www.gradeup.

co

1
www.gradeup.co

PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

1 METAL CUTTING PART-1

1. INTRODUCTION

The product produced by different process casting, Forming and other different process do not
possess the desired accuracy so to produce within the required dimension machining is
required.
“Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material
to leave the desired part shape”.
The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear deformation of the work material
to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.

Fig.1 : Classification of Material removal process

A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder
than the work material.
The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from the parent work material.
Cutting tools are classified into two major groups:
1. Single point cutting tools
2. Multipoint cutting tools.
(i) Multipoint cutting tool: They have more than one cutting edge to remove excess material
from the work piece.

2
www.gradeup.co

Example - Milling cutters, drills, reamers, broaches and grinding wheels are multi point cutting
tools.
Multiple-cutting-edge tools usually achieve their motion relative to the work part by rotating.
Although the shape of them is quite different from a single-point tool, many elements of tool
geometry are similar.
(ii) Single point cutting tool:
In a single-point tool, there is one tool point from which the name of this cutting tool is derived.
The point is usually rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius.
In a single-point tool has one cutting edge and is used for operations such as turning.
During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the part.
The tool is made of either high carbon steel, high speed steel or carbide bar. The cutting edge
is prepared by grinding.

2. GEOMETRY OF RIGHT-HAND SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

Fig.2: Right-hand single point cutting tool

Fig.3: Turning Tool with tool Insert

3
www.gradeup.co

2.1. Tool Nomenclature/Angles

Fig.4: Single Point Cutting Tool

2.2. TERMINOLOGY OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL (AS PER ASA)
(a) Back rake angle
It is the angle between the line parallel to the tool axis passing through the tip and the
rake face and angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to the base.
These can be positive, zero, or negative.
Larger rake angles are beneficial for machining efficiency giving rise to lower cutting force
and power. However, increasing to a very high value decreases the strength of the tool
tip.
Small rake angles are used for cutting hard materials while large rake angle is used for
cutting soft and ductile material.
An exception is brass where, to prevent digging of tool in work, it is machined with zero
rake angle.

Fig.5: Positive Back Rake Angle

4
www.gradeup.co

Fig.6: Zero Back Rake angle

After plastic deformation chips flow over tile rake face and heavy drag exists between
chip and rake face. Due to this, temperature continues to develop and the maximum
temperature will appear 2-3 mm away from the cutting edge. At high temperature, carton
starts diffusing from the tool to the chip and as a result of that tool becomes weaker and
weaker. Due to the drag between the chip and the tool, a portion of the tool will be carried
away by the chip. This phenomenon is called diffusion wear.
By increasing the Back Rake angle. chip flow will be easier, that is drag will decrease and
hence the tool wear. So initially by increasing back rake angle tool life increases.

Fig.7: Negative Back Rake Angle

The optimum back rake angle of ductile materials is around 10-15o.
(b)Side cutting edge angle (Ψ)
It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the line extending the shank. The angle
is measured in a plane parallel to base. Feed represents uncut chip thickness and depth
of cut represents width of chip.

 ft
θ = Maximum temperature on Rake face
ft = true feed or feed experience by the cutting edge in perpendicular direction and it is
equal to the uncut chip thickness

5
www.gradeup.co

Fig.8: side cutting edge angle

d
w=
sin 

d = depth of cut
w = width of cut
From

t
= sin   t = f sin 
f
t = uncut chip thickness.
d
w  t = f sin  
sin 

w t = f  d

Width of the chip is the length of the cutting edge covered by the chips and it can be
observed in the analysis that as side cutting edge angle increases chips become wider.
Uncut chip thickness is feed experienced by the side cutting edge in the perpendicular
direction and by increasing the side cutting edge angle, chips become thinner.
Normally the value of Side culling edge angle varies between 15-30o.
(c) Side Rake Angle
It is the angle between the rake face and the line passing through the tip perpendicular
to the tool axis and the angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to the base.
Normally this angle varies between 5-15°.
(d) Side Relief Angle
It is the angle between the side flank end the line Passing through the tip perpendicular
to the base and the angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to the tool axis.
This angle varies in the range of 5-15°.
The work piece material which is going to be removed in the next revolution will try to hit
the side flank due to elastic recovery of work piece material. To avoid this rubbing side
relief angle is provided.

6
www.gradeup.co

Fig.9: Side Relief Angle

(e) End Cutting Edge Angle
It is the angle between the end cutting edge and the line passing through the tip
perpendicular to the tool axis and the angle is measured in a plane parallel to base.
The normal value of this angle is in the range of 8-15°.
(f) End Relief Angle (Clearance angle)
It is the angle between the end flank and the line passing through the tip perpendicular
to the base and angle is measured in plane parallel to the tool axis.
There will be some elastic recovery in the finished work and as a result of that it will try
to rub the end flank.
While machining ductile materials elastic recovery will be more so larger clearance angle
has to be provided.
Relief is provided to the side and end flanks in order to minimize physical interference or
rubbing contact with the machine surface of work piece.
Smaller relief angles do not weaken the cutting edge as much as the larger relief angles.
(g) Nose Radius
Nose radius (NR) determines to a large degree the texture of the surface generated in
the operation. A very pointed tool (small nose radius) results in very pronounced feed
marks on the surface.
Larger nose radius gives better surface finish. Increasing the nose radius also improves
the tool life, so that higher cutting speeds can be employed. However, the cutting force
and possibility of chatter increases when the nose radius is increased excessively.
ASA Tool Signature
Back rake angle - Side rake angle - End relief angle - Side relief angle - End
cutting edge angle - Side cutting edge angle- Nose radius.
In this system the geometry of the rake face is expressed in terms of back rake angle
and side rake angle.

