1. The publicist functional style and its peculiarities in English and Ukrainian.

Functional Style is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in communication. It is
the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features of each
style and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves.
Publicist style is a perfect example of the historical changeability of stylistic differentiation of discourses. In
ancient Greece, e.g., it was practiced mainly in its oral form and was best known as oratorio style, within
which views and sentiments of the addresser (orator) found their expression. Nowadays political,
ideological, ethical, social beliefs and statements of the addresser are prevailingly expressed in the written
form, which was labelled publicist in accordance with the name of the corresponding genre and its
practitioners.
Publicistic style is famous for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader
in accordance with the argumentation of the author.
The publicistic style of language became a separate style in the middle of the 18 th century. Unlike other
styles, it has two spoken varieties, namely the oratorical substyle and the radio and TV commentary. The
other two substyles are the essay (moral, philosophical, literary) and journalistic articles (political, social,
economic). The general aim of publicistic style is to influence the public opinion, to convince the reader or
the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause
him to accept the expressed point of view.
Publicistic style is characterized by coherent and logical syntactical structure, with an expanded system of
connectives and careful paragraphing. Its emotional appeal is achieved by the use of words with the
emotive meaning but the stylistic devices are not fresh or genuine. The individual element is not very
evident. Publicistic style is also characterized by the brevity of expression, sometimes it becomes a leading
feature.
2. Main functions and traits of an essay.
The essay is rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive
examination of the matter. The most characteristic language features of the essay are: brevity of
expression; the use of the first person singular; a rather expanded use of connectives; the abundant use of
emotive words; the use of similes and sustained metaphors.
The language of journalistic articles is defined by the character of newspaper, magazine, as well as subjects
chosen. Literary reviews stand closer to essays.
Four types of essay: expository, persuasive, analytical, argumentative

1) The expository essay

This is a writer’s explanation of a short theme, idea or issue.
The key here is that you are explaining an issue, theme or idea to your intended audience. Your reaction to a
work of literature could be in the form of an expository essay, for example if you decide to simply explain your
personal response to a work. The expository essay can also be used to give a personal response to a world
event, political debate, football game, work of art and so on.
most important qualities
You want to get and, of course, keep your reader’s attention. So, you should:
 Have a well defined thesis. Start with a thesis statement/research question/statement of intent. Make
sure you answer your question or do what you say you set out to do. Do not wander from your topic.
 Provide evidence to back up what you are saying. Support your arguments with facts and reasoning. Do
not simply list facts, incorporate these as examples supporting your position, but at the same time make
your point as succinctly as possible.
 The essay should be concise. Make your point and conclude your essay. Don’t make the mistake of
believing that repetition and over-stating your case will score points with your readers.

1
2) The persuasive essay
This is the type of essay where you try to convince the reader to adopt your position on an issue or point of
view.
Here your rationale, your argument, is most important. You are presenting an opinion and trying to persuade
readers, you want to win readers over to your point of view.
important qualities
 Have a definite point of view.
 Maintain the reader’s interest.
 Use sound reasoning.
 Use solid evidence.
 Be aware of your intended audience. How can you win them over?
 Research your topic so your evidence is convincing.
 End with a strong conclusion.

3) The analytical essay

In this type of essay you analyze, examine and interpret such things as an event, book, poem, play or other
work of art.
important qualities
Your analytical essay should have an:
 Introduction and presentation of argument
The introductory paragraph is used to tell the reader what text or texts you will be discussing. Every
literary work raises at least one major issue. In your introduction you will also define the idea or issue of
the text that you wish to examine in your analysis. This is sometimes called the thesis or research
question. It is important that you narrow the focus of your essay.
 Analysis of the text (the longest part of the essay)
The issue you have chosen to analyze is connected to your argument. After stating the problem, present
your argument. When you start analyzing the text, pay attention to the stylistic devices (the “hows” of
the text) the author uses to convey some specific meaning. You must decide if the author accomplishes
his goal of conveying his ideas to the reader. Do not forget to support your assumptions with examples
and reasonable judgment.
 Personal response
Your personal response will show a deeper understanding of the text and by forming a personal
meaning about the text you will get more out of it. Do not make the mistake of thinking that you only
have to have a positive response to a text. If a writer is trying to convince you of something but fails to
do so, in your opinion, your critical personal response can be very enlightening. The key word here
is critical. Base any objections on the text and use evidence from the text. Personal response should be
in evidence throughout the essay, not tacked on at the end.
 Conclusion (related to the analysis and the argument)
Your conclusion should explain the relation between the analyzed text and the presented argument.
Tips for writing analytical essays:

 Be well organized. Plan what you want to write before you start. It is a good idea to know exactly what
your conclusion is going to be before you start to write. When you know where you are going, you tend
to get there in a well organized way with logical progression.
 Analytical essays normally use the present tense. When talking about a text, write about it in the
present tense.
 Be “objective”: avoid using the first person too much. For example, instead of saying “I think Louisa is
imaginative because…”, try: “It appears that Louisa has a vivid imagination, because…”.
 Do not use slang or colloquial language (the language of informal speech).
 Do not use contractions.
 Avoid using “etc.” This is an expression that is generally used by writers who have nothing more to say.
 Create an original title, do not use the title of the text.

2
  Analysis does not mean retelling the story. Many students fall into the trap of telling the reader what is
happening in the text instead of analyzing it. Analysis aims to explain how the writer makes us see what
he or she wants us to see, the effect of the writing techniques, the text’s themes and your personal
response to these.

4) The argumentative essay

This is the type of essay where you prove that your opinion, theory or hypothesis about an issue is correct or
more truthful than those of others. In short, it is very similar to the persuasive essay (see above), but the
difference is that you are arguing for your opinion as opposed to others, rather than directly trying to persuade
someone to adopt your point of view.
important qualities

 The argument should be focused

 The argument should be a clear statement (a question cannot be an argument)
 It should be a topic that you can support with solid evidence
 The argumentative essay should be based on pros and cons (see below)
 Structure your approach well (see below)
 Use good transition words/phrases (see below)
 Be aware of your intended audience. How can you win them over?
 Research your topic so your evidence is convincing.
 Don’t overdo your language and don’t bore the reader. And don’t keep repeating your points!
 End with a strong conclusion.

