Questions Answers

1 They represent the littoral forest ecosystem.

2 Low-lying areas of tropical and subtropical regions

(Between 24 degrees North and 38 degrees South)
are home to Mangroves.

3 They are also called Halophytes i.e. They are

salt-tolerant.

4 The trees that grow in Mangrove Forests are generally

8-20 meters high. These trees have thick leaves.

5 They are confined to tropical and subtropical regions

as they need high solar radiation to filter saline water
1. What are the characteristics of through their roots.
mangrove forests?

6 They have blind roots which are called

Pneumatophores. These roots help these trees to
respire in anaerobic soils.

7 The seeds of Mangrove Forests trees germinate in the

trees themselves before falling – This is called the
Viviparity mode of reproduction.

8 Mangrove Forests trees project different types of

roots:
● Prop – They are down into the water.
● Air – They are vertically configured up from the
mud.
● Stilt – These roots emerge from the main trunk
of the tree; also called adventitious roots.

● A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in

2. Explain the Anatomical &
coastal saline or brackish water. Mangroves occur
Physiological Modification of
worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between
Mangrove Vegetation.
latitudes 25° N and 25° S.
● These mangroves have undergone a remarkable set of
evolutionary adaptations to survive under such hostile
conditions, they are
○ Succulent Leaves & Sunken stomata
■ Mangroves store freshwater in thick
succulent leaves, a waxy coating on the
leaves of some mangrove species seals in
the water and minimizes evaporation.
■ Small hairs on the leaves deflect wind and
sunlight, which reduces water loss through
the tiny openings where gases enter and
exit during photosynthesis
■ Mangroves also restrict the opening of
their stomata (these are small pores
through which carbon dioxide and water
vapour are exchanged during
photosynthesis). This allows the mangrove
to conserve its freshwater.

○ Stilt roots
■ Stabilize the shallow root system in the
soft, loose soil.
■ They also play an important part in
providing oxygen for respiration.
○ Pneumatophores
■ Pencil-like roots that stick up out of the
dense, wet ground like snorkels
■ Helps in respiration

○ Vivipary seeds
■ Vivipary occurs when seeds begin to
develop before they detach from the
parent.
 ■ Once pollination occurs, the seeds remain
attached to the parent tree. They
germinate into propagules before dropping
into the waters below.

● Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems that provide

the world with nearly two-thirds of its fish harvest.
● Wetlands play an integral role in the ecology of the
watershed. The combination of shallow water and high
levels of nutrients is ideal for the development of
organisms that form the base of the food web and feed
many species of fish, amphibians, shellfish, and insects.
● Wetlands' microbes, plants, and wildlife are part of
global cycles for water, nitrogen, and sulfur. Wetlands
store carbon within their plant communities and soil
instead of releasing it into the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide.
3. Mention the importance of wetlands.
● Wetlands function as natural barriers that trap and
slowly release surface water, rain, snowmelt,
groundwater, and floodwaters. Wetland vegetation also
slows the speed of floodwaters lowering flood heights
and reducing soil erosion.
● Wetlands are critical to human and planet life. More
than one billion people depend on them for a living and
40% of the world’s species live and breed in wetlands.
● Wetlands are a vital source of food, raw materials,
genetic resources for medicines, and hydropower.
● They play an important role in transport, tourism, and
the cultural and spiritual well-being of people.
 ● They provide habitat for animals and plants and many
contain a wide diversity of life, supporting plants and
animals that are found nowhere else.
● Many wetlands are areas of natural beauty and promote
tourism and many are important to Aboriginal people.
● Wetlands also provide important benefits for the
industry. For example, they form nurseries for fish and
other freshwater and marine life and are critical to
commercial and recreational fishing industries.

○ Corals are invertebrate animals belonging to a

large group of colorful and fascinating animals
called Cnidaria.
○ Corals are made up of genetically identical
organisms called polyps.
○ The corals and algae have a mutualistic
relationship.
4. What do you mean by corals?
○ The coral provides the zooxanthellae with the
compounds necessary for photosynthesis.
○ In return, the zooxanthellae supply the coral with
organic products of photosynthesis, like
carbohydrates, which are utilized by the coral
polyps for the synthesis of their calcium
carbonate skeletons.

