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Introduction to Satellite Communication

Satellites are specifically made for the purpose of telecommunication.
They are used for mobile applications such as communication to ships,
vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals, TV and Radio broadcasting. They
are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region on the
earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the size of
the footprint, complexity of traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of
ground stations.
A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused
with a desired area. When the area is focused, then the emissions don’t go
outside that designated area and thus minimizing the interference to other
systems. This leads to more efficient spectrum usage.
Satellite’s antenna patterns play an important role and must be
designed to best cover the designated geographical area. Satellites should
be designed by keeping inwww.EnggTree.com
mind its usability for short and long term effects
throughout its life time.
The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts
from its orbit and if subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.
The following are the applications of satellites.
• Weather Forecasting
• Radio and TV Broadcasting
• Military Satellites
• Navigation Satellites
• Global Telephone
• Connecting Remote Area
• Global Mobile Communication

Satellites orbit around the earth. Depending on the application, these orbits
can be circular or elliptical. Satellites in circular orbits always keep the same

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distance to the earth‟s surface following a simple law: The attractive force
Fg of the earth due to gravity equals m·g (R/r) 2 The centrifugal force Fc
trying to pull the satellite away equals m·r·ω 2 The variables have the
following meaning: m is the mass of the satellite; R is the radius of earth with
R = 6,370 km; ri s the distance of the satellite to the centre of the earth; g is
the acceleration of gravity with g = 9.81 m/s2; ω is the angular velocity with
ω = 2·π·f, f is the frequency of the rotation.
To keep the satellite in a stable circular orbit, the following equation must
hold: Fg = Fc, i.e., both forces must be equal. Looking at this equation the
first thing to notice is that the mass m of a satellite is irrelevant (it appears on
both sides of the equation). Solving the equation for the distance r of the
satellite to the centre of the earth results in the following equation:
The distance r = (g·R 2 /(2·π·f) 2 )1/3
From the above equation it can be concluded that the distance of a satellite to
the earth‟s surface depends on its rotation frequency. Important parameters
in satellite communication are the inclination and elevation angles. The
inclination angle δ is defined between the equatorial plane and the plane
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described by the satellite orbit. An inclination angle of 0 degrees means that
the satellite is exactly above the equator. If the satellite does not have a
circular orbit, the closest point to the earth is called the perigee.

Applications :

Weather Forecasting :
Certain satellites are specifically designed to monitor the climatic conditions
of earth. They continuously monitor the assigned areas of earth and predict
the weather conditions of that region. This is done by taking images of earth
from the satellite. These images are transferred using assigned radio
frequency to the earth station. (Earth Station: it‟s a radio station located on
the earth and used for relaying signals from satellites.) These satellites are
exceptionally useful in predicting disasters like hurricanes, and 4 monitor the
changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields.

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Radio and TV Broadcast :

These dedicated satellites are responsible for making 100s of channels across
the globe available for everyone. They are also responsible for broadcasting
live matches, news, world-wide radio services. These satellites require a
3040 cm sized dish to make these channels available globally.
Military Satellites :
These satellites are often used for gathering intelligence, as a
communications satellite used for military purposes, or as a military weapon.
A satellite by itself is neither military nor civil. It is the kind of payload it
carries that enables one to arrive at a decision regarding its military or civilian
character.
Navigation Satellites :
The system allows for precise localization world-wide, and with some
additional techniques, the precision is in the range of some meters. Ships and
aircraft rely on GPS as an addition to traditional navigation systems. Many
vehicles come with installed GPS receivers. This system is also used, e.g.,
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for fleet management of trucks or for vehicle localization in case of theft.
Global Telephone :
One of the first applications of satellites for communication was the
establishment of international telephone backbones. Instead of using cables
it was sometimes faster to launch a new satellite. But, fiber optic cables are
still replacing satellite communication across long distance as in fiber optic
cable, light is used instead of radio frequency, hence making the
communication much faster (and of course, reducing the delay caused due to
the amount of distance a signal needs to travel before reaching the
destination.). Using satellites, to typically reach a distance approximately
10,000 kms away, the signal needs to travel almost 72,000 kms, that is,
sending data from ground to satellite and (mostly) from satellite to another
location on earth. This cause‟s substantial amount of delay and this delay
becomes more prominent for users during voice calls.

Connecting Remote Areas :

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Due to their geographical location many places all over the world do not have
direct wired connection to the telephone network or the internet (e.g.,
researchers on Antarctica) or because of the current state of the infrastructure
of a country. Here the satellite 5 provides a complete coverage and
(generally) there is one satellite always present across a horizon.
Global Mobile Communication :
The basic purpose of satellites for mobile communication is to extend the
area of coverage. Cellular phone systems, such as AMPS and GSM (and their
successors) do not cover all parts of a country. Areas that are not covered
usually have low population where it is too expensive to install a base station.
With the integration of satellite communication, however, the mobile phone
can switch to satellites offering world-wide connectivity to a customer.
Satellites cover a certain area on the earth. This area is termed as a „footprint‟
of that satellite. Within the footprint, communication with that satellite is
possible for mobile users. These users communicate using a Mobile-
UserLink (MUL). The base-stations communicate with satellites using a
Gateway-Link (GWL). Sometimes it becomes necessary for satellite to create
a communication link between www.EnggTree.com
users belonging to two different footprints.
Here the satellites send signals to each other and this is done using Inter-
Satellite-Link (ISL).

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Kepler’s laws
Satellites orbiting the earth follow the same laws that govern the motion of the planets
around the sun. Kepler’s laws apply quite generally to any two bodies in space which interact
through gravitation. The massive of the two bodies is referred to as the primary and the other, the
secondary or satellite.

Kepler’s First Law

Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an
ellipse. An ellipse has two focal points F1 and F2 as shown in Figure 1.1. The center of mass of
the two-body system, termed the bary center, is always center of the foci.
The semi major axis of the ellipse is denoted by ‘a’ and the semi minor axis, by ‘b’. The
eccentricity ‘e’ is given by

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Fig 1.1 Foci F1 and F2, the semi major axis a, and the semi minor axis b of an ellipse

Kepler’s Second Law

Kepler’s second law states that for equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep out equal
areas in its orbital plane focused at the bary center. Referring to Figure 1.2, assuming the satellite
travels distances S1 and S2 meters in 1 second, then the areas A1 and A2 will be equal. The average
velocity in each case is S1 and S2 m/s, and because of the equal area law, it follows that the
velocity at S2 is less than that at S1.