3. Oratory style as a unique genre of the publicist style.

Publicist (Oratory) Style This is a style used in public speeches and printed publicist works, which are addressed
to a broad audience and devoted to important social or political events, public problems of cultural or moral
character.
Such communication requires clarity in the presentation of ideas, its aim is to convince the readers/listener of
the truth of the ideas expressed, and at the same time to produce an emotional impact (impression) on the
audience. Thus the main features of this style are clear logical argumentation and emotional appeal to the
audience. In this way the publicist style has features in common not only with the style of official or scientific
works, on the one hand, but also with some elements of emotionally coloured colloquial style, on the other
hand.
Indeed, in this case the author has no need to make his speech impersonal (as in scientific or official style) — on
the contrary, he tries to approximate his text to lively communication, as though he were talking to people in
direct contact. Accordingly, the publicist style is characterized by the use of logically connected syntactic
structures in their full form, i.e. complete extended sentences connected by conjunctions clearly showing the
relations expressed, but at the same time, an emotional impact is achieved by the use of emotionally coloured
vocabulary, just as in belles-lettres style (the style of fiction works) and in colloquial style. Publicist (oratory)
style requires eloquence (красноречие), and such works are often ornamented with stylistic devices and figures
of speech. Some authors of publicist works may prefer verbosity (многословие), others — brevity of
expression, often resembling epigrams. There are various genres in which the publicist style is employed, such
as public speeches, essays, pamphlets, articles published in newspapers or magazines, radio and TV
commentaries, etc. The oral variant of publicist style — the oratory style proper (which is used in speeches and
mass media commentaries), is especially close to spoken language in its emotional aspect. It is aimed at logical
and emotional persuasion of the audience. As there is direct contact with the audience, it allows the speaker to
combine effects of written and spoken varieties of language.
For example, the author can use direct address (the pronoun of the second person "You"), and often begins his
speech with special formulas of address to the audience: Ladies and Gentlemen! My Lords', (in the House of
Lords); Mr. Chairman: Highly esteemed members of the conference.'; or. in a less formal situation — Dear
Friends; or, with a more passionate colouring — My friends/ As the speaker/author attempts to reach closer
3
contact with the audience, he may use such devices as asking the audience questions: Sometimes it is said that
man cannot be trusted with the government of himself. Can he, then, he trusted with the government of others?
Or have we found angels in the forms of kings to govern him ? (Th. Jefferson) or making an appeal to the
audience: Let us then, with courage and confidence, pursue our own federal and republican principles! (ibid.).
On the other hand, as different from colloquial style, the vocabulary of speeches and printed publicist works is
usually very elaborately chosen and remains mainly in the sphere of lofty (high-flown) style.
The emotional colouring of publicist style is lofty: it may be solemn, or it may be ironic/sarcastic), but it cannot
have the "lower" connotations (jocular, endearing, rude or vulgar, slangy) found in colloquial/familiar colloquial
speech. The syntax of publicist style is often characterised by repetition of structures (syntactic parallelism) — a
device used to rouse the audience emotionally: 'It is high time this people had recovered from the passions of
war. It is high time that the people of the North and the South understood each other and adopted means to
inspire confidence in each other (from a public speech made at the end of the Civil War in the USA). What do we
see on the horizon? What forces are at work? Wither are we drifting? Under what mist of clouds does the future
stand obscured? (from Lord Byron's speech in Parliament) Syntactic repetition may be combined with lexical
repetition (periphrasis): Robert Burns exalted our race and the Scottish tongue. Before his time we had for a
long period been scarcely recognised; we had been falling out of the recollection of the world ... Scotland had
lapsed into obscurity ... Her existence was almost forgotten (all those different phrases simply repeat the idea
"nobody knew us, Scots, before").

4. The newspaper functional style and its stylistic peculiarities in English and Ukrainian.
English newspaper writing dates from the 17 th century. The first of any regular English newspapers was
the Weekly News which first appeared in May, 1622. The early English newspaper was principally a vehicle of
information. Commentary found its way into the newspapers later. But as far back as the middle of the 18 th
century the British newspaper was very much like what it is today, carrying foreign and domestic news,
advertisements, announcements and articles containing comments.
Not all the printed materials found in newspapers comes under newspaper style. Only materials which
perform the function of informing the reader and providing him with an evaluation of information published
can be regarded as belonging to newspaper style.
English newspaper style can be defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and
grammatical means which is perceived by the community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the purpose
of informing and instructing the reader. Information in the English newspaper is conveyed through the medium
of:
1) brief news items;
2) press reports;
3) articles purely informational in character;
4) advertisements and announcements.
The newspaper also seeks to influence public opinion on political and other matters. Elements of appraisal
may be observed in the very selection and way of presentation of news, in the use of specific vocabulary,
casting some doubt on the facts recorded, and syntactical constructions indicating a lack of assurance of the
reporter or his desire to avoid responsibility. The principle vehicle of interpretation and appraisal is the
newspaper article and the editorial in particular. Editorial is a leading article which is characterized by a
subjective handling of facts. This purpose defines the choice of language elements which are mostly
emotionally colored.
Newspaper style has its specific vocabulary features and is characterized by an extensive use of:
1) special political and economic terms (president, election);
2) non-term political vocabulary (nation, crisis, agreement, member);
3) newspaper cliches (pressing problem, danger of war, pillars of society);
4
4) abbreviations (NATO, EEC);
5) neologisms.

5. Lingual and cultural peculiarities of advertising in English and Ukrainian.

Advertising Language is characterised by the following features.

In any given advertisement these features may appear or be largely absent, such is the great variety of
advertising copy found on promo products such as promotional tote bags and T-shirts. However these
features may be said to be typical of advertising in general. even advertisements which do not use the
traditional features to attract inform and persuade may be described as being in contrast to the traditional
features. Some modern advertisements appear to be almost dissuading consumers from their product - but
this is a technique used as a determined way of not conforming to tradition. See Benetton, Marmite.

Hyperbole - exaggeration, often by use of adjectives and adverbs.

Frequent use of adjectives and adverbs

A limited range of evaluative adjectives includes new, clean, white, real, fresh, right, natural, big, great,
slim, soft, wholesome, improved ....

Neologisms may have novelty impact, eg Beanz Meanz

Heinz, Cookability,Schweppervescence, Tangoed, Wonderfuel ...

Long noun phrases, frequent use of pre and post modifiers for descriptions.

Short sentences for impact on the reader. This impact is especially clear at the beginning of a text, often
using bold or large type for the "Headline" or "slogan" to capture the attention of the reader.

Ambiguity is common. This may make a phrase memorable and re-readable. Ambiguity may be syntactic
(the grammatical structure) or semantic (puns for example).

Weasel words are often used. These are words which suggest a meaning without actually being specific.
One type is the open comparative: "Brown's Boots Are Better" (posing the question "better than what?");
another type is the bogus superlative: "Brown's Boots are Best" (posing the question "rated alongside
what?")
Look out for the following Weasel words:

helps like virtually

enriched worth fresh
tested guaranteed scientific
traditional home-made organic

Use of Imperatives: "Buy Brown's Boots Now!"

Euphemisms :"Clean Round the Bend" for a toilet cleaner avoids comment on "unpleasant" things. The
classic exampe is "B.O" for "body odour" (in itself a euphemism for "smelly person")

Avoidance of negatives (advertising normally emphasises the positive side of a product - though see
Marmite, Tango, Benetton, for whom it seems that all publicity is good)

5
Simple and Colloquial language: "It ain't half good" to appeal to ordinary people, though it is in fact often
complex and deliberately ambiguous.

Familiar language: use of second person pronouns to address an audience and suggest a friendly attitude.

Present tense is used most commonly, though nostalgia is summoned by the simple past

Simple vocabulary is most common, my mate Marmite, with the exception of technical vocabulary to
emphasise the scientific aspects of a product (computers medicines and cars but also hair and cleaning
products) which often comes as a complex noun phrase, the new four wheel servo-assisted disc brakes.

Repetition of the brand name and the slogan, both of which are usually memorable by virtue of
alliteration, finger of fudge, the best four by four by far; rhyme, mean machine, the cleanest clean it's
ever been; rhythm, drinka pinta milka day
syntactic parallelism, stay dry, stay happy
association, fresh as a mountain stream

Humour. This can be verbal or visual, but aims to show the product positively. Verbal Puns wonderfuel and
graphic juxtapositions are common.

Glamorisation is probably the most common technique of all. "Old" houses

becomecharming, characterful, olde worlde or unique. "Small" houses
become compact,bijou, snug or manageable. Houses on a busy road become convenient for transport.
A café with a pavement table becomes a trattoria, moving up market aspires to be a restaurant, too
cramped it becomes a bistro. Not enough room to serve it becomes a fast food servery. If the menu is
English food it is likely to be traditional, home-bakedor home made; if the menu is French the cake will
be gateau, the potted meat paté, bits of toast in your soup will be croutons. The decor will be
probably chic, possibly Provençal.

Finally potency.
David Ogilvy identifies the following words as giving news value, novelty and immediacy to a piece of copy.

free now how to

suddenly announcing introducing
important
it's here just arrived
development
improvement amazing sensational
remarkable revolutionary startling
miracle magic offer
quick easy wanted
challenge advice to compare
bargain hurry last chance

Vance Packard (1960) memorably said:

"The cosmetic manufacturers are not selling lanolin, they are selling hope ... we no longer buy oranges, we
buy vitality. We do not just buy an auto, we buy prestige."