● Sunlight
○ Corals need to grow in shallow water where
sunlight can reach them.
○ Corals depend on the zooxanthellae (algae) that
grow inside of them for oxygen and other things,
and since these algae need sunlight to survive,
corals also need sunlight to survive.
○ Corals rarely develop in water deeper than 165
feet (50 meters).
● Clearwater
5. Explain the Ideal conditions for the ○ Corals need clear water that lets sunlight
development of corals. through.
○ Sediment and plankton can cloud water, which
decreases the amount of sunlight that reaches
the zooxanthellae.
● Warm water temperature
○ Generally, live in water temperatures of 20–35°
C.
● Clean water
○ Corals are sensitive to pollution and sediments.
○ Sediment can create cloudy water and be
deposited on corals, blocking out the sun and
 harming the polyps.

● Saltwater
○ Corals need saltwater to survive and require a
certain balance in the ratio of salt to the water.
Salinity between 27 to 40%

● The relationship between coral and zooxanthellae

(algae), is one of the most important mutualistic
relationships within the coral reef ecosystem.
● Zooxanthellae are microscopic, photosynthetic algae
that reside inside the coral. The coral provides
protection, as well as compounds needed for
photosynthesis to occur.
● In return for their protection for herbivores and other
organisms, zooxanthellae do photosynthesis, and
6. Explain the Symbiotic Relationships
then pass the nutrients, glucose, glycerol, and
in the Coral Reef Ecosystem.
amino acids, which are the products of photosynthesis,
to their coral hosts, essentially giving the coral reefs
their beautiful colors.
● Zooxanthellae also aid in the excretion or removal of
waste such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
● Without algae, the coral would starve to death (coral
bleaching), and if algae didn’t have protection, they
would be more vulnerable to several herbivores and
other organisms.

The three Pillars of the Ramsar Convention are:

● Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;
● Designate suitable wetlands for the list of Wetlands of
7. Mention the three pillars of the
International Importance (the “Ramsar List”) and ensure
Ramsar Convention.
their effective management.
● Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands,
shared wetland systems, and shared species.

● The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the

‘List of Wetlands of International Importance’ where
variations in ecological character have happened, or are
likely to happen as an outcome of technological
8. What is the Montreux record?
developments, pollution, or other human interference.
● Indian sites like Keoladeo National Park-Rajasthan,
and Loktak Lake – Manipur are included in the Montreux
Record.

● The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017

9. Discuss the Wetlands (Conservation (Wetlands Rules) were notified by The Ministry of
and Management) Rules, 2017. Environment, Forest and Climate Change under the
provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 as a
 regulatory framework for the conservation and
management of wetlands in India.
Important Provisions Of Rules
● The management of wetlands has been decentralized.
● The powers have been given to the State governments so
that protection and conservation work can be done at the
local level.
● The central government has mainly retained powers
regarding monitoring.
State Or Ut Wetland Authorities
● States and UTs have been given the responsibility for
wetland management by setting up State and UT Wetland
Authorities (SWAs).
● SWA’s will be headed by the environment minister and
include other government officials as well as experts from
the fields of wetland ecology, hydrology, fisheries,
landscape planning, and socioeconomics.
Prohibited Activities Under The New Rules
● Conversion of wetland for non-wetland uses including
encroachment of any kind,
● setting up of any industry and expansion of existing
industries,
● Manufacture or handling or storage or disposal of
hazardous substances and construction and demolition
waste,
● Solid waste dumping,
● Discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from
industries, cities, towns, villages, and other human
settlements.
The Rules also restrict any kind of encroachment, poaching,
or permanent construction, except for boat jetties within 50
meters of the mean high flood level observed in the past 10
years.

● The Government operationalized the National Wetland

Conservation Programme (NWCP) in close collaboration
with the concerned State Government during the year
1986.
● This scheme aims at Conservation and wise use of
10. Discuss the National Wetland wetlands in the country to prevent their further
Conservation Programme (NWCP). degradation.
● The scheme was initiated to lay down policy guidelines for
the conservation and management of wetlands in the
country; undertake intensive conservation measures in
priority wetlands; monitor implementation of the program
and prepare an inventory of Indian wetlands.
 ● A bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat, a
deposit of dead plant material—often mosses, and in a
majority of cases, sphagnum moss.
● It is one of the four main types of wetlands. Other names
for bogs include mire, mosses, quagmire, and muskeg;
alkaline mires are called fens.
● A bay gall is another type of bog found in the forest of
the Gulf Coast states in the USA.
● They are frequently covered in ericaceous shrubs rooted in
the sphagnum moss and peat. The gradual accumulation of
decayed plant material in the bog functions as a carbon
sink.
● Bogs occur where the water at the ground surface is acidic
11. What is a bog wetland? and low in nutrients. In some cases, the water is derived
entirely from precipitation, in which case they are termed
ombrotrophic (cloud-fed).
● Water flowing out of bogs has a characteristic brown color,
which comes from dissolved peat tannins. In general, the
low fertility and cool climate result in relatively slow plant
growth, but decay is even slower owing to the saturated
soil.
● Hence, peat accumulates. Large areas of the landscape can
be covered many meters deep in peat.
● Bogs have distinctive assemblages of animal, fungal and
plant species, and are of high importance for biodiversity,
particularly in landscapes that are otherwise settled and
farmed.

