PHOTOSYNTHESIS

LIGHT DEPENDENT STAGE

1. Absorption of light energy

Chlorophyll molecules in the thylakoid
membranes absorb light energy from sunlight.

2. Splitting of water molecules

The light energy is used to split water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
The oxygen atoms are released into the
atmosphere, and the hydrogen atoms are
transferred to NADP+, forming NADPH.

3. Electron transport chain

The electrons from NADPH are passed
through a series of electron carriers in the
thylakoid membrane. This electron
transport chain pumps hydrogen ions from
the stroma (the fluid outside the thylakoid)
into the thylakoid lumen (the fluid inside
the thylakoid).
 4. NADP TO NADPH
The hydrogen atoms are transferred to
NADP+, forming NADPH. The oxygen
atoms are released into the atmosphere.

5. Production of ATP
The hydrogen ions that have been pumped
into the thylakoid lumen flow back into the
stroma through ATP synthase, a protein
complex embedded in the thylakoid
membrane. As the hydrogen ions flow
through ATPsynthase, they drive the
synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphate.

PRODUCTS OF LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION REACTANTS OF LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION

=The light-dependent stage products are NADPH, ATP, and O2. =Sunlight and H2O
Light Dependent
Reaction
CALVIN
CYCLE

Calvin Cycle

1. Carbon fixation
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses into the stroma of the
chloroplast. The enzyme RuBisCO (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase) catalyzes the reaction between carbon
dioxide and a five-carbon sugar called ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
(RuBP) to form two molecules of a three-carbon sugar called
3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).

2. Reduction
The two molecules of 3-PGA are reduced to two
molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) using
NADPH and ATP. G3P is a three-carbon sugar that
can be used to build glucose.

3. Carbohydrate Formation
G3P is a three-carbon sugar that can be used to build glucose.

4. Regeneration
One molecule of G3P is used to regenerate RuBP so that
the cycle can continue. The remaining molecule of G3P
can be used to build glucose or other organic molecules.
PRODUCTS OF LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION REACTANTS OF LIGHT INDEPENDENT
=CO2, NADPH, and ATP. REACTION
GLYCOLYSIS

Glycolysis is the process in which

glucose is broken down to produce
energy. It produces two molecules of
pyruvate, ATP, NADH and water. The
process takes place in the cytoplasm of
a cell and does not require oxygen. It
occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic
organisms.
Aerobic Pathway

● It is the process of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen gas to
produce energy from food.
● This type of respiration is common in most of the plants and animals, birds, humans, and
other mammals.
● In this process, water and carbon dioxide are produced as end products.
Pyruvate oxidation

● Pyruvate oxidation is a biochemical reaction that involves the oxidation of pyruvate to

create acetyl CoA. Oxidation is defined as either the loss of electrons or the gaining of
oxygen. In this case,pyruvate loses electrons in the process of creating acetyl CoA.
’
Krebs Cycle
● The Krebs Cycle, also called the citric acid cycle, is the second major step in oxidative
phosphorylation.
● After glycolysis breaks glucose into smaller 3-carbon molecules, the Krebs cycle
transfers the energy from these molecules to electron carriers, which will be used in the
electron transport chain to produce ATP.

It is an eight-step process.
Krebs cycle or Tricarboxylic
acid cycle (TCA cycle)
takes place in the matrix of
mitochondria under aerobic
condition.

PARTS OF
Electron Transport Chain

• Electron Transport Chain is a series of compounds

where it makes use of electrons from electron
carrier to develop a chemical gradient. It could
be used to power oxidative phosphorylation.

• The molecules present in the chain comprises

enzymes that are protein complex or proteins,
peptides and much more.
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

Electron Transport Chain

● It is a series of compounds where it makes use of electrons from electron carrier to
develop a chemical gradient. It could be used to power oxidative phosphorylation.

● The molecules present in the chain comprises enzymes that are protein complex or
proteins, peptides and much more.
 Components of the Electron Transport Chain

Complex I
This complex is also known as NADH dehydrogenase. It receives electrons from NADH, which
is a reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+).

Complex II
This complex is also known as succinate dehydrogenase. It receives electrons from FADH2,
which is a reduced form of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).

Complex III
This complex is also known as cytochrome c reductase. It receives electrons from either
complex I or complex II and transfers them to cytochrome c.

Complex IV
This complex is also known as cytochrome c oxidase. It receives electrons from cytochrome c
and transfers them to oxygen, forming water.