7
www.gradeup.co

2.3. NORMAL OR ORTHOGONAL RAKE SYSTEM (ORS)

A number of lines drawn perpendicular to the side cutting edge in the horizontal plane
and the line which gives the maximum slope called Normal Rake Angle (α n).
If side cutting edge angle is zero, normal rake angle is equal to the side rake angle.
Tool signature in this system is given as:
I - αn - Side Relief angle - End Relief angle - End Cutting edge angle - Approach
angle λ – Nose Radius R.
where, I-Angle of inclination
αn – normal rake angle
λ - approach angle = (90o - side cutting edge angle).
Angle of inclination is the angle of tool axis with cross slide motion.
For Orthogonal system I = 0
Conversion from ASA to ORS
tan I = cosΨ.tanαab – sinΨ.tanαas
tan αn = cosΨ.tanαas + sinΨ.tanαab
Ψ = side cutting edge angle
αab = back rake angle
αas = side rake angle

3. TYPES OF METAL CUTTING PROCESS

The metal cutting processes are of two types

3.1. Orthogonal cutting process:
(Two-dimensional cutting):
Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the cutting edge is perpendicular
to the direction of cutting speed. As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed
by shear deformation along a plane called the shear plane, which is oriented at an angle
ø with the surface of the work.

Fig.10: Orthogonal cutting process

8
www.gradeup.co

3.2. Oblique cutting (Three-dimensional cutting):

This form of cutting occurs when the major cutting edge of the tool is presented to the
work piece at an angle perpendicular to the direction of feed motion.
A general purpose metal cutting operation such as turning or milling is three-dimensional
and is normally termed as oblique cutting.
The obliquity comes from the angle between the cutting velocity and the cutting edge of
the tool

Fig.11: Oblique cutting process

Mechanics of orthogonal Metal Cutting
This analysis is based on Merchant’s thin shear plane model considering the minimum
energy principle. This model would be applicable at very high cutting speeds, which are
generally practised in production.
Assumptions:
(i) The tool is perfectly sharp and has no contact along the clearance face.
(ii) The surface where shear is occurring is a plane.
(iii) The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of motion
and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.
(iv) The chip does not flow to either side or no side spread.
(v) Uncut chip thickness is constant.
(vi) Width of the tool is greater than the width of the work.
(vii) A continuous chip is produced without any BUE.
(viii) Work moves with a uniform velocity.
(ix) The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.
The resultant forces can be conveniently resolved in the direction of the shear plane,
along the primary tool motion and along the rake face. In order to achieve the requisite
deformation, the tool would be exerting a cutting force F H along the primary cutting
motion direction as shown in Fig. 2.13. Similarly, other force components are:

9
www.gradeup.co

Fig.12: Various force acting in an orthogonal cutting

FC – Cutting Force
Ft -Force perpendicular to the primary tool motion (thrust force)
Fs -Force along the shear plane
FN - Force normal to the shear plane
F - Frictional force along the rake face
N - Normal force perpendicular to the rake face

4. MERCHANT’S ANALYSIS FOR CHIP THICKNESS RATIO

To experimentally determine the shear angle, we have to study the geometry of chip formation.

Fig.13: Orthogonal cutting analysis

t = uncut chip thickness
tc = Chip thickness after cutting
ϕ = Shear plane angle
α = Back rake angle
OAP
t …(1)
sin  =
OP

10
www.gradeup.co

OPB
tc …(2)
sin ( 90 −  +  ) =
OP
Divide Eq. (2) by Eq. (1)
t sin 
=
tc cos( − )
The ratio of ‘t’ to ‘tc’ is called the chip thickness ratio (or simply the chip ratio) & it is designated
by ‘r’.
t sin 
r= =
tc cos( − )
Since the chip thickness after cutting is always greater than the corresponding thickness before
cutting, the chip ratio will always be less than 1.
Reciprocal of the chip thickness ratio is known as chip reduction ratio.

1 tc cos( − )
= =
r t sin 
t sin  sin 
= r =
tc cos( − ) cos .cos  + sin .sin 

1
r=
cos  sin 
.cos  + .sin 
sin  sin 

1
r=
1
.cos  + sin 
tan 

1
.r.cos  + r sin  = 1
tan 
1 1 − r sin 
=
tan  r cos 
r cos 
tan  =
1 − r sin 
Where r is the chip thickness ratio and α is rake angle.
It can also be represented as
cos 
tan  =
1
− sin 
r
cos 
tan  =
tc
− sin 
t

11
www.gradeup.co

From above expression, we can conclude that for a given rake angle, as shear angle increase,
chip thickness will reduce.
For the measurement of this ration experimentally, the length of a chip, l c equivalent to a
known length of uncut chip is measured. Then considering the fact that the depth being same,
Then by conservation of volume,
l×t×d = lc×tc×d

t l
= c
tc l

Where l = length of uncut chip

t l sin 
r= = c =
tc l cos( − )
To get an exact size of uncut chip length, ‘l‘ we may introduce a small saw cut parallel to the
axis on the work piece so that uncut chip size is
l = 2πr = πD
Where D is the diameter of the work piece.
4.1. VELOCITY TRIANGLE
Let us assume that the work material is moving against the cutting tool with a velocity V.

The chip velocity VC is the vector sum of V the velocity of uncut chip and VS shear velocity.

The velocity of tool relative to the workpiece is known as cutting speed of tool.

The velocity of Chip relative to the workpiece is known as Shear velocity directed along

the shear plane.

The velocity of Chip relative to the tool s known as chip velocity directed along the tool

face.

These two velocities along with the cutting velocity, V would form a closed triangle as

shown in figure.