● Peatlands are a type of wetlands that are among the

most valuable ecosystems on Earth: they are critical for
preserving global biodiversity, providing safe drinking
water, minimizing flood risk and helping address climate
change.
● The term ‘peatland’ refers to the peat soil and the
wetland habitat growing on its surface.
● In these areas, year-round waterlogged conditions slow
the process of plant decomposition to such an extent
12. What are peatlands? that dead plants accumulate to form peat. Over
millennia this material builds up and becomes several
meters thick.
● Peatland landscapes are varied – from blanket bog
landscapes with open, treeless vegetation in the Flow
Country of Scotland – a tentative World Heritage site –
to swamp forests in Southeast Asia. New areas are still
being discovered such as the world’s largest tropical
peatland discovered beneath the forests of the Congo
Basin in 2017.
 ● Peatlands are the largest natural terrestrial carbon
store; the area covered by near-natural peatland
worldwide (>3 million km2) sequesters 0.37 gigatonnes
of carbon dioxide (CO2) a year – storing more carbon
than all other vegetation types in the world combined.
● Damaged peatlands are a major source of greenhouse
gas emissions, annually releasing almost 6% of global
anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Peatland restoration can
therefore bring significant emissions reductions.
● Countries are encouraged to include peatland
restoration in their commitments to global international
agreements, including the Paris Agreement on climate
change.

● India has added Tso Kar Wetland Complex in

Ladakh as its 42nd Ramsar site, which is the second
one in the Union Territory (UT) of Ladakh.
● The Tso Kar Basin is a high-altitude wetland complex,
13. Explain the “Tso Kar” wetland consisting of two principal waterbodies, Startsapuk Tso,
complex. a freshwater lake of about 438 hectares to the south,
and Tso Kar itself, a hypersaline lake of 1800 hectares
to the north, situated in the Changthang region of
Ladakh, India. It is called Tso Kar, meaning white lake,
because of the white salt efflorescence found on the
 ● margins due to the evaporation of highly saline
[Link] Tso Kar Basin is an A1 Category Important
Bird Area (IBA) as per BirdLife International and a key
staging site in the Central Asian Flyway. The site is also
one of the most important breeding areas of the
Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) in India.
● The aim of the Ramsar list is “to develop and
maintain an international network of wetlands
which are important for the conservation of global
biological diversity and for sustaining human life
through the maintenance of their ecosystem
components, processes, and benefits”.
● Wetlands provide a wide range of important resources
and ecosystem services such as food, water, fibre,
groundwater recharge, water purification, flood
moderation, erosion control, and climate regulation.
They are, in fact, a major source of water, and our main
supply of fresh water comes from an array of wetlands
that help soak rainfall and recharge groundwater.
● The Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate
Change would be working closely with the UT Wetland
Authority to ensure wise use of this site.

● Coral bleaching happens when corals lose their

vibrant colours and turn white. This occurs when
coral polyps expel algae that live inside their tissues.
Coral polyps live in a symbiotic relationship with these
algae, which are crucial for the health of the coral and
the reef.
● The leading cause of coral bleaching is climate change.
14. What is coral bleaching? What are
○ A change in water temperature—as little as 2
the main causes of coral bleaching?
degrees rise causes coral to drive out algae.
○ Other reasons, like extremely low tides, pollution,
or too much sunlight.
● Bleaching leaves corals vulnerable to disease, stunts
their growth, affects their reproduction, and can impact
other species that depend on the coral communities.
Severe bleaching kills them.
 ● Colony Collapse Disorder is the phenomenon that occurs
when the majority of worker bees in a colony
disappear and leave behind a queen, plenty of food,
and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining
immature bees and the queen.
● The mechanisms of Colony Collapse Disorder are still
15. What is Colony Collapse Disorder?
unknown, but many cases are currently being considered,
such as pesticides, mites, fungi, beekeeping practices
(such as the use of antibiotics or long-distance
transportation of beehives), malnutrition, poor quality
queens, starvation, other pathogens, and
immunodeficiencies.

● The Coral Triangle is a marine area located in the

western Pacific Ocean. It includes the waters of
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea,
Timor Leste, and the Solomon Islands.
● The Coral Triangle occupies just 1.5% of the world’s
total area but represents 30% of the world’s coral
reefs. The area, covering over 130 000 sq km, has
16. What is The Coral Triangle?
nearly 600 species of reef-building corals- 75% of the
world’s coral species and is home to six of the world’s
seven marine turtle species and more than 2 000
species of reef fish.
● The Coral Triangle Day (held every June 9) is a
celebration of the Coral Triangle, the world’s epicenter
of marine biodiversity.

Nutrients and minerals are always in circulation in the

ecosystem from living to non-living and vice-versa in a more
17. What is a Biogeochemical Cycle or less circular pattern. Biogeochemical cycles present a
pathway through which various substances involved in these
nutrients and minerals pass through biotic and abiotic
components of the earth.
 Importance of biogeochemical cycle:
1. It allows the transfer of molecules from one locality to
another.
2. It enables the transformation of matter from one form
to another.
3. It facilitates the storage of elements. Elements are
stored in their natural reservoir and released to
organisms in small consumable amounts.
4. In case of any imbalance, it helps the ecosystem to
restore it. It may take a few days or a few years.
5. It links biotic and abiotic elements of ecosystems.

Biogeochemical cycles are sometimes called nutrient cycles

because they involve the transfer of compounds that provide
support to living organisms. Two important components of the
cycle are
● Reservoir pool- atmosphere or rocks storing a
large number of nutrients.
● Cycling pool- short storage of carbon in the
form of plants and animals.

Gaseous cycles: Gaseous cycles include the transportation of

matter through the atmosphere. Gaseous cycles are the
Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle and Water Cycle
18. What are the Types of
Biogeochemical Cycles Sedimentary cycles: Sedimentary cycles include the
transportation of matter through the ground to water means
the lithosphere to the hydrosphere. Sedimentary cycles are
the Phosphorus cycle and the sulfur cycle.

● Stubble Burning: National capital shares its border

with the states of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. One of
the main reasons for increasing air pollution during the
month of October-November is crop burning by the
farmers in these states.
○ Farmers burn rice stubble in Punjab, Haryana,
and Uttar Pradesh. It is estimated that
19. Why is Delhi pollution so severe?
approximately 35 million tonnes of the crop are
set afire by these states. The wind carries all the
pollutants and dust particles, which have got
locked in the air.
● Vehicular Emission: Delhi has more than 9 million
registered vehicles. The Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) and the National Environmental Engineering
 Research Institute (NEERI) have declared vehicular
emission as a major contributor to Delhi’s increasing air
pollution.
● Weather: During the winter season, dust particles and
pollutants in the air become unable to move. Due to
stagnant winds, these pollutants get locked in the air,
resulting in smog.
● High Density: With more than 11000 people per
square kilometre, Delhi is among the most densely
populated cities in the world. Over-population adds up
to the various types of pollution.
● Lack of Infrastructure: In India, investment in public
transport and infrastructure is low which leads to
congested roads, and hence air pollution.
● Construction Activities and Open waste burning:
Large-scale construction in Delhi-NCR is another culprit
that is increasing dust and pollution in the air. Delhi also
has landfill sites for the dumping of waste, burning of
waste in these sites also contributes to air pollution.
● Thermal Power Plant and Industries: Industrial
pollution and garbage dumps are also increasing air
pollution and building up smog in the air.
● Firecrackers: Despite the ban on cracker sales in
2017, firecrackers were a common sight on Diwali. It is
the major reason for smog in Delhi after Diwali.
● Diesel generators: A large number of housing
societies and businesses resort to using diesel
generators as an alternate for power supply during cuts.
Diesel generators contribute approximately 15 per cent
to the city’s air pollution.
● Dust Storm from Gulf countries: During the smog in
the year 2017, the dust storm from Gulf countries was
also the reason which enhanced the already worse
condition.