Chemiosmosis/ Oxidative phosphorylation

• Chemiosmosis is a process in which energy is generated by the movement of protons (H+)
across a semipermeable membrane. This process is essential to produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the cell's energy currency. Chemiosmosis occurs in both cellular respiration
and photosynthesis.
2 WAYS IN PRODUCING ATP

Substrate-level phosphorylation
• Substrate-level phosphorylation is when a phosphoryl group is transferred from a substrate to
ADP or GDP to form ATP or GTP

Oxidative phosphorylation
• Oxidative phosphorylation is a cellular process that harnesses the reduction of oxygen to
generate high-energy phosphate bonds in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Characteristic Substrate-level Oxidative

phosphorylation phosphorylation

Location Cytoplasm or Inner mitochondrial

mitochondria membrane

Oxygen requirement No Yes

Net ATP produced per 2 32-34

glucose molecule

The total number of ATP that can be produced at each stage of cellular respiration is as follows:
 Stage ATP produced

Glycolysis 2 ATP

Pyruvate oxidation 2 ATP

Krebs cycle 2 ATP

Oxidative phosphorylation 32-34 ATP

36-38 ATP

Anaerobic Pathway
 ● Anaerobic means “without air”. Therefore, this type of cellular respiration does not use
oxygen to produce energy. Sometimes there is not enough oxygen around for some
organisms to respire, but they still need the energy to survive.

● Due to lack of oxygen, they carry out respiration in the absence of oxygen to produce
the energy they require, which is referred to as anaerobic respiration.

● Anaerobic respiration usually occurs in lower plants and microorganisms. In the absence
of oxygen, the glucose derived from food is broken down into alcohol and carbon dioxide
along with the production of energy.

Fermentation
● Fermentation occurs in yeast cells and bacteria and in the muscles of animals. It is an
anaerobic pathway in which glucose is broken down.

● It occurs in the presence or absence of oxygen. Any type of cellular respiration begins
with glycolysis where a 3-C molecule, pyruvic acid is formed as the product.

● Different cells handle this pyruvate in two major ways,fermentation is one of them.

Types of Fermentation
Lactic AcidFermentation
Lactic acid fermentation is a natural process in which certain bacteria convert sugars into
lactic acid. This process is used to preserve food and create a variety of fermented
foods, such as yogurt, sauerkraut, and kimchi.

● In lactic acid fermentation, NADH transfers its electrons directly to pyruvate, generating
lactate as a byproduct. Lactate, which is just the deprotonated form of lactic acid, gives
the process its name.
● The bacteria that make yogurt carry out lactic acid fermentation, as do the red blood
cells in your body, which don’t have mitochondria and thus can’t perform cellular
respiration.

Application of Lactic Acid Fermentation

 ● The Fermentation Process: Once the bacteria are introduced to the sugars in an
anaerobic environment, they begin to ferment. This process produces lactic acid, which
gives fermented foods their characteristic sour taste. The fermentation process also
produces other compounds, such as carbon dioxide and flavorings.
● The Preservation Effect: Lactic acid is a natural preservative that inhibits the growth of
bacteria. This is why fermented foods can be stored at room temperature for extended
periods of time.
● The Health Benefits: Fermented foods are a good source of probiotics, which are live
microorganisms that have beneficial health effects. Probiotics can improve gut health,
boost the immune system, and reduce the risk of certain diseases.
● During strenuous exercise, skeletal muscles use up ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from
the pyruvate, the body's energy currency, to contract. ATP is produced when the body
metabolizes carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
● When the body cannot produce ATP fast enough to meet the demands of strenuous
exercise, it turns to anaerobic metabolism, which does not require oxygen. Anaerobic
metabolism converts glucose to lactate, which is then released into the bloodstream.
● Lactic acid buildup in the muscles causes pain and fatigue. This is because lactate can
interfere with muscle contraction and reduce the body's ability to produce ATP.

Alcohol Fermentation
Another familiar fermentation process is alcohol
fermentation, in which NADH donates its electrons to
a derivative of pyruvate, producing ethanol.

• Going from pyruvate to ethanol is a two-step process.

1.) A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate and
released in as carbon dioxide, producing a two-
carbon molecule called acetaldehyde.
2.) NADH passes its electrons to acetaldehyde,
regenerating NAD+ and forming ethanol.

Applications of Alcohol Fermentation

● Alcoholic beverages: Beer, wine, and spirits are all produced using alcohol
fermentation.
● Bread: Yeast is used to leaven bread, which is a form of alcohol fermentation.
● Biofuels: Ethanol, produced by alcohol fermentation, can be used as a biofuel.
● Other products: Alcohol fermentation is also used to produce a variety of other products,
such as vinegar, soy sauce, and yogurt.