Fig 1.2 The areas A1and A2 swept out in unit time are equal
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Kepler’s Third Law

Kepler’s third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of
the mean distance between the two bodies. The mean distance is equal to the semi major axis a.
For the artificial satellites orbiting the earth, Kepler’s third law can be written in the form

Where ‘n’ is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and the earth‘s geocentric
gravitational constant is given by

Newton’s laws
Newton's First law
An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. An object in
motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force. This law is also called "the law of inertia".
Newton's Second law
Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The greater the mass (of the object
being accelerated) the greater the amount of force needed (to accelerate the object).
Newton's Third law www.EnggTree.com
For every action there is an equal and opposite re-action. This means that for every force
there is a reaction force that is equal in size, but opposite in direction. Whenever an object pushes
another object it gets pushed back in the opposite direction equally hard.

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Orbital Parameters
Apogee: A point for a satellite farthest from the Earth. It
is denoted as ha. Perigee: A point for a satellite closest
from the Earth. It is denoted as hp.
Line of Apsides: Line joining perigee and apogee through centre of the
Earth. It is the major axis of the orbit. One-half of this line‟s length is
the semi-major axis equivalents to satellite’s mean distance from the
Earth.
Ascending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane
going from north to south
Descending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial
plane going from south to north
Inclination: The angle between the orbital plane and the Earth’s equatorial
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plane. It’s measured at the ascending node from the equator to the orbit,
going from East to North. This angle is commonly denoted as i.
Line of Nodes: The line joining the ascending and descending nodes through
the centre of Earth
Prograde Orbit: An orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction
as the Earth’s rotation. Its inclination is always between 00 to 900. Many
satellites follow this path as earth’s velocity makes it easier to lunch these
satellites.
Retrograde Orbit: An orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction
counter to the earth’s rotation.
Argument of Perigee: An angle from the point of perigee measure in
the orbital plane at the earth’s centre, in the direction of the satellite
motion.
Right ascension of ascending node: The definition of an orbit in space,
the position of ascending node is specified. But as the Earth spins, the
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longitude of ascending node changes and cannot be used for reference.

Thus for practical determination of an orbit, the longitude and time of
crossing the ascending node are used. For absolute measurement, a fixed
reference point in space is required. It could also be defined as “right
ascension of the ascending node; right ascension is the angular position
measured eastward along the celestial equator from the vernal equinox
vector to the hour circle of the object”.
Mean anamoly: It gives the average value to the angular position of the
satellite with reference to the perigee.
True anamoly: It is the angle from point of perigee to the satellite’s
position, measured at the
Earth’s centre.

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Fig Apogee height ha, Perigee height hp, and inclination i; La is

the line of a p s i d e s

Fig Pro-grade and Retrograde Orbits

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Fig Argument of Perigee ‘w’ and Right Ascension of the

Ascending Node
Orbital Perturbations
An orbit described by Kepler is ideal as Earth, considered to be a
perfect sphere and the force acting around the Earth is the centrifugal
force. This force is supposed to balance the gravitational pull of the
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earth. In reality, other forces also play an important role and affect the
motion of the satellite. These forces are the gravitational forces of Sun and
Moon along with the atmospheric drag. The effect of Sun and Moon is
more pronounced on geostationary earth satellites where as the
atmospheric drag effect is more pronounced for low earth orbit satellites.
Effects of Non-Spherical Earth
As the shape of Earth is not a perfect sphere, it causes some variations
in the path followed by the satellites around the primary. As the Earth is
bulging from the equatorial belt, it is the forces resulting from an oblate
Earth which act on the satellite produce a change in the orbital
parameters. This causes the satellite to drift as a result of regression of the
nodes and the latitude of the point of perigee. This leads to rotation of the
line of apsides. As the orbit itself is moving with respect to the Earth, the
resultant changes are seen in the values of argument of perigee and right
ascension of ascending node.
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Due to the non-spherical shape of Earth, one more effect called as

the “Satellite Graveyard” is observed. The non-spherical shape leads to
the small value of eccentricity at the equatorial plane. This causes a
gravity gradient on GEO satellite and makes them drift to one of the two
stable points which coincide with minor axis of the equatorial ellipse.
Atmospheric Drag
For Low Earth orbiting satellites, the effect of atmospheric drag is
more pronouncing. The impact of this drag is maximum at the point of
perigee. The drag (pull towards the Earth) has an effect on velocity of
Satellite. This causes the satellite not to reach the apogee height successive
revolutions. This leads to a change in value of semi-major axis and
eccentricity. Satellites in service are maneuvered by the earth station back
to their original orbital position.

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Station Keeping
In addition to having its attitude controlled, it is important that a geo-
stationary satellite be kept in its correct orbital slot. The equatorial
ellipticity of the earth causes geostationary satellites to drift slowly along
the orbit, to one of two stable points, at 75°E and 105°W. To counter this
drift, an oppositely directed velocity component is imparted to the satellite
by means of jets, which are pulsed once every 2 or 3 weeks. These
maneuvers are called as east-west station-keeping maneuvers.
Satellites in the 6/4-GHz band must be kept within 0.1° of the
designated longitude and in the 14/12-GHz band, within 0.05°.

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Fig 1.5 Typical Satellite

Motion
Geo stationary and Non Geo-stationary orbits
Geo stationary Orbit
A geostationary orbit is one in which a satellite orbits the earth at
exactly the same speed as the earth turns and at the same latitude,
specifically zero, the latitude of the equator. A satellite orbiting in a
geostationary orbit appears to be hovering in the same spot in the sky, and
is directly over the same patch of ground at all times.
A geosynchronous orbit is one in which the satellite is

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synchronized with the earth's rotation, but the orbit is tilted with respect
to the plane of the equator. A satellite in a geosynchronous orbit will
wander up and down in latitude, although it will stay over the same line of
longitude. A geostationary orbit is a subset of all possible geosynchronous
orbits.
The person most widely credited with developing the concept of
geostationary orbits is noted science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke
(Islands in the Sky, Childhood's End, Rendezvous with Rama, and the
movie 2001: a Space Odyssey). Others had earlier pointed out that bodies
traveling a certain distance above the earth on the equatorial plane would
remain motionless with respect to the earth's surface. But Clarke published
an article in 1945's Wireless World that made the leap from the Germans'
rocket research to suggest permanent manmade satellites that could serve
as communication relays.

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Geostationary objects in orbit must be at a certain distance above the

earth; any closer and the orbit would decay, and farther out they would
escape the earth's gravity altogether. This distance is 35,786 kilometers
from the surface. The first geo-synchrous satellite was orbited in 1963,
and the first geostationary one the following year. Since the only
geostationary orbit is in a plane with the equator at 35,786 kilometers,
there is only one circle around the world where these conditions obtain.
This means that geostationary 'real estate' is finite. While satellites
are in no danger of bumping in to one another yet, they must be spaced
around the circle so that their frequencies do not interfere with the
functioning of their nearest neighbors.
Geostationary Satellites
There are 2 kinds of manmade satellites - One kind of satellite
ORBITS the earth once or twice a day and the other kind is called a
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and it is PARKED in a STATIONARY position
35,900 km above the equator of the STATIONARY earth. A type of the
orbiting satellite includes the space shuttle and the international space
station which keep a low earth orbit (LEO) to avoid the Van Allen
radiation belts.
The most prominent satellites in medium earth orbit (MEO) are the
satellites which comprise the GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS).
Global Positioning System
The global positioning system was developed by the U.S. military
and then opened to civilian use. It is used today to track planes, ships,
trains, cars or anything that moves. Anyone can buy a receiver and track
their exact location by using a GPS receiver.

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Fig 1.6 GPS satellites orbit at a height of about 19,300 km and orbit
the earth once every 12 hours
These satellites are traveling around the earth at speeds of about 7,000
mph. GPS satellites are powered by solar energy. They have backup
batteries onboard to keep them running when there's no solar power. Small
rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in the correct path. The
satellites have a lifetime of about 10 years until all their fuel runs out.
At exactly 35,900 km above the equator, the force of gravity is
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cancelled by the centrifugal force of the rotating universe. This is the ideal
spot to park a stationary satellite.

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Fig At exactly 35,900 km above the equator, the earth's force of gravity
is canceled by the centrifugal force of the rotating
universe
Non Geo-Stationary Orbit
For the geo-stationary case, the most important of these are the
gravitational fields of the moon and the sun and the non-spherical shape
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of the earth. Other significant forces are solar radiation pressure and
reaction of the satellite to motor movement within the satellite. As a result,
station- keeping maneuvers must be carried out to maintain the satellite
within limits of its nominal geostationary position.
An exact geostationary orbit is not attainable in practice, and the orbital
parameters vary with time. The two-line orbital elements are published
at regular intervals. The period for a geostationary satellite is 23 h, 56
min, 4 s, or 86,164 s. The reciprocal of this is 1.00273896 rev/day,
which is about the value tabulated for most of the satellites as in Figure
1.7. Thus these satellites are geo-synchronous, in that they rotate in
synchronism with the rotation of the earth. However, they are not
geostationary. The term geosynchronous satellite is used in many cases
instead of geostationary to describe these near-geostationary satellites.
In general a geosynchronous satellite does not have to be near-
geostationary, and there are a number of geosynchronous satellites that are

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in highly elliptical orbits with comparatively large inclinations. The small

inclination makes it difficult to locate the position of the ascending node,
and the small eccentricity makes it difficult to locate the position of the
perigee. However, because of small inclination, the angles w and Ω can be
assumed to be in the same plane. The longitude of the sub-satellite point is
the east early rotation from the Greenwich meridian.

The Greenwich sidereal time (GST) gives the eastward position of the
Greenwich meridian relative to the line of Aries, and hence the sub-satellite
point is at longitudeand the mean longitude of the satellite is given by

The above equation can be used to calculate the true anomaly and because
of the small eccentricity, this can be approximated as v= M + 2esinM.
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Look Angle Determination
The look angles for the ground station antenna are Azimuth and
Elevation angles. They are required at the antenna so that it points directly
at the satellite. Look angles are calculated by considering the elliptical
orbit. These angles change in order to track the satellite. For
geostationary orbit, these angle values do not change as the satellites are
stationary with respect to earth. Thus large earth stations are used for
commercial communications.
For home antennas, antenna beam-width is quite broad and hence no
tracking is essential.
This leads to a fixed position for these antennas.

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Fig Geometry used in determining the look angles for Geostationary

Satellites

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Fig Spherical Geometry related to Figure
With respect to the figure 1.8 and 1.9, the following information is
needed to determine the look angles of geostationary orbit.
 Earth Station Latitude: λE
 Earth Station Longitude: ΦE
 Sub-Satellite Point’s Longitude: ΦSS
 ES: Position of Earth Station
 SS: Sub-Satellite Point
 S: Satellite
 d: Range from ES to S
 ζ: angle to be determined

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Fig Plane triangle obtained from

Figure
Considering Figure , it’s a spherical triangle. All sides are the arcs of a
great circle. Three sides
of this triangle are defined by the angles subtended by the centre of the
earth.
 Side a: angle between North Pole and radius of the sub-satellite
point.
 Side b: angle between radius of Earth and radius of the sub-satellite
point. www.EnggTree.com
 Side c: angle between radius of Earth and the North Pole.
 a =900 and such a spherical triangle is called quadrantal triangle. c =
900 – λ
 Angle B is the angle between the plane containing c and the plane
containing a.
Thus, B = ΦE-ΦSS
 Angle A is the angle between the plane containing b and the plane
containing c.
 Angle C is the angle between the plane containing a and the plane
containing b.
Thus, a = 900 c =
900 - λE B = ΦE-
ΦSS
Thus, b = arcos (cos B cos λE)

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And A = arcsin (sin |B| / sin b)

Applying the cosine rule for plane triangle to the triangle of F i g u r e,

Applying the sine rule for plane triangles to the triangle of Figure, allows
the angle of elevation to be found:

Limits of Visibility
The east and west limits of geostationary are visible from any given Earth
station. These limits are set by the geographic coordinates of the Earth
station and antenna elevation. The lowest elevation is zero but in
practice, to avoid reception of excess noise from Earth. Some finite
minimum value of elevation is issued. The earth station can see a satellite
over a geostationary arc bounded by +- (81.30) about the earth station’s
longitude. www.EnggTree.com

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Eclipse
It occurs when Earth’s equatorial plane coincides with the plane the
Earth’s orbit around the sun. Near the time of spring and autumnal
equinoxes, when the sun is crossing the equator, the satellite passes into
sun’s shadow. This happens for some duration of time every day. These
eclipses begin 23 days before the equinox and end 23 days after the
equinox. They last for almost 10 minutes at the beginning and end of
equinox and increase for a maximum period of 72 minutes at a full eclipse.
The solar cells of the satellite become non-functional during the
eclipse period and the satellite is made to operate with the help of power
supplied from the batteries. A satellite will have the eclipse duration
symmetric around the time t=Satellite Longitude/15 + 12 hours. A satellite
at Greenwich longitude 0 will have the eclipse duration symmetric around
0/15 UTC +12hours = 00:00 UTC.
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The eclipse will happen at night but for satellites in the east it will
happen late evening local time. For satellites in the west eclipse will
happen in the early morning hour’s local time. An earth caused eclipse will
normally not happen during peak viewing hours if the satellite is located
near the longitude of the coverage area. Modern satellites are well
equipped with batteries for operation during eclipse.

Fig 1.11 A satellite east of the earth station enters eclipse during
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daylight busy hours at the earth station. A Satellite west of

earth station enters eclipse during night hours
Sub satellite Point
Sub satellite Point is the point at which a line between the satellite and
the center of the Earth intersects the Earth’s surface. The location of the
point is expressed in terms of latitude and longitude. If one is in the US
it is common to use -
 Latitude – degrees north from equator
 Longitude – degrees west of the Greenwich meridianas:

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Fig 1.12 Sub satellite Point

Sun Transit Outage

Sun transit outage is an interruption or distortion of geostationary satellite

signals caused by interference from solar radiations. Sun appears to be an
extremely noisy source which completely blanks out the signal from
satellite. This effect lasts for 6 days around the equinoxes. They occur for
a maximum period of 10 minutes.
Generally, sun outages occur in February, March, September and
October, that is, around the time of the equinoxes. At these times, the
apparent path of the sun across the sky takes it directly behind the line
of sight between an earth station and a satellite.

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As the sun radiates strongly at the microwave frequencies used to

communicate with satellites (C-band, Ka band and Ku band) the sun
swamps the signal from the satellite. The effects of a sun outage can
include partial degradation, that is, an increase in the error rate, or total
destruction of the signal.

Fig 1.13 Earth Eclipse of a Satellite and Sun transit

Outage
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Launching Procedures
Introduction
Low Earth Orbiting satellites are directly injected into their orbits. This cannot be done in case of
GEOs as they have to be positioned 36,000kms above the Earth’s surface. Hence Launch vehicles
are used to set these satellites in their orbits. These vehicles are reusable. They are also known as
Space Transportation System (STS). When the orbital altitude is greater than 1,200 km it will be
expensive to inject the satellite in its orbit directly. For this purpose, a satellite must be placed to a
transfer orbit between the initial lower orbit and destination orbit. The transfer orbit is commonly
known as Hohmann-Transfer Orbit.
Orbit Transfer

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Fig 1.14 Orbit Transfer Positions

Hohmann Transfer Orbit

This manoeuvre is named after the German Civil Engineer Walter Hohmann, who first
proposed it. He didn't work in rocketry professionally but was a key member of Germany's
pioneering Society for Space Travel that included people such as Willy Ley, Hermann, and
Werner von Braun. He published his concept of how to transfer between orbits in his 1925 book,
The Attainability of Celestial Bodies.
The transfer orbit is selected to minimize the energy required for the transfer. This orbit
forms a tangent to the low attitude orbit at the point of its perigee and tangent to high altitude orbit
at the point of its apogee.

Launch Vehicles and Propulsion

The rocket injects the satellite with the required thrust into the transfer orbit. With the STS,
the satellite carries a perigee kick motor which imparts the required thrust to inject the satellite in
its transfer orbit. Similarly, an apogee kick motor (AKM) is used to inject the satellite in its
destination orbit.
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Generally it takes 1-2 months for the satellite to become fully functional. The Earth Station
performs the Telemetry Tracking and Command function to control the satellite transits and
functionalities. Thrust is a reaction force described by Newton's second and third laws. When a
system expels or accelerates mass in one direction the accelerated mass will cause a force of equal
magnitude but opposite direction on that system.
Kick Motor refers to a rocket motor regularly employed on artificial satellites destined for
a geostationary orbit. As the vast majority of geostationary satellite launches are carried out from
spaceports at a significant distance away from Earth's equator.
The carrier rocket would only be able to launch the satellite into an elliptical orbit of
maximum apogee 35,784-kilometres and with a non-zero inclination approximately equal to the
latitude of the launch site.
TT&C: It is a sub-system where the functions performed by the satellite control network to
maintain health and status, measure specific mission parameters and processing over time a
sequence of these measurement to refine parameter knowledge, and transmit mission commands to
the satellite.
Transfer Orbit
It is better to launch rockets closer to the equator because the Earth rotates at a greater
speed here than that at either pole.www.EnggTree.com
This extra speed at the equator means a rocket needs less thrust
and less fuel to launch into orbit.
In addition, launching at the equator provides an additional 1,036 mph of speed once the
vehicle reaches orbit. This speed bonus means the vehicle needs less fuel, and that freed space can
be used to carry more pay load.

Fig 1.5 Hohmann Transfer Orbit

CEC352-Satellite Communication

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OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Fig 1.16 Launching stages of a GEO

Rocket Launch
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A rocket launch is the takeoff phase of the flight of a rocket. Launches for orbital
spaceflights, or launches into interplanetary space, are usually from a fixed location on the ground,
but may also be from a floating platform or potentially, from a super heavy An-225-class airplane.
Launches of suborbital flights (including missile launches), can also be from:
 a missile silo
 a mobile launcher vehicle
 a submarine
 air launch:
 from a plane (e.g. Scaled Composites Space Ship One, Pegasus Rocket, X-15)
 from a balloon (Rockoon, daVinci Project (under development))
 a surface ship (Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System)
 an inclined rail (e.g. rocket sled launch)

CEC352-Satellite Communication

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"Rocket launch technologies" generally refers to the entire set of systems needed to
successfully launch a vehicle, not just the vehicle itself, but also the firing control systems, ground
control station, launch pad, and tracking stations needed for a successful launch and/or recovery.
Orbital launch vehicles commonly take off vertically, and then begin to progressively lean over,
following a gravity turn trajectory.
Once above the majority of the atmosphere, the vehicle then angles the rocket jet, pointing it
largely horizontally but somewhat downwards, which permits the vehicle to gain and then maintain
altitude while increasing horizontal speed. As the speed grows, the vehicle will become more and
more horizontal until at orbital speed, the engine will cut off.

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Fig 1.17 STS-7/Anik C2 mission scenario

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Spacecraft Technology- Structure

A satellite communications system can be broadly divided into two
segments—a ground segment and a space segment.
The space segment will obviously include the satellites, but it also
includes the ground facilities needed to keep the satellites operational,
these being referred to as the Tracking, Telemetry, and Command (TT&C)
facilities. In many networks it is a common practice to employ a ground
station solely for the purpose of TT&C.

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Fig 2.1 Satellite Structure

The equipment carried aboard the satellite also can be classified
according to function. The
payload refers to the equipment used to provide the service for which the
satellite has been launched.
In a communications satellite, the equipment which provides the
connecting link between the satellite’s transmit and receive antennas is
referred to as the Transponder. The transponder forms one of the main
sections of the payload, the other being the antenna subsystems. In this
chapter the main characteristics of certain bus systems and payloads are
described.

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The Power Supply

The primary electrical power for operating the electronic equipment
is obtained from solar cells. Individual cells can generate only small
amounts of power and therefore, arrays of cells in series-parallel
connection are required. Figure 2.1 shows the solar cell panels for the
HS 376 satellite manufactured by Hughes Space and Communications
Company.
In geostationary orbit the telescoped panel is fully extended so that
both are exposed to sun- light. At the beginning of life, the panels produce
940 W dc power, which may drop to 760 W at the end of 10 years. During
eclipse, power is provided by two nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) long-life
batteries, which will deliver 830 W. At the end of life, battery recharge time
is less than 16 h.

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Fig 2.2 Satellite Eclipse time as a function of the current day of the year
In cylindrical and solar-sail satellites, the cross-over point is estimated to
be about 2 kW, where the solar-sail type is more economical than the
cylindrical type.

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ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

2.2 The Power Supply

The primary electrical power for operating the electronic

equipment is obtained from solar cells. Individual cells can
generate only small amounts of power, and therefore, arrays of
cells in seriesparallel connection are required.

Figure shows the solar cell panels for the HS 376 satellite
manufactured by Hughes Space and Communications Company.

In geostationary orbit the telescoped panel is fully extended

so that both are exposed to sun - light. At the beginning of life, the
panels produce 940 W dc power, which may drop to 760 W at the end
of 10 years.

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During eclipse, power is provided by two nickel -cadmium (Ni -
Cd) long - life batteries, which will deliver 830 W. At the end of life,
battery recharge time is less than 16 h.

Figure 2.1.(b) Satellite eclipse time as a function of the current

day of the year. (Courtesy of
Spilker, 1977. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-

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Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

capacity of cylindrical and solar-sail satellites, the cross-over

point is esti- mated to be about 2 kW, where the solar-sail type is
more economical than the cylindrical type (Hyndman, 1991).
Power Systems

▪ Options for electrical-power production & storage for space missions,

current and under development, are shown in the following figure in terms
of power vs. mission duration,

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Figure 9.1: Spacecraft power systems (Hyder).

▪ Primary Batteries:
· Produce direct current by electrochemistry
· Currently used: LiCFx (lithium polycarbon
monofluoride) electrolyte · Economical for small
spacecraft for missions of relatively short duration.

▪ Solar PV – Battery:
· Photovoltaic cell, semi-conductor material, directly converts sunlight to
electricity.
· Most widely used energy-conversion device for spacecraft

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· Provide relatively high power levels over long duration
(up to 10 to 15 years). · Batteries required to provide power
during eclipse.

▪ Radioisotope-Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs):

· Compact and continuous source of power
· Used in deep-space missions over several decades
· Considered nuclear fuel but relatively easy to handle safely:
Curium-244 & Plutonium-238
[strontium-90 less expensive but not safe to handle]
· High energy particles heat a thermoelectric material that, in turn,
produces an electric potential:
Lead telluride SiGe (silicon germanium) doped w. phosphorous

▪ Fuel cells:
· Produce direct current bywww.EnggTree.com
chemical reaction of an oxidant and a fuel.
· Currently used:O2 & H2.
· Work as long as supply of oxidant & fuel available.

▪ Solar Concentrator – Dynamic:

· Mirrors used to concentrate sunlight to heat a working fluid that powers a
turbine:
Steam Liquid metal, e.g. potassium chloride Gas, e.g. helium, xenon

▪ Chemical Dynamic:
· Burn fuel & oxidant, e.g. H2 &O2, CH4 &O2, to power a turbine.

Power conversion & storage options and status:

Table 9.1: Power system current and estimated performance (Hyder et al.).

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Table 9.2: Power Limits & Performance.

System Limit, kW Eff, % SP, W/kg Source
Solar-PV 20 15- 5-10 experience
30
RTG 1 7- 7-15 same
15
Nuclear-TEC 100 7- ? projected
15
SP is specific
power

R&D always seeking improvements:

Example) NASA funding development of solar array design for SP
100 W kg .
- Copper-indium-diselenide thin-film PV cell

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- Low-mass structure
▪ Basic Power System
· A general system is shown in the following block diagram,

Figure 9.2: Power system block diagram (Patel).

▪ System Voltage
· Initial spacecraft designed for 28 VDC (automotive typically 12 VDC).
· Higher the power requirement → higher the operating voltage to reduce
losses, i.e.
P IV V IRwww.EnggTree.com
I current, amperes R resistance,ohms
Ploss I R2 in conductors
For fixed power: Higher the voltage, lower the current, lower the loss.

· Standard distribution (“bus”) voltages:

28 50 70 100 120 160 V

Figure 9.3: Bus voltage versus power level for several

spacecraft (Patel).
LM A2100: Communications satellite
LM7000: Communications, Intelsat, 1998

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BSS702: Communications, VSAT, 2001
ISS: International Space Station
SP-100: Space Power 100 kW (program canceled)

▪ Rules-of-thumb for bus voltage in LEO orbits:

1. Above ~160 V, solar-array current-leakage to space plasma (negatively
charged electron field) starts to increase exponentially, with electric
arcing above ~180 to 200 V.
2. At 100 V, for every square meter of leakage exposed
conductor area, current 1 mA .
Leakage current increases with voltage.
3. Above 160 V, conductors require insulation (additional mass).
Voltage Scaling Law:
· Design experience has shown empirically,
Vopt 0.025 P (9.1.1)
where Vopt optimum system voltage
Prequired system power
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▪ Mass Scaling Law:
· An empirical scaling law to estimate mass of a new system, from design
experience, is,
0.7
P
mnewmexistnew (9.1.2)
Pexist
where mnew mass of a new system mexist
mass of an existing, similar system Pnew
power requirement of the new system

Pexistpower of existing system

▪ A more detailed system diagram showing various power subsystems is

given below,

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Figure 9.4: Spacecraft power system block diagram (Hyder et al.)

Solar PV – Battery System
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▪ The most common electrical-power-generation system for spacecraft is
the combination of solarphotovoltaic arrays and batteries as shown
schematically in the following figure,

Figure 9.5: Photovoltaic- battery system (Patel).

PMAD = power management and distribution
PRU = power regulation unit
BAT = batteries

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EPS = electrical power system
= drive,rotates 360o once per orbit
= gimbals, rotate o to compensate for the solar
angle

The PV Cell

▪ The building block of the solar array is the PV cell:

· Diode-type junction of two crystalline semiconductors
· Generates electricity directly under sunlight
· Photons transferred to electron system of the material, create charge
carriers
· Charge carriers produce a potential gradient (voltage), circulate as current
in an external circuit
· Concept illustrated in the following simple schematic,
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Figure 9.6: Photovoltaic cell cross-section (Patel).

The conversion efficiency of a PV cell is given by,

IV
electrical power output
(9.2.1)
solar power incident on the cell PSF

▪Conversion efficiency for three common PV cell materials:

Silicon (Si) 12-14%
Gallium arsenide/Germanium

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(GaAs/Ge) 18-19%
GaInP2/GaAs/Ge 24-26%

▪ The useful energy absorption of the sunlight spectrum for silicon is

illustrated in the following figure,

Figure 9.7: Sunlight spectrum and useable photovoltaic spectrum.

· About two-thirds of solar-radiation energy lies between wavelengths,
0.4 1.1 m.
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· Silicon has a cut-off wavelength of about, 1.1 m.
· Radiation absorbed and not converted to electrical power is converted to
heat in the cell material
Example:A photon of blue light, energy of 3 eV, generates about 0.5 eV of
electricity and 2.5 eV of heat.
▪ Photon energy is given by,

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ep h (9.2.2)
34
h Planck's constant 6.62610 J-s
frequency, cps

c (9.2.3)
8
c speed of light 2.997910 m/s
wave length
▪ The complex physics of a PV cell can be represented by the electrical circuit in the following diagram,

where
and,
where

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Figure 9.8: Photovoltaic-cell equivalent circuit (Patel).

· The cell acts as a constant current source shunted by a perfect diode:
Here, Issource or photo current
Idthe diode current
Ishthe ground shunt current
Rsinternal resistance of the material
Rshresistance to internal current leakage to ground

In an ideal PV cell, Rs0 (no series loss)

Rsh (no leakage to ground)
In a typical silicon cell, Rs0.05 to 0.10
Rsh200 to 300

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· The current delivered to the external load is,

I Is Id I sh (9.2.4)

· An important parameter for PV cells is the open-circuit voltage,Voc, and is

the case for zero load current, i.e. an open circuit, given by,
Voc V IRs (9.2.5)

· The diode current is given by the classical diode-current expression,

Id Io e qVoc AkT 1 (9.2.6) where Io diode-saturation (dark) current q
electron charge 0.1592 10 18 coulombs k Boltzmann's constant 1.381 10
23
J/K
Tabsolute temperature, K
Acurve-fit constant

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· From (3.4) & (3.6), the load current is,
I IsIo e qVoc AkT1 Voc
(9.2.7)
Rsh
where Voc Rshground leakageand can be ignored compared to Is &Id .

· The diode-saturation current is measured by applying an open-circuit

voltage,Voc, to the cell in the dark and measuring the current going to the
cell.

· Under sunlight, the diode current, Id , is small compared to Is.

The I-V and P-V curves for a cell in sunlight are shown in the following
figures,

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Figure 9.9: Photovoltaic-cell current-voltage and power-voltage

characteristics (Patel).

· In figure (a), Isc is the short-circuit current that is determined by shorting

the output terminals and measuring the resultant current under full
sunlight.

· Ignoring the small diode and ground leakage current in (2.7), the short-
circuit current is ~ equalwww.EnggTree.com
to the load current, where the load current is a
maximum.
- This is the maximum current a cell can provide.

· At the bottom right of the curve, at zero current, is the open-circuit

voltage,Voc.

Ignoring ground-leakage current, the open-circuit voltage can be obtained

from (3.7) for I 0, where,
qVoc AkT
Io e 1
Is
or AkT I
oc ln s 1
q Io
V(9.2.8)

· In practical photocells, the photo current Is Io.

· Under constant illumination, Is Io is a function of cell temperature.

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▪ Cell output power is the product of load current and voltage. The
functional relationship is shown in (b) in the figure at the top.

· The maximum power of a photo cell occurs at the knee in the I-V curve.
- Solar panels are designed to operate at this point.
- Solar panels are modeled in the electrical system as a constant-current
source, per (a) above.

· Typical photo-cell characteristics:

Material Vmp, V Imp, mA/cm2 Pmp, mW/cm2
Silicon 0.50 40 20
GaAs 1.0 30 30

▪ An important effect for solar-array design is PV-cell degradation from

radiation of charged particles in space: Protons, electrons, alpha particles.
· Different particles have different damaging effect on Isc &Voc.
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· Radiation levels measured in MeV (106 electron-volts) for a given period
of time.
· Degradation of p/n GaAs solar cells is shown in the next figure for proton
fluence,

Figure 9.10: Photovoltaic-cell power output as a function of proton fluence

(Hyder et al.).

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Attitude Control & Orbit Control

The attitude of a satellite refers to its orientation in space. Much of

the equipment carried aboard a satellite is meant for the purpose of
controlling its attitude. Attitude control is necessary, to ensure that
directional antennas point in the proper directions. In the case of earth
environmental satellites, the earth-sensing instruments must cover the
required regions of the earth, which also requires attitude control. A
number of forces, referred to as disturbance torques, can alter the attitude,
some examples being the gravitational fields of the earth and the moon,
solar radiation, and meteorite impacts.
Attitude control must not be confused with station keeping, which is
used for maintaining a satellite in its correct orbital position, although the
two are closely related. To exercise attitude control, there must be
available some measure www.EnggTree.com
of a satellite’s orientation in space and of any
tendency for this to shift. In one method, infrared sensors, referred to as
horizon detectors, are used to detect the rim of the earth against the
background of space.
With the use of four such sensors, one for each quadrant, the center
of the earth can be readily established as a reference point. The attitude-
control process takes place aboard the satellite, but it is also possible for
control signals to be transmitted from earth, based on attitude data
obtained from the satellite. Whenever a shift in attitude is desired, an
attitude maneuver is executed. The control signals needed to achieve this
maneuver may be transmitted from an earth station.

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Controlling torques may be generated in a number of ways. Passive

attitude control refers to the use of mechanisms which stabilize the
satellite without putting a drain on the satellite’s energy supplies; at most,
infrequent use is made of these supplies, for example, when thruster jets
are impulsed to provide corrective torque. Examples of passive attitude
control are spin stabilization and gravity gradient stabilization.
The other form of attitude control is active control. With active
attitude control, there is no overall stabilizing torque present to resist the
disturbance torques. Instead, corrective torques are applied in response to
disturbance torques. Methods used to generate active control torques
include momentum wheels, electromagnetic coils, and mass expulsion
devices, such as gas jets and ion thrusters.

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Fig 2.3 Roll, Pitch, and Yaw Axes (b) RPY axes for Geostationary Orbit
The three axes which define a satellite’s attitude are its roll, pitch,
and yaw (RPY) axes. These are shown relative to the earth in Figure
2.3. All three axes pass through the center of gravity of the satellite. For
an equatorial orbit, movement of the satellite about the roll axis moves the
antenna footprint north and south; movement about the pitch axis moves
the footprint east and west; and movement about the yaw axis rotates the
antenna footprint.
20

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Spinning Satellite Stabilization

Spin stabilization may be achieved with cylindrical satellites. The
satellite is constructed so that it is mechanically balanced about one
particular axis and is then set spinning around this axis. For geostationary
satellites, the spin axis is adjusted to be parallel to the N-S axis of the
earth, as illustrated in Figure 2.4. Spin rate is typically in the range of 50
to 100 rev/minute. Spin is initiated during the launch phase by means of
small gas jets.

In the absence of disturbance torques, the spinning satellite would

maintain its correct attitude relative to the earth. Disturbance torques are
generated in a number of ways, both external and internal to the satellite.
Solar radiation, gravitational gradients, and meteorite impacts are all
examples of external forces which can give rise to disturbance torques.
Motor-bearing friction and the movement of satellite elements such as the
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antennas also can give rise to disturbance torques.

Fig 2.4 Spin stabilization in the geostationary orbit

The overall effect is that the spin rate will decrease, and the direction
of the angular spin axis will change. Impulse-type thrusters, or jets, can
be used to increase the spin rate again and to shift the axis back to its correct
N-S orientation.
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Nutation, which is a form of wobbling, can occur as a result of the

disturbance torques and/or from misalignment or unbalance of the control
jets. This nutation must be damped out by means of energy absorbers
known as nutation dampers. The antenna feeds can be connected directly
to the transponders without the need for radiofrequency rotary joints, while
the complete platform is despun. Of course, control signals and power must
be transferred to the despun section and a mechanical bearing must be
provided. The complete assembly for this is known as the bearing and
power transfer assembly (BAPTA). Figure 2.5 shows a photograph of
the internal structure of the HS 376.

Certain dual-spin spacecraft obtain spin stabilization from a spinning

fly- wheel rather than by spinning the satellite itself. These flywheels are
termed momentum wheels, and their average momentum is referred to as
momentumbias.
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Fig 2.5 HS 376 Spacecraft

Momentum wheel stabilization

In the previous section the gyroscopic effect of a spinning satellite
is shown to provide stability for the satellite attitude. Stability also can be
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achieved by utilizing the gyroscopic effect of a spinning flywheel, and this
approach is used in satellites with cube-like bodies and the INTELSAT V
type satellites. These are known as body-stabilized satellites. The
complete unit, termed a momentum wheel, consists of a flywheel, the
bearing assembly, the casing, and an electric drive motor with associated
electronic control circuitry. The flywheel is attached to the rotor, which
consists of a permanent magnet providing the magnetic field for motor
action. The stator of the motor is attached to the body of the satellite.
Thus the motor provides the coupling between the flywheel and the
satellite structure. Speed and torque control of the motor is exercised
through the currents fed to the stator.

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.
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Fig 2.6 Alternative momentum wheel stabilization systems: (a) one-wheel, (b)
two- wheel, (c) three- wheel
When a momentum wheel is operated with zero momentum bias, it
is generally referred to as a reaction wheel. Reaction wheels are used in
three- axis stabilized systems. Here each axis is stabilized by a reaction
wheel, as shown in Figure 2.6. Reaction wheels can also be combined with
a momentum wheel to provide the control needed.
Random and cyclic disturbance torques tends to produce zero
momentum on average. However, there will always be some disturbance
torques that causes a cumulative increase in wheel momentum, and
eventually at some point the wheel saturates. In effect, it reaches its
maximum allowable angular velocity and can no longer take in any more
momentum. Mass expulsion devices are then used to unload the wheel,
remove momentum from it. The operation of the mass expulsion devices
consumes part of the satellite’s fuel supply.

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology

Thermal Control and Propulsion

Satellites are subject to large thermal gradients, receiving the sun’s
radiation on one side while the other side faces into space. In addition,
thermal radiation from the earth and the earth’s albedo, which is the
fraction of the radiation falling on earth which is reflected, can be
significant for low-altitude earth-orbiting satellites, although it is negligible
for geostationary satellites.
Equipment in the satellite also generates heat which has to be
removed. The most important consideration is that the satellite’s
equipment should operate as nearly as possible in a stable temperature
environment. Thermal blankets and shields may be used to provide
insulation. Radiation mirrors are often used to remove heat from the
communications payload.
The mirrored thermal radiator for the Hughes HS 376 satellite can
be seen in Figure 2.5. These mirrored drums surround the communications
equipment shelves in each www.EnggTree.com
case and provide good radiation paths for the
generated heat to escape into the surrounding space.
One advantage of spinning satellites compared with body-stabilized
is that the spinning body provides an averaging of the temperature
extremes experienced from solar flux and the cold back-ground of deep
space. In order to maintain constant temperature conditions, heaters may
be switched on to make up for the heat reduction which occurs when
transponders are switched off. The INTELSAT VI satellite heaters are
used to maintain propulsion thrusters and line temperatures.

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology

Communication Payload and Supporting Subsystems

The physical principle of establishing communication connections
between remote communication devices dates back to the late 1800s
when scientists were beginning to understand electromagnetism and
discovered that electromagnetic radiation generated by one device can
be detected by another located at some distance away.
By controlling certain aspects of the radiation, useful information can
be embedded in the EM waves and transmitted from one device to
another. The second major module is the communication payload, which
is made up of transponders. A transponder is capable of -
 Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth satellite transmission
stations (antennas).
 Amplifying received radio signals.
 Sorting the input signals and directing the output signals through
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input/output signal multiplexers to the proper downlink antennas
for retransmission to earth satellite receiving stations (antennas).
Telemetry, Tracking and Command Subsystem (TTC)
The TT&C subsystem performs several routine functions aboard the
spacecraft. The telemetry function could be interpreted as measurement
at a distance. It refers to the overall operation of generating an
electrical signal proportional to the quantity being measured and
encoding and transmitting this to a distant station, which for the satellite is
one of the earth stations.

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Data transmitted as telemetry signals include attitude information

such as that obtained from sun and earth sensors; environmental
information such as the magnetic field intensity and direction, the
frequency of meteorite impact etc and spacecraft information such as
temperatures, power supply voltages, and stored-fuel pressure.
The telemetry subsystem transmits information about the satellite to
the earth station, while the command subsystem receives command
signals from the earth station, often in response to telemetered
information. The command subsystem demodulates and decodes the
command signals and routes these to the appropriate equipment needed to
execute the necessary action. Thus attitude changes may be made,
communication transponders switched in and out of circuits, antennas
redirected, and station-keeping maneuvers carried out on command. It is
important to prevent unauthorized commands from being received and
decoded, and the command signals are often encrypted.
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Encrypt is derived from a Greek word kryptein, meaning to hide,
and represents the process of concealing the command signals in a
secure code. This differs from the normal process of encoding which
converts characters in the command signal into a code suitable for
transmission. Tracking of the satellite is accomplished by having the
satellite transmit beacon signals which are received at the TT&C earth
stations. Tracking is obviously important during the transfer and drift
orbital phases of the satellite launch. Once it is on station, the position of
a geo-stationary satellite will tend to be shifted as a result of the various
disturbing forces. Therefore, it is necessary to be able to track the
satellite’s movement and send correction signals as required.
Transponders
A transponder is the series of interconnected units which forms a
single communications channel between the receive and transmit antennas
in a communications satellite. Some of the units utilized by a transponder

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology

in a given channel may be common to a number of transponders. Thus,

although reference may be made to a specific transponder, this must be
thought of as an equipment channel rather than a single item of equipment.
Before describing in detail the various units of a transponder, the
overall frequency arrangement of a typical C-band communications
satellite will be examined briefly. The bandwidth allocated for C-band
service is 500 MHz, and this is divided into sub-bands, one
transponder.

A typical transponder bandwidth is 36 MHz, and allowing for a 4-

MHz guard-band between transponders, 12 such transponders can be
accommodated in the 500-MHz bandwidth.

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Fig 2.7 Satellite Control System

By making use of polarization isolation, this number can be doubled.

Polarization isolation refers that carriers, which may be on the same
frequency but with opposite senses of polarization, can be isolated from
one another by receiving antennas matched to the incoming polarization.
With linear polarization, vertically and horizontally polarized carriers
can be separated in this way, and with circular polarization, left-hand
circular and right-hand circular polarizations can be separated. Because
the carriers with opposite senses of polarization may overlap in
frequency, this technique is referred to as frequency reuse. Figure 2.8
shows part of the frequency and polarization plan for a C-band
communications satellite.

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Fig 2.8 Section of an Uplink Frequency and Polarization Plan

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology

Frequency reuse also may be achieved with spot-beam antennas,

and these may be combined with polarization reuse to provide an
effective bandwidth of 2000 MHz from the actual bandwidth of 500
MHz. For one of the polarization groups, Figure 2.8 shows the
channeling scheme for the 12 transponders in more detail. The incoming,
or uplink, frequency range is 5.925 to 6.425 GHz. The frequency
conversion shifts the carriers to the downlink frequency band, which is
also 500 MHz wide, extending from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz. At this point the
signals are channelized into frequency bands which represent the
individual transponder bandwidths.
The wideband receiver
The wideband receiver is shown in more detail in Fig. 2.10. A
duplicate receiver is provided so that if one fails, the other is
automatically switched in. The combination is referred to as a
redundant receiver, meaningwww.EnggTree.com
that although two are provided, only one is
in use at a giventime.
The first stage in the receiver is a low-noise amplifier (LNA).
This amplifier adds little noise to the carrier being amplified, and at the
same time it provides sufficient amplification for the carrier to override
the higher noise level present in the following mixer stage.

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Fig 2.9 Satellite Transponder Channels

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Fig 2.10 Satellite Wideband Receiver

It is more convenient to refer all noise levels to the LNA input, where
the total receiver noise may be expressed in terms of an equivalent
noise temperature. In a well-designed receiver, the equivalent noise
temperature referred to the LNA input is basically that of the LNA
alone. The overall noise temperature must take into account the noise
added from the antenna. The equivalent noise temperature of a satellite
receiver may be on the order of a few hundred kelvins.
The LNA feeds into a mixer stage, which also requires a local
oscillator (LO) signal for the frequency-conversion process. With
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advances in field-effect transistor (FET) technology, FET amplifiers,

which offