ME211B: Thermodynamics

Instructor: Joon Sang Kang

 Chapter 6

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 Objectives

• Introduce the second law of thermodynamics.

• Identify valid processes as those that satisfy both the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.
• Discuss thermal energy reservoirs, reversible and irreversible processes, heat
engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.
• Describe the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements of the second law of
thermodynamics.
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to cycles and cyclic devices.
• Apply the second law to develop the absolute thermodynamic temperature
scale.
• Describe the Carnot cycle.
• Examine the Carnot principles, idealized Carnot heat engines, refrigerators,
and heat pumps.
• Determine the expressions for the thermal efficiencies and coefficients of
performance for reversible heat engines, heat pumps, and refrigerators.
INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW

These processes cannot occur even though

they are not in violation of the first law.
INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW
INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW

MAJOR USES OF THE SECOND LAW

1. The second law may be used to identify the direction of processes.
2. The second law asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity. The first
law is concerned with the quantity of energy and the transformations of
energy from one form to another with no regard to its quality. The second
law provides the necessary means to determine the quality as well as the
degree of degradation of energy during a process.
3. The second law of thermodynamics is also used in determining the
theoretical limits for the performance of commonly used engineering
systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators, as well as predicting the
degree of completion of chemical reactions.
THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

A hypothetical body with a relatively

large thermal energy capacity (Mass x
Specific heat) that can supply or
absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature
is called a thermal energy reservoir,
or just a reservoir.

In practice, large bodies of water such

as oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as
the atmospheric air can be modeled
accurately as thermal energy
reservoirs because of their large
thermal energy storage capabilities or
thermal masses.
THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

A reservoir that supplies energy in

the form of heat is called a
source, and one that absorbs
energy in the form of heat is
called a sink.
Thermal energy reservoirs are
often referred to as heat
reservoirs since they supply or
absorb energy in the form of heat.
HEAT ENGINES

HEAT ENGINES: The devices that

convert heat to work.
1. They receive heat from a high-
temperature source (solar
energy, oil furnace, nuclear
reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to
work (usually in the form of a
rotating shaft.)
3. They reject the remaining waste
heat to a low-temperature sink
(the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
HEAT ENGINES

Heat engines and other cyclic

devices usually involve a fluid to
and from which heat is transferred
while undergoing a cycle.
This fluid is called the working
fluid.
A steam power plant
Thermal efficiency

The fraction of the heat input that is

converted to net work output is a measure
of the performance of a heat engine and is
called the thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency

QH = magnitude of heat transfer

between the cyclic device and the high-
temperature medium at temperature TH
QL = magnitude of heat transfer
between the cyclic device and the low-
temperature medium at temperature TL
Can we save Qout?

In a steam power plant, the condenser is the device where large quantities
of waste heat is rejected to rivers, lakes, or the atmosphere.
Can we not just take the condenser out of the plant and save all that waste
energy?
The answer is, unfortunately, a firm no for the simple reason that without a
heat rejection process in a condenser, the cycle cannot be completed.

Every heat engine must waste some energy by

transferring it to a low-temperature reservoir in order
to complete the cycle, even under idealized
conditions.
Net Power Production
of a Heat Engine
The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Kelvin–Planck Statement

It is impossible for any device that

operates on a cycle to receive heat
from a single reservoir and produce a
net amount of work.

No heat engine can have a thermal

efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working fluid
must exchange heat with the
environment as well as the furnace.
The impossibility of having a 100%
efficient heat engine is not due to friction
or other dissipative effects. It is a
limitation that applies to both the
idealized and the actual heat engines.
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

The transfer of heat from a low-temperature

medium to a high-temperature one requires
special devices called refrigerators.
Refrigerators, like heat engines, are cyclic
devices.
The working fluid used in the refrigeration
cycle is called a refrigerant.
The most frequently used refrigeration cycle
is the vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle.
In a household refrigerator, the freezer
compartment where heat is absorbed by
the refrigerant serves as the evaporator,
and the coils usually behind the
refrigerator where heat is dissipated to the
kitchen air serve as the condenser.
Coefficient of Performance

The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in

terms of the coefficient of performance
(COP).
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat (QL) from the refrigerated space.