Fig.14: Velocity triangle

12
www.gradeup.co

DN
V = cutting speed =
60
Vs = Shear velocity
VC = Chip velocity

Applying the sine rule:

V VC VS
= =
( o
sin 90 −  +  ) (
sin  sin 90o −  )
V VC VS
= =
cos (  −  ) sin  cos 

VC sin  VS cos 
= & =
V cos (  −  ) V cos (  −  )

From above expression,

t l V sin 
r= = c = C =
tc l V cos( − )

4.2. SHEAR STRAIN

shear strain is given as

 = cot  + tan (  −  )

co s  sin (  −  )
= +
sin  cos (  −  )

co s   cos (  −  ) + sin   sin (  −  )

=
sin   cos (  −  )

co s   ( cos .cos  − sin .sin  ) + sin   ( sin  cos  − cos .sin  )

=
sin   cos (  −  )

co s2 cos  + co s2 sin 

 =
sin   cos (  −  )

cos 
 =
sin  cos( − )

As we know,

VS cos 
=
V cos (  −  )

cos  VS
= =
sin  cos( − ) V sin 

13
www.gradeup.co

4.3. Merchant’s circle:

When the chip is isolated as a free body as shown in Figure, we need consider only two
forces, the force between the tool face and the chip (R) and the force between the work
piece and the chip along the shear plane (R’).
For equilibrium
R = R′

Fig.15: Forces acting on an isolated chip

It is possible to represent all these forces be acting at the tool point in place of their
actual point of action. By doing so it is possible to construct a cutting force circle as shown
in Figure which is often called Merchant’s circle who demonstrated it for the first time. It
is then a simple exercise to derive the various relationships among the forces.

Fig.16: Merchant’s Cutting Force circle

For establishing the relationship between measurable and actual forces Merchant’s circle
will be used.
• The analysis three forces system, which balance each other for cutting to occur. Each
system is a triangle of forces.

14
www.gradeup.co

The three triangles are

(a) a triangle of forces for the cutting forces
(b) a triangle of forces for the shear forces
(c) A triangle of forces for the frictional forces
Let F = frictional force
N = normal to frictional force
FS = Shear force
FN = normal to shear force
FC = cutting force or tangential component of force
FT = Thrust Force
β = friction angle
μ = coefficient angle
Fc and FT are along and normal to the direction of velocity respectively.

Fig.17: Merchant’s circle

Let R = Resultant force

R = FC2 + FT2
= Diameter of Merchant circle
FT, FC defined based on actual machining conditions
• From the above merchants circle it is found that there are three right angled triangles
are present and all the three right angled triangles are possessing common hypotenuse.
i.e the resultant R.
• This is used for establishing relationship between measurable and actual forces.
From the different force triangle, all the force in terms of R can be calculated.

15
www.gradeup.co

FC = R cos( − ) & FT = R sin( − )

FS = Rco s( +  − ) & FN = R sin( +  − )

N = Rco s  & F = R sin 

Some important formulae can be obtained from the above expression
cos( +  − )
Fs = FC 
cos( − )
FT
tan( − ) =
FC

F 
 =  + tan−1  T 
 FC 
FT
tan( − ) =
FC

tan  − tan  F
= T
1 + tan  tan  FC

Fc tan  − Fc tan  = FT + FT tan .tan 

tan (FC − FT tan ) = FT + FC tan 

FT + FC.tan 
tan  =  =
FC − FT tan 
• In general FC > FT
• But in some cases FC < FT like face turning operation, broaching, grinding etc

 FT 
 = 2.5(Grinding)
 FC 

• In machining operations where

FT > FC, the value of β is becoming greater than 45°. So, the coefficient of friction will
become greater than 1.
• But in general, the coefficient of friction must be less than 1.
• So in cases where μ is becoming greater than 1, in such cases use Classical friction
theorem for determining the coefficient of friction in machining;
• According to Classical frictional theorem

1
ln  
r
=  

−
2
Where r = chip thickness ratio and
α = back rake angle in radians

16
www.gradeup.co

Average shear stress on shear plane

FS
=
As

Fig.18: sheared area (area of shear plane)

Shear plane area As= AB × b

t t
sin  =  AB =
AB sin 

t
As = b
sin 
bt Ao
As = =
sin  sin 
FS F
= = S
As bt
sin 
bt
FS = 
sin 
FN F F sin 
Normal stress = n = = N = N
AS bt bt
sin 

Fig.19: Part of merchant’s force diagram

17
www.gradeup.co

In tringle ΔOAB
OB = OC + CB
FC cos  = FS + CB

Now From the triangle ΔOAD

AE = CB
AE = FT sin  = CB

FC cos  = FS + FT sin 

FS = FC cos  − FT sin  (i)

Similarly,
CD = CE + ED
In tringle ΔBED
DE = FT cos 

FN = FT cos  + DE

& CE = AB
AB = FC sin  = DE

FN = FC sin  + DE

FN = FT cos  + FC sin  ..(ii)

Fig.20: Part of merchant’s force diagram

Similarly,
F = FC sin  + FT cos  (iii)

N = Fc cos  − FT sin  (iv)

Thus, if cutting force and thrust force are known, form these four equations can shear
force, friction force, and normal force to friction can be calculated & based on these
force estimates, shear stress and coefficient of friction can be determined.

18
www.gradeup.co

SPECIAL CASE
Case 1
α = 0°
F = FC sin  + FT cos 

F = FC sin0 + FT cos 0

F = FT
N = Fc cos  − FT sin 

N = Fc cos 0 − FT sin0

N = FC
F, N , FC, FT will form a rectangle.

Fig.21: merchant circle when α = 0°

Case 2
α = 0° & μ = 1 (β = 45°)
then, F = N
thus,
F = FT = N = FC
All the forces will be equal & they will form a square

Fig.22: merchant circle when α = 0°, μ = 1 (β=45°)

Thus, in this special case, friction force and its normal force could be directly measured
by the dynamometer.

19
www.gradeup.co

5. DYNAMOMETERS

The equipment that is used to measure the cutting force is called dynamometer. The
measurement of cutting force can be accomplished by a number of approaches.
(a) By measuring the deflection of a body that is directly influenced by the acting cutting forces,
(b) By measuring the strain induced in the body that is directly influenced by the acting cutting
forces,
(c) By measuring the pressure exerted on a medium that is directly influenced by the acting
cutting forces.
Any typical setup for measuring the cutting force consists of the following two components:
A medium that experiences the cutting force, & a sensor that measures and converts it to a
measurable quantity such as a strain gauge. The sensor output is then normally amplified and
measured using any of the traditional measuring equipment.
It utilizes strain gauges to measure the force. A strain gauge system actually measures strain
and not force. Therefore, a strain gage transducer is designed in such a way that the force to
be measured develops a suitable stress level in the sensing element.
The strain gages are then formed into a full Wheatstone bridge structure, as shown, to measure
the change in the resistance which corresponds to the acting cutting forces.
A fundamental parameter of the strain gage is its sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively
as the gage factor (GF). GF is the ratio of the fractional change in electrical resistance to the
fractional change in length, or strain:
R
Gauge Factor, G = R
L
L
ENERGY IN MACHINING
Most of the energy consumed in metal cutting is utilised in the plastic deformation. The total
work done, W is given by
W = FC V
The work done in shear Ws is
WS = FSVS
Similarly
the work done in friction Wf is
Wf = FVc
Thus,
W = FCV = FsVs + FVc
F.Vc
Percentage of energy used in overcoming friction is  100
FC V

20
www.gradeup.co

Fs.Vs
Percentage of energy used in overcoming shear is  100
FC V

MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE

Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining operation.
The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed v.
The tool travels laterally across the work this is a much slower motion, called the Feed f.
The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the original
work surface, called the depth of cut d.
Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting conditions.
They form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for certain operations & used
to calculate the material removal rate for the process
MMR = fdv
where MMR material removal rate, mm3/s or (mm3/min)
v - cutting speed, m/s or (mm/s),
f - feed, mm (mm/revolution);
d - depth of cut, mm
for orthogonal cutting, λ = 90°
w t = f  d

So, MRR = fdv = wtv (or btv)

SPECIFIC CUTTING ENERGY
The specific cutting energy, is a parameter which can be obtained by dividing the total work
done with the material removal rate.
FC V FV FV
u= = C = C
MRR fdV btV
FC J
u=
1000fd mm3
Where, FC is in Newton ‘f’ & ‘d’ are in mm
Unit power and specific energy provide a useful measure of how much power (or energy) is
required to remove a unit volume of metal during machining.
As we know,
cos( +  − )
Fs = FC 
cos( − )
bt
Fs = 
sin 
Using those two equations
Fs V cos( − ) Fs cos( − )
u= =
btV cos( +  − ) sin  cos( +  − )
bt
sin 

21
www.gradeup.co

Fs sin .cos( − )
u=
bt cos( +  − )
sin 

FC V FC V  cos( − )
u= = =
fdV btV sin() cos( +  − )
Significance:
• Higher the specific cutting energy indicates lower machinability
• Specific energy can vary considerably for a given material and changes in Vc, feed etc.
• At high cutting speed and large feeds, the specific cutting energy tends to become constant
• By varying shear angle in machining operation, it is possible to vary the shear stresses
induced in layer of work material to ensure that stresses induced is equal to ultimate shear
stresses, it is required to determine the optimum shear angle.
To determine the optimum shear angle various theory devloped

6. DIFFERENT SHEAR ANGLE RELATION

(a) Merchant’s shear angle relation.

Its derivation was based on the assumption of orthogonal cutting, but its general validity
extends to three-dimensional machining operations.
Merchant started with the definition of shear stress expressed in the form of the following
relationship
bt Fs
Fs =  =
sin  bt
sin 

FS = FC cos  − FT sin 

Fs F cos  − FT sin 
= = C
bt bt
sin  sin 

=
(FC cos  − FT sin ) sin 
bt

=
(F C cos .sin  − FT sin2  )
bt
For failure of material, τ must be high which can be done by reducing the value of ϕ.
So, the angle at which shear stress is just equal to the shear strength of the work material,
and so shear deformation occurs at this angle.
For all other possible shear angles, the shear stress is less than the shear strength, so chip
formation cannot occur at these other angles.
In effect, the work material will select a shear plane angle that minimizes energy.

22
www.gradeup.co

Solving for ϕ, the relationship named after Merchant is obtained:

cos( +  − )
Fs = FC 
cos( − )
cos( +  − )
Fs  V = FC  V 
cos( − )
cos( +  − )
S  Area  V = ENERGY 
cos( − )
bt cos( − )
ENERGY = S  V
sin  cos( +  − )
For minimum work done differentiate
d(W.D)
=0
d
d ( WD) cos( − ) cos(2 +  − )
= =0
d sin2  cos2 ( + -)

cos(2 +  – ) = 0


2 +  –  =
2
  
= − −
4 2 2
2ϕ + β – α = 90°
⇒ shear angle relation for minimum workdone or minimum energy criteria or Merchant’s shear
angle relation.
90 +  − 
=
2
Above results are not supported by experimental evidence.
(i) Firstly, the minimum energy principle, though appealing is not supported by evidence., (ii)
it assumes that β and α are constant with respect to ϕ. But later studies on metal cutting have
shown that at least β is dependent on ϕ. & under dynamic conditions “α”
also varies considerably.
(b) Lee and Shaffer relation:
To validate the Merchant's shear angle relation. Lee and Shaffer has conducted the experiment
but they failed to prove Merchant's shear angle relation & they derive another relation through
experimentation called as Lee and Shaffer shear angle relation.
It is given by
ϕ + β – α = 45°

2 + 2 –2  =
2

23
www.gradeup.co

The assumptions made in the Lee and Shaffer theory are

(i) The work material ahead of the tool behaves as ideal plastic mass
(ii) The shear plane exists which separates the chips and work-piece.
(iii) No hardening of chip occurs
(c) Stabler relation:
Simultaneously Stabler also tried to validate the Merchant's shear angle relation but he also
failed and derived another shear angle relation experimentally
It is given by

+− = 45
2

2 + 2 – =
2
(d) Machining constant or Merchants constant (Cm):
(i) Cm = 2ϕ + β – α = 90° ⇒ τ = τu
For minimum work or minimum power consumption in cutting Cm = 90°
Ηenergy utilization = 100%(Ideal machining)
(ii) Cm > 90° ⇒ τ < τu ⇒ work done < (work done)minimum, ηE.U > 100%
(Impossible case of machining)
Τu = ultimate shear stress.
(iii) Cm < 90° ⇒ τ > τu)
⇒η E.U < 100% (possible case of machining)
• From the above, machining constant is used for identifying the magnitude of shear stresses
induced in the machining operation and efficiency of energy utilization during machining.
Example - 1
In orthogonal turning of medium carbon steel, the specific machining energy is 2.0J/mm 3, the
cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut are 120m/min, 0.2mm/rev and 2mm respectively. The
main cutting force N is
(a) 40
(b) 80
(c) 400
(d) 800
Ans: (d)
Sol: Specific cutting energy
= 2 J/mm3
Vc = 120 m/min,
f = t1 = 0.2 mm/rev, d = b = 2 mm

24
www.gradeup.co

FC  VC
Sp. Energy =
t1  b  VC  1000
FC × VC = 2 × 0.2 × 2 × 120 × 1000
2  0.2  2  120  1000
FC =
120
= 0.8 × 1000 = 800 N

7. TYPES OF CHIPS

The uncut layer deforms into a chip after it goes through a severe plastic deformation in the
primary shear zone (Fig.4.10a).
Whenever a machining starts, the metal in front of the tool rake face gets immediately
compressed first elastically and then plastically. This zone is traditionally called the shear zone
in which materials start deforming.
“the deformed metal flows over the tool (rake) face, is known as chip.
If the friction between the tool rake face and the underside of the chip is considerable, then
chip gets further deformed, which is termed as “secondary deformation”.

Fig.23: Deformation of Metal

The chip after sliding over the tool rake face would be lifted away from the tool, and the
resultant curvature of the chip is termed as “chip curl’.
Piispanen model of metal cutting (POST CARD MODEL)
Piispanen presented a mechanism to account for the deformation process taking place at the
cutting edge.
He considered the undeformed metal as a stack of cards which would slide over one another
as the wedge-shaped tools moves under these cards as shown in Figure.
Plastic deformation can be caused by yielding, in which case strained layers of material would
get displaced over other layers along the slip-planes which coincide with the direction of
maximum shear stress similar to as post card model.

25
www.gradeup.co

A practical example is when paraffin is cut; block wise slip is clearly evident.

Fig.24: Piispanen model of metal cutting

The chip formation in metal cutting could be broadly categorised into three types:
(i) Discontinuous chip
(ii) Continuous chip
(iii) Continuous chip with Built up Edge(BUE)
7.1. Continuous Chips
The continuous chip, which is like a ribbon flows along the rake face. Continuous chip is
possible because of the ductility of metal flows along the shear plane instead of rupture.
Continuous chips are normally produced when machining steel or ductile metals at high
cutting speeds.
It can be assumed that each layer of metal flows along the slip plane till it is stopped by
work hardening. Each of these layers gets welded to the previous ones because of the
high temperature, thus forming a continuous chip.
Some ideal conditions that promote continuous chips in metal cutting are:
• sharp cutting edge,
• Low feed and depth of cut
• large rake angle
• high cutting speed
• ductile work materials
• less friction between chip tool interfaces through efficient lubrication
This is the most desirable form of chip since the surface finish obtained is good and cutting
is smooth. It also helps in achieving higher tool life and lower power consumption.
However, because of the large coils of chips, the chip disposal is a problem.
Continuous chips start rotating with the tool and if these chips hit the finished part of the
work, it spoils surface finish. So, continuous chips are broken by providing chip breakers.

26
www.gradeup.co

Fig.25: Continuous Chip Formation

7.2. Discontinuous Chips
When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the deformed material gets fractured very
easily and thus the chip produced is in the form of discontinuous segments as shown in
Figure.
In this type the deformed material instead of flowing continuously gets ruptured
periodically.
Some ideal conditions that promote discontinuous chips in metal cutting are:
• Brittle materials (e.g., cast irons)
• Low cutting speeds
• High tool–chip friction
• Large feed and depth of cut
• Small rake angles

Fig.26: Discontinuous Chip Formation

7.3. CHIPS FORMATION WITH BUILT UP EDGE
When machining ductile materials at low to-medium cutting speeds, friction between tool
and chip tends to cause portions of the work material to adhere to the rake face of the
tool near the cutting edge. This formation is called a built-up edge (BUE).
The formation of a BUE on the tool is brought about by the high normal loads on the tool
rake face leading to adhesion between the chip and the tool.
This adhesion may be so severe that instead of the chip sliding over the tool face,
considerable plastic flow and eventual rupture occurs within the chip.

27
www.gradeup.co

The formation of a BUE takes place in regular interval; it forms and grows, then becomes
unstable and breaks off.
Since the cutting is carried by the BUE and not the actual tool tip, the life of the cutting
tool slightly increases while cutting with BUE but during braking of BUE sometimes it
takes portions of the tool rake face with it, which reduces the life of the cutting tool.
Portions of the detached BUE that are not carried off with the chip become imbedded in
the newly created work surface, causing the surface to become rough. Thus, BUE is not
harmful during rough machining.
Some ideal conditions that promote discontinuous chips in metal cutting are:
• Low cutting speed
• Ductile material
• high feed and depth of cut
• low rake angle

Fig.27: Chip Formation With Built Up Edge

Fig.28: Surface After Machining By Tool Having Built Up Edge

7.4. SERRATED CHIPS
It is also known as shear-localized chip. These chips are semi-continuous in the sense
that they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is produced by a cyclical chip formation
of alternating high shear strain followed by low shear strain.

28
www.gradeup.co

This type of chip is most closely associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals such
as titanium alloys, Nickel-base superalloys, and austenitic stainless steels when they are
machined at higher cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also found with more
common work metals (e.g., steels) when they are cut at high speeds.

Fig.29: Serrated Chips

8. SHEAR ZONE

There are basically two types deformation zone.

First one is very thin and planar as shown in figure.
The other one is a thick one with a fan shape as shown in figure.

(a) Thin Shear Plane Model (b)Shear Zonal Model

Fig.30: Shear Zone

shear velocity V
rate of shear strain = = s
shear zone thickness tS

9. CUTTING FLUIDS

Various functions of the cutting fluids are

(i) It cools the Work piece and tool by carrying away the heat generated during machining.
(ii) It acts as lubricant at the friction zones, hence tool life increases.
(iii) As friction gets reduced the forces and power consumption reduces.
(iv) Use cutting fluids produces better surface finish.

29
www.gradeup.co

(v) It causes to break the chips into small pieces.

(vi) It washes away the chips from the tool.
(vii) It prevents the corrosion of chips and machine.
(viii) Improves dimensional control
(ix) It permits the maximum cutting speed hence the time for machining reduces and cost of
manufacturing increasing.
Properties to be possessed by the cutting fluids are
(i) It should be low viscosity to permit free flow of the liquid.
(ii) It should posses good lubricating properties.
(iii) It should have high specific heat, high heat conductivity and high h.t.c.
(iv) It should be non-corrosive to work and machine.
(v) It should be non-toxic to operating person.
(vi) It should be odorless.
(vii) It should be stable in use and storage
(viii) It should be safe
(ix) It should permit clear view of work.
Most commonly used cutting fluids are
(i) Cast Iron: No cutting fluid is used
(ii) Steels: Lord oil + mineral oil
(iii) Alloy steel : Sulphur brass oil + mineral oil
(iv) Copper : Soluble oil with 90 to 95% of water.
(v) Aluminium: Mineral oil with soluble oil)

10. TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION

Tool life represents the useful life of the tool, generally expressed in time
units from the start of a cut to an end point defined by a failure criterion.
A tool that no longer performs the desired function is said to have failed
and hence reached the end of its useful life.
“Tool life is defined as the duration of cutting time that the tool can be used until failure takes
place”.
The tool may be re-sharpened and used again.
The tool life is mainly affected by cutting speed, means higher the cutting speed the smaller
the tool life. Taylor gave the relation between cutting speed and tool life that is & can be
expressed as
VTn = C
V = cutting speed
T = tool life.

30
www.gradeup.co

C = machining constant.
n = Tool life exponent (depends only on tool material)
For HSS, n = 0.08 - 0.2
For carbides n = 0.2 - 0.6
For ceramics n = 0.5 - 0.8
C depends upon both tool and work piece.

Fig.31: Effect of Cutting Velocity On Tool Life

An expanded version of taylor’s equation can be formulated to include the effects of feed, depth
of cut, and even work material hardness
vTnfmdp = constant(K)
where
f = feed, mm/rev;
d = depth of cut mm
m, p, are exponents whose values are experimentally determined for the conditions of the
operation
K = a constant analogous to C

11. ECONOMICS OF MACHINING

The ultimate objective of the manufacturing is to produce the objects at the most economical
cost.
“To obtain the required economic condition during machining, the optimum process parameter
to be used is called economics of machining.”
• Out of different process parameters, the cutting velocity has highest influence on machining
• Therefore, it is required to determine the optimum cutting velocity for a given economic
condition of machining.
The various costs associated with machining process are:
(i) The manpower cost, C1 which is measured in Rs. Per unit time, generally hours that operator
is employed.

31
www.gradeup.co

(ii) The machine tool operating (overhead) cost, C m which includes machine depreciation, and
other costs associated with the running of the machine tool such as power consumed,
maintenance overheads, consumables such as oils, etc.
(iii) The job handling cost, which arises because of the time spent in loading and unloading of
the job, during which time the machine tool is kept idle, and also requires the operator to
attend to the job.
(iv) The tool cost, C1 which is the cost of the cutting tool for the given operation.
Machining economics can be done based on the following criteria
(a) Minimization of the machining cost,
(b) Maximizing the production rate, and
(c) Maximizing the profit rate
(i) Maximum Cost Criteria:
Let us assume turning of a bar of length, L mm and diameter D mm, with a cutting speed of V
m/min, feed rate of f mm/rev, and depth of cut of d mm.
Time for machining is given by
L
Tm =
fN
Where N is the spindle RPM
DN
V=
1000
Thus,
DL
Tm =
1000 fV
For a given job, the cost of all overheads is given by
C1 = C0 [p(t1 + tul + ta)+ ta]
Where
ta = tool advance and withdrawal time
t1 = job loading time
tul = job unloading time
t0 = initial setup time of the machine for a batch of components
and p = number of parts produced per batch
For evaluating the tool cost, we have to consider initial cost, the cost of re-grinding, and the
number of re-grindings
Cost of tool+Regrind cost×Number of regrinds
Ce =
Number of regrinds+1

C1 + rCg
Ce =
r +1

32
www.gradeup.co

Where Ct = initial cost of the tool, Rs.

r = number of regrinds possible for one tool
Cg = cost of regrinding the tool, Rs.
T
pg = number of components produced between regrinds =
Tm
where T is the useful life of the tool
pC0tc
Cost of tool replacement =
pg

Where tc = tool change time

Thus, the total cost of the tool is
p
C2 = [Ce + C0 t e ]
pg

The machining cost, C3 is given by

C3 = C0pTm
Now combining all the components of costs, we get the cost per batch, C B as

p
CB = C0 [p(t1 + tu1 + t a ) + t a ] + [Ce + t eC0 ] + C0pTm
pg

Similarly, the cost per piece of production is given by

 t  1
Cp = C0 t1 + tu1 + ta + 0  + [C + tcC0 ] + C0 Tm
 p  pg e

Considering the Taylor’s tool life equation,

VTn = C
The number of pieces produced per regrind is
T 1000V fT
ps = =
Tm DL
From the tool life equation
1
 C n
T = 
V
Thus, for the straight turning application,
1 1
 1
100V f  C n 1000 f Cn  I− 
pg =   = V n 
 DL  V  DL
The cost per piece, CP is given by

 t  DL[Ce + t eCa ] C DL

Cp = C0 t1 + tu1 + t a + 0  + 1 n−1
+ 0
 p 1000 fV
100 f Cn V n

33
www.gradeup.co

For minimum cost, the above equation could be differentiated with respect to cutting speed V,
considering the fact that all other conditions such as feed and depth of cut as constant,
n
 C0  n 
V = C  
 C e + t c C0  1 − n  
1 1
 C0  n 
V n = Cn   
 Ce + teC0  1 − n 
From the tool life equation, we can also obtain the minimum cost tool life as
n
n
 C   1 − n 
T =  t c + e   
 C0   n  

 C  1 − n
T = tc + e  
 C0   n 

Fig.32: Economics of Machining

(ii) maximum production rate
In order to arrive at a maximum production rate, we take the total time for the manufacture
as

T t 
Time = tl + tul + t a + Tm +  m e  (95)
 T 
For a single pass turning job, it can be shown that
t0 Dl t c Dl
Time = tl + tul + t a + + + 1 1
p 100vf 1−
1000fC n V n

For getting the maximum production rate, the above expression for manufacturing time is
differentiated with respect to cutting speed, V and equated to zero.

Time DlV2 t Dl 1 − n  1−n2n

= + c 1 
V =0
V 1000 f n 
n 
100fc

t e  1 − n  1n
1 
V =1
n 
n 
C

34
www.gradeup.co

n
 n 
V = C 
 t c (1 − n) 
tc (1 − n)
T=
n
• For having maximum production rate, the cutting velocity should be as maximum as possible
• Therefore, out of different economic criteria optimum cutting velocity for maximum
production rate will be largest and optimum cutting velocity for minimum cost is smallest
Note:
(i) (Vopt)min cost < (Vopt)max profit < (Vopt)max. prod. rate
ii) (Topt)max prod. rate < (Topt)max profit < (Topt)min cost
Example- 2
In certain machining operation with a cutting speed of 100 m/min, tool life of 90 minutes was
observed, when the cutting speed was increased to 200 m/min, the tool life decreased to 20
minutes. The cutting speed for maximum productivity, if tool change time is 2 minutes is
Sol: V1 = 100 m/min T1 = 90min
V2 = 200 m/min T2 = 20 min
V1T1n = V2T2n

V 
ln  2  ln  200 
V 100 
n=  1 =  = 0.46
 T1   90 
ln   ln  
 T2   20 
C = V1T1n = 100 × 900.46 = 792.41
Vopt for maximum production
n
 n 1 
= C . 
1 − n TC 
0.46
 0.46 1
= 792.41    = 337.5 m/ min
 1 − 0.46 2 

12. EFFECT OF PARAMETERS ON TOOL LIFE

(a) Cutting Speed: Higher the cutting speed more will be the temperature over the rake face
and faylite pockets will create more impact over the cutting edge. So tool life will decrease.
(b) Feed and Depth of cut: By increasing the feed and depth of cut, tool life will decrease
because it increases the cutting forces.
The empirical formulae is given by

257
V= 0.19 0.36 0.8
T f t

35
www.gradeup.co

V = cutting speed in m/mm

T = tool life in min
t = feed rate in mm/mm
t = depth of cut in mm
For a given tool life the relationship among other variables is also given by the following
empirical formulae
C
V=
f atb
V = cutting speed for given tool life
C = constant.
The exponents a and b depends on the mechanical properties of the material.
(c) Size and Structure: When the work piece has fine grain structure, tool life will decrease
and when the tool material has fine grain structure, tool life will increase.
(d) Effect of Back Rake angle on tool life –
When the rake angle increases, Life starts improving because the cutting force reduces. A
further increase in the rake angle results in a larger temperature since the tool becomes thinner
and the area available for heat conduction reduces.
Similarly, when the clearance angle increases, the tool life increases at first. This is due to for
the same volume of flank wear, hf reduces. However, with a further increase in the clearance
angle, the tool becomes thinner and the tool life decreases due to the higher temperature.

Fig.33: Effect of Back Rake angle on tool life

(e) Effect of Side Cutting Edge Angle on Tool Life

Fig.34: Effect of Side Cutting Edge Angle on Tool Life

36
www.gradeup.co

(f) By increasing the intermittent cuts tool life decreases.

13. TOOL WEAR

With the usage of tools over a long time, they are subjected to wear.
wearing action takes place on those surfaces along which there is a relative sliding with other
surfaces. Thus, the wear takes place on the rake surface where the chip flows over the tool
There are two major types of wear found in tools.
(i) Crater wear: The crater is on the rake face and is more or less circular. The crater does
not always extend to the tool tip, but may end at a distance from the tool tip. It increases the
cutting forces, modifies the tool geometry, and softens the tool tip.
Diffusion plays an important role in the development of crater wear at a high speed since then
the temperature in the take face is much higher than that in the flank surface.

Fig.35: Wear Pattern in cutting Tool

(ii) Flank wear: Flank wear or wear land is on the clearance surface of the tool. The wear
land can be characterized by the length of wear land, w. It modifies the tool geometry and
changes that cutting parameters (depth of cut).
Abrasion and adhesion are primarily responsible for the flank wear.
Growth of flank wear is shown in Figure for various cutting speeds.
initially, there is a break in the wear region where the wear grows quickly. Then, the wear rate
stabilizes and remains constant for a considerable period; this region is again followed by a
rapid growth of wear. The uniform wear zone constitutes the major portion of the period of
usability of a cutting tool.

Fig.36: Growth of flank wear

37
www.gradeup.co

13.1. Failure of Cutting tool and Tool Wear

There are three possible modes by which a cutting tool can fail in machining:
(i) Fracture failure - This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the tool point
becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture.
It is due to high temperature and large stress.

Fig.37: Plastic Deformation

(ii) Temperature failure - This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too high
for the tool material, causing the material at the tool point to soften, which leads to plastic
deformation and loss of the sharp edge.
(iii) Gradual wear - Gradual wearing of cutting-edge causes loss of tool shape, reduction
in cutting efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes heavily worn, and
finally tool failure in a manner similar to a temperature failure.

Fig.38: Gradual Failure

Fracture and temperature failures result in premature loss of the cutting tool. These two
modes of failure are therefore undesirable. Of the three possible tool failures, gradual
wear is preferred because it leads to the longest possible use of the tool, with the
associated economic advantage of that longer use.
Measure of the flank wear is possible but the measure of a crater wear is not so simple.
Quite often a nondimensional quantity hk given by
e
h=
1/2+f

38
www.gradeup.co

Fig.39: Wearing if cutting tools

14. MACHINABILITY

The ease with which a given material may be worked with a cutting tool is Machinability. Factors
affect the Machinability are:
1. Tool life: The longer the tool life it enables at a given cutting speed better is the
Machinability
2. Surface finish: Two materials are machined under identical cutting conditions and material
which produces good finish is considered to be more machinable material. This criterion ¡s used
in finished cuts.
3. Cutting Forces: Two materials are machined under identical cutting conditions and the
material which requires smaller cutting forces is considered to be more machinable, This
criterion is used in smaller and old machines.
Machinability index:
VS = Cutting speed of standard free-cutting steel for 1 min tool life.
Vt = Cutting speed of metal for 1 min tool life.
Standard work piece material is machined at a cutting speed so that tool life ‘T’ ¡s observed.
Keeping other parameters same, test work piece is machined to get the same tool life ‘T’.
Machinability index indicates that the material is more machinable.
Vt
Machinability index =  100
Vs

15. TOOL MATERIALS

Properties of cutting tool materials

1. High hot hardness or Red hardness: It is the property of the material by which it retains
hardness at elevated temperatures.
2. Toughness: Toughness gives the material, ability to absorb shock.
3. High thermal conductivity: To dissipate heat.

39
www.gradeup.co

4. Low coefficient of friction, at the chip- tool interface, the surface finish is good and wear is
minimum.
5. Low coefficient of expansion.
Following are important tool materials:
1. High carbon steel: Hardness 750 HV (Vickers Hardness), at cutting speed of 5-6 m/mm,
and as cutting speed increases its hardness will come down to 150 HV. It is primarily used in
wood working.
2. High Speed Steel: Normal cutting speed by this tool material ¡s 28 - 30 m/mm and its
hardness is 850 HV.
18% W + 4% Cr + 1% V (18-4-1 HSS) was the initial material developed in this category but
at present HSS is broadly classified into T-series (W major alloying element) and M-series (Mo
major impurity).
3. Cemented Carbides
4. UCON: This is Niobium based alloy developed by union carbide company. UCON consists of
50%columbium 30 % titanium and 20 % tungsten. These are produced by rolling process.
Nitrogen is finally diffused into the surface at a temperature of 650°C to produce a hard surface
layer. These are used for machining steel at high speeds and feeds. It is not suitable for cast
iron and stainless steel.
5. Cast Hard Alloys (Stellite) : These are produced by casting process. These alloys retain
their hardness up to temperatures as high as 800-900 ° and have low coefficient of friction.
This is especially used for making form tools. UCON and cast hard alloys are interior to carbides
and superior to high speed steel. Cobalt (Co) is used as binding agent. The major alloying
elements are 53%Co, 33% Cr and 14% W.
6. Ceramic: Sintered or powdered metallurgically produced (Aluminium oxide) tools which are
superior to carbide attached to tool bit by brazing. They have less tendency to adhere to metals
during cutting.
7. Sialon (Si-Al-O-N): It is a recently developed tool material which produces excellent
surface finish over the material but it is costly. This is produced by milling silicon nitride,
aluminium nitride, alumina, yitrium oxide.
8. CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) : CBN coated tools are used primarily to machine stainless
steel and high speed steel The tool lite of CBN is excellent for machining quenched alloy steel
for dies.
9. Diamond: Diamond dust is used as an abrasive in grinding wheel. It is harder than any
other material and has high thermal conductivity.

40
www.gradeup.co

16. CUTTING FLUID

Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically for metalworking processes,
such as machining and stamping. There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include oils,
oil-water emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists), and air or other gases. They may be made
from petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils, water and air, or other raw ingredients
The properties that are sought after in a good cutting fluid are the ability to:
• keep the workpiece at a stable temperature (critical when working to close tolerances).
Very warm is acceptable, but extremely hot or alternating hot-and-cold are avoided.
• maximize the life of the cutting tip by lubricating the working edge and reducing tip
welding.
• Ensure safety for the people handling it (toxicity, bacteria, fungi) and for the
environment upon disposal.
• Prevent rust on machine parts and cutters.

17. TYPES OF CUTTING FLUID/COOLANTS/LUBRICANTS

(a) Liquids Coolants

There are generally three types of liquids: mineral, semi-synthetic, and synthetic. Semi-
• Water is a good conductor of heat but has drawbacks as a cutting fluid.
• Mineral oils, which are petroleum-based, first saw use in cutting applications in the late
19th century. These vary from the thick, dark, sulfur-rich cutting oils used in heavy
industry to light, clear oils.
• Semi-synthetic coolants, also called soluble oil, are an emulsion or microemulsion of
water with mineral oil.
• Synthetic coolants originated in the late 1950s and are usually water-based.
(b) Others coolants include:
• Kerosene and rubbing alcohol often give good results when working on aluminium.
• Motor oils have a slightly complicated relationship to machine tools.
• Dielectric fluid is used as a cutting fluid in electrical discharge machines (EDMs). It is
usually deionized water or a high-flash-point kerosene.
• Liquid- (water- or petroleum oil-) cooled water tables are used with the plasma arc
cutting (PAC) process.
• Neatsfoot oil of the highest grade is used as a lubricant. It is used in metalworking
industries as a cutting fluid for aluminium
• Cutting fluid may also take the form of a paste or gel when used for some applications,
in particular hand operations such as drilling and tapping.
• Aerosols (mists)
• CO2 Coolant
• Air or other gases (e.g., nitrogen)

****

41
www.gradeup.co

42