relation between amu & MeV:

�㕬 = ÿĀā
Ā þÿ�㖖 = ăĂĀ �㕴ÿ�㕽

14
 Atomic Masses
The atomic masses of various elements
expressed in atomic mass unit (u) are
close to being integral multiples of the
mass of a hydrogen atom. There are,
however, many striking exceptions to
this rule.
For example, the atomic mass of
chlorine atom is 35.46 u.

Accurate measurement of atomic

masses is carried out with a mass
spectrometer.

The measurement of atomic masses

reveals the existence of diferent types
of atoms of the same element, which
exhibit the same chemical properties,
but difer in mass (Isotopes).

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16
 Composition of Nucleus
The composition of a nucleus can now be
described using the following terms and
symbols:

Z (atomic number) = number of protons

N (neutron number) = number of neutrons
A (mass number) = Z + N = total number of
protons and neutrons

One also uses the term nucleon for a

proton or a neutron. Thus the number of
nucleons in an atom is its mass number A.

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 Nuclear size
Experimental observations show
that the volume of a nucleus is
directly proportional to its mass
number.

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 Q. What is the radius of the nucleus of 64
29ÿĂ?

19
 Q. Find the ratio of nuclear radius of 64 27
29ÿĂ þĀā 13ýþ

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 Nuclear Density
The density of nuclear matter is the
ratio of the mass of a nucleus of its
volume.

NOTE: Nuclear density is same for

all Nuclei.
Nuclear density is independent of
mass number A & size of Nucleus.
21
 Derivation : Nuclear density is independent from Size & Mass no. A

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23
 Nuclear Force
The average separation
between two nucleons is about
10−15 ÿ.

Nuclear force is a strong

attractive force that binds the
protons and neutrons together
inside a tiny nucleus.

PROPERTIES
• Strongest interaction
• Short range focus
• Variation with distance
Graph of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a
• Charge independent character
function of their separation.
• Saturation efect
• Spin dependent character
• Exchange forces
• Non-central forces

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 Nuclear Force (Properties)
• Strongest interaction
þ�㕔 : þ�㕒 : þ�㕛 = 1: 1036 : 1038

• Short range focus

It operates only upto very short
distance of about 2-3 fm from a
nucleon.

• Variation with distance

The P.E. is minimum at a distance
ÿ0 j 0.8 ăÿ Graph of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a
function of their separation.

25
 (i) For �㖓 < �㖓ÿ , the P.E. increases rapidly
with decreasing r. It indicates a strong
repulsive nuclear force.

(ii) For �㖓 > �㖓ÿ , the P.E. gradually

decreases to zero with increasing r. It
indicates attractive nuclear force. The
attraction is maximum at �㖓ÿ j ÿ. Ă Āÿ and
varies inversely not as the square of
distance but depends on some higher
power of distance.

(iii) For ÿ j 4 ăÿ, the nuclear force Graph of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a
becomes zero. It indicates that nuclear function of their separation.
force is a short range force.

The -Ve sign of P.E. signioes that the

nuclear force is attractive.

26
 Nuclear Force (Properties)
• Charge independent character
nuclear force does not depend on
the charge of the particles.

• Saturation efect
Nuclear forces show saturation
efect, i.e., a nucleon interacts only
with its neighbouring nucleon.

• Spin dependent character Graph of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a

The nuclear force between two function of their separation.
nucleons having parallel spins is
stronger than that between two
nucleons having antiparallel spins

27
 Nuclear Force (Properties)
• Exchange forces
nuclear force between two
nucleons arises from the constant
exchange of particles, called
mesons, between them.

• Non-central forces
The nuclear force between two
nucleons does not act along the
line joining their centres.
Graph of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a
function of their separation.

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 Mass-Energy Relation
Einstein showed that mass is
another form of energy and one
can convert mass-energy into
other forms of energy and vice-
versa.

Ā þÿ�㖖 = ăĂĀ �㕴ÿ�㕽

29
 Mass Defect (∆ÿ)
It is expected that the mass of the nucleus is
equal to the total mass of its individual
protons and neutrons. However, the nuclear
mass M is found to be always less than this.

For example, let us consider 168Ă ; a nucleus

which has 8 neutrons and 8 protons. We
have

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 Mass Defect (∆ÿ)
Thus, we ond that the mass of the
8Ă nucleus is less than the total
16

mass of its constituents by 0.13691u.

The diference in mass of a nucleus
and its constituents, ∆ÿ is called the
mass defect, and is given by

31
 Binding Energy
If a certain number of neutrons and
protons are brought together to form
a nucleus of a certain charge and
mass, an energy �㕬ÿ will be released in
the process. The energy ýÿ is called
the binding energy of the nucleus.

32
 Binding Energy per nucleon (BEN)
A more useful measure of the
binding between the constituents of
the nucleus is the binding energy
per nucleon, �㕬ÿĀ, which is the ratio
of the binding energy �㕬ÿ of a
nucleus to the number of the
nucleons, A, in that nucleus:

�㕬ÿĀ = �㕬ÿ / �㕨
We can think of binding energy per
nucleon as the average energy
per nucleon needed to separate a
nucleus into its individual nucleons.

33
 Q. Find the energy equivalent of one atomic
mass unit, orst in Joules and then in MeV.

34
 Q. Using 1Ă = 931.5 ĀĂþ/Ā 2 , express the mass
defect of 8Ă ÿĀ ĀĂþ/Ā .
16 2

35
 Binding Energy Curve
Binding energy curve. The value
of binding energy per nucleon of
a nucleus gives a measure of the
stability of that nucleus.

Greater is the binding energy per

nucleon of a nucleus, more stable
is the nucleus.

Binding energy per nucleon as a

function of mass number A.

36
 BEN Curve: Observations
We notice the following main
features of the graph:

(i) the binding energy per nucleon,

ýÿĀ, is practically constant, i.e.
practically independent of the
atomic number for nuclei of
middle mass number (30 < A <
170).

The curve has a maximum of about

8.75 MeV for A = 56 (Fe) and has a Binding energy per nucleon as a
value of 7.6 MeV for A = 238 (U). function of mass number A.

ii. ýÿĀ is lower for both light nuclei

(A<30) and heavy nuclei
(A>170).

37
 BEN Curve: Conclusions
(i) The force is attractive and
suociently strong to produce a
binding energy of a few MeV per
nucleon.

Binding energy per nucleon as a

function of mass number A.

38
 BEN Curve: Conclusions
(ii) The Constancy of the binding Energy in the range
30 < ý < 170 is a consequence of fact that the nuclear
force is short-ranged. (Explanation)

Binding energy per nucleon

as a function of mass
number A.

The property that a given nucleon

innuences only nucleons close to it is also
referred to as saturation property of the
nuclear force.
39
 BEN Curve: Conclusions
(iii) A very heavy nucleus, say
A = 240, has lower binding
energy per nucleon compared
to that of a nucleus with A =
120. Thus if a nucleus A =
240 breaks into two A = 120
nuclei, nucleons get more
tightly bound. This implies
energy would be released in
the process.

It has very important Binding energy per nucleon as a

implications for energy function of mass number A.
production through Nuclear
ossion.

40
 BEN Curve: Conclusions
(iv) Consider two very light
nuclei (ý f 10) joining to form a
heavier nucleus. The binding
energy per nucleon of the fused
heavier nuclei
is more than the binding
energy per nucleon of the
lighter nuclei.

This means that the onal

system is more tightly bound
than the initial system. Again Binding energy per nucleon as a
energy would be released in function of mass number A.
such a process of Nuclear
fusion. This is the energy
source of sun.

41
 Importance of binding energy curve (Nuclear Energy)
The binding energy curve can be used to explain
the phenomena of nuclear ossion and nuclear
fusion as follows :

1. Nuclear ossion. Binding energy per nucleon is

smaller for heavier nuclei than the middle ones,
i.e., heavier nuclei are less stable. When a heavier
nucleus splits into the lighter nuclei, the
B.E./nucleon changes from about 7.6 MeV to 8.4
MeV. Greater binding energy of the product
nuclei results in the liberation of energy. This is
what happens in nuclear ossion which is the
basis of the atom bomb.

2. Nuclear fusion. The binding energy per

nucleon is small for light nuclei, i.e., they are less
stable. So when two light nuclei combine to form
a heavier nucleus, the higher binding energy per
nucleon of the latter results in the release of
energy. This is what happens in a nuclear fusion
which is the basis of the hydrogen bomb.
42
 Q. Calculate the binding energy of an �㗼-particle in ĀĂþ. Given :

ÿ�㕝 (ÿþĀĀ āă ĂÿāāāĀ) = 1.007825 þÿĂ

ÿ�㕛 (ÿþĀĀ āă ĀĂĂāÿāĀ) = 1.008665 þÿĂ
ĀþĀĀ āă �㔻Ă ĀĂĀþĂĂĀ = 4.002800 þÿĂ,
1 þÿĂ = 931 ĀĂþ.

43
 Nuclear Reaction
A reaction which involves the
change of stable nucleus of one
element into the nucleus of another
element is called nuclear reaction.

44
 Nuclear Energy
The energy released during a nuclear
reaction is called nuclear energy.

The nuclear reactions which can be

exploited to produce energy are of two
broad types:

1. Nuclear ossion in which a heavy

nucleus splits up into two smaller nuclei,
liberating a large amount of energy as in
an atom bomb.

2. Nuclear fusion in which two smaller

nuclei fuse together to form a larger
nucleus, releasing a large amount of
energy as in a hydrogen bomb.

45
 Nuclear reaction Vs Chemical Reaction
A nuclear reaction difers markedly
from a chemical reaction.

In a chemical reaction, only the

electrons revolving around the
nucleus take part in the reaction
and no change occurs inside the
nucleus whereas in a nuclear
reaction, the nucleus itself
undergoes a transformation.

The energy changes involved in

chemical reactions are much smaller
than the energy changes involved in
nuclear reactions.

46
 Nuclear Fission
The phenomenon in which a heavy nucleus (ý > 230) when
excited splits out into two smaller nuclei of nearly
comparable masses is called nuclear ossion.

235 141 92
92ý + 10Ā → 56þþ + 36 þÿ + 3 10Ā + �㕄

47
 Nuclear Fission as a Source of Energy
An enormous amount of energy is released in a nuclear fission, as can be seen from the
following example:

235 141
92ý + 10Ā → 56þþ
92
+ 36 þÿ + 3 10Ā + �㕄

48
 Q. A neutron is absorbed by a 63ÿÿ nucleus with subsequent
emission of an alpha particle. Write the corresponding nuclear
reaction. Calculate the energy released in this reaction.
Given :
m ( 63ÿÿ ) = 6.015126 amu ;
M( 42�㔻Ă ) = 4.0026044 amu,
( 10Ā ) = 1.0086654 amu , m ( 31�㔻 ) = 3.016049 amu.

49
 Nuclear Chain Reaction
The number of ossions taking place at
each successive stage goes on increasing
at a rapid rate. Thus a chain reaction is
set up, as shown in Fig.

50
 Nuclear Chain Reaction
Uncontrolled chain reaction: If
a chain reaction is started in a
ossionable material having mass
greater than certain critical
mass, then the reaction will
accelerate at such a rapid rate
that the whole material will
explode within a microsecond,
liberating huge amount of
energy. Such a chain reaction is
called uncontrolled chain
reaction.

51
 Nuclear Chain Reaction
Controlled chain reaction: The
chain reaction can be controlled
by absorbing a suitable number of
neutrons at each stage of the
reaction, so that on an average
one neutron remains available for
exciting further ossion. Such a
reaction is called controlled chain
reaction.

52
 Nuclear Fusion
The process in which two light nuclei
combine (at extremely high temperature)
to form a single heavier nucleus is called
nuclear fusion.

The sum of masses before fusion is

greater than the sum of masses after
fusion the diference in mass appearing
in fusion energy.

For example, the fusion of two deuterium

nuclei into helium is given as

2
1�㔻 + 21�㔻 → 42�㔻 + 21.6 ĀĂþ

53
 Nuclear Fusion
Necessary conditions for nuclear fusion
• The high temperature is necessary for the
light nuclei to have suocient kinetic
energy so that they can overcome their
mutual columbic repulsions and come
closer than the range of nuclear force.
That is why a fusion reaction is also
called a thermonuclear reaction.

• High density or pressure increases the

frequency of collision of light nuclei and
hence increases the rate of fusion.

These conditions exist in the interior of the

sun where the temperature is about 2 × 106 þ.

Such conditions cannot be easily met in a

laboratory.

54
 Fusion as source of energy in Sun & Stars

55
 Fusion as source of energy in Sun & Stars
❖ Temperature of interior of the sun is
2 × 106 þ.

❖ Both proton-proton & carbon-nitrogen

cycles participate almost equally in
the generation of energy in the sun.

❖ Stars, hotter than the sun, get their

energy from the carbon-nitrogen
cycle, while those cooler than the sun
get their energy from the proton-
proton cycle.

❖ Proton-proton cycle can occur at

lower temp than the carbon-nitrogen
cycle.

56
 Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions
If the energy released in a
thermonuclear reaction is controlled
in such a manner that a limited
amount of energy is produced
continuously, it can be used for
many useful purposes, particularly
for generation of electrical power.

57
 Nuclear Fission Vs. Nuclear Fusion

NUCLEAR FISSION NUCLEAR FUSION

1. Here a heavy nucleus when excited Here two lighter nuclei fuse together to
gets split up into two smaller nuclei of form a heavier nucleus.
nearly comparable masses.
2. It is a quick process. It occurs in several steps.
3. Neutrons are the link particles of this Protons are the link particles of this
process. process.
4. It produces very harmful radioactive The products of fusion are harmless.
wastes.
5. The stock is ossionable fusion is The fuel required for fusion is available in
limited. plenty.

58
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