Can the value of COPR

be greater than unity?
yes
Heat Pumps

for fixed values of QL and QH

Can the value of COPHP be lower

than unity? not
What does COPHP=1 represent?
coPR=① → =∞ f
→ Qc
=
C
Heat Pumps

θ
)
)
Performance of Refrigerators, Air Conditioners,
and Heat Pumps
Most heat pumps in operation have a seasonally averaged COP of 2 to 3.
Most existing heat pumps use the cold outside air as the heat source in winter (air-
source HP).
In cold climates their efficiency drops considerably when temperatures are below
the freezing point.
In such cases, geothermal (ground-source) HP that use the ground as the heat
source can be used.
Such heat pumps are more expensive to install, but they are also more efficient. Q
Air conditioners are basically refrigerators whose refrigerated space is a room or
a building instead of the food compartment.
The COP of a refrigerator decreases with decreasing refrigeration temperature.
It is not economical to refrigerate to a lower temperature than needed.
optond

σ
Energy efficiency rating (EER): The amount of
heat removed from the cooled space in Btu’s for 1
Wh (watthour) of electricity consumed.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
: Clasius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature body.

It states that a refrigerator cannot operate

unless its compressor is driven by an external
power source, such as an electric motor.
This way, the net effect on the surroundings
involves the consumption of some energy in
the form of work, in addition to the transfer of
heat from a colder body to a warmer one.
To date, no experiment has been conducted
that contradicts the second law, and this
should be taken as sufficient proof of its
validity.
 Equivalence of the Two Statements

Proof that the violation of the

Kelvin–Planck statement
_ leads to the violation of the
Clausius statement.
_

The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent in their consequences,
and either statement can be used as the expression of the second law of
thermodynamics.
Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement also violates
the Clausius statement, and vice versa.
PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES

ain ar fout

Perpetual-motion machine: Any device that violates the first or the second law.
A device that violates the first law (by creating energy) is called a PMM1.
A device that violates the second law is called a PMM2.
PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES

Despite numerous attempts, no

perpetual-motion machine is known to
have worked.
If something sounds too good to
be true, it probably is wrong.

Qout d α
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

Reversible process: A process that can be reversed

without leaving any trace on the surroundings.
Irreversible process: A process that is not reversible.
All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.
Why are we interested in reversible processes?
(1) they are easy to analyze and
(2) they serve as idealized models (theoretical limits) t
o which actual processes can be compared.
Some processes are more irreversible than others.
We try to approximate reversible processes. Why?
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

Irreversibilities
The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibilities.
They include friction, unrestrained
expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat
transfer across a finite temperature
difference, electric resistance, inelastic
deformation of solids, and chemical
reactions.
The presence of any of
these effects renders a
process irreversible.
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Internally and Externally Reversible Processes

Internally reversible process:

If no irreversibilities occur within
the boundaries of the system
during the process.
Externally reversible:
If no irreversibilities occur outside
the system boundaries.
Totally reversible process:
It involves no irreversibilities within
the system or its surroundings.
A totally reversible process
involves no heat transfer through a
finite temperature difference, no
nonquasi-equilibrium changes,
and no friction or other dissipative
effects.
( )
 THE CARNOT CYCLE

Execution of the Carnot cycle in a closed system.

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH)
THE CARNOT CYCLE

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed, in which
case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle.
THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat

engine is always less than the
efficiency of a reversible one operating
between the same two reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat
engines operating between the same
two reservoirs are the same.
 THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES

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THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES
THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE

Ym =

G
equird atpat
=
A temperature scale that is independent
of the properties of the substances that preperties
are used to measure temperature is cf workingfluid
called a thermodynamic temperature
scale.
Such a temperature scale offers great
conveniences in thermodynamic
calculations.
THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE

⑨
This temperature scale is
called the Kelvin scale,
and the temperatures on
this scale are called
absolute temperatures.
Carnot Heat Engine

Any heat
engine

Carnot heat
engine
Carnot Heat Engine
Analysis of a Carnot Heat Engine
The Quality of Energy

Can we use °C unit for

temperature here?
no

How do you increase the thermal efficiency of

a Carnot heat engine?,It Tcd
How about for actual heat engines?
THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT PUMP

Any refrigerator or heat pump

Carnot refrigerator or heat pump

How do you increase the COP of a

Carnot refrigerator or heat pump?
πK
k
How about for actual ones?
The COP of a reversible refrigerator or heat pump is the maximum theoretical
value for the specified temperature limits.
Actual refrigerators or heat pumps may approach these values as their
designs are improved, but they can never reach them.
The COPs of both the refrigerators and the heat pumps decrease as TL
decreases.
That is, it requires more work to absorb heat from lower-temperature media.
Heating a House by a Carnot Heat Pump
 Summary

• Introduction to the second law

• Thermal energy reservoirs
• Heat engines
• Refrigerators and heat pumps
• Perpetual motion machines
• Reversible and irreversible processes
• The Carnot cycle
• The Carnot principles
• The thermodynamic temperature scale
• The Carnot heat engine
• The Carnot refrigerator and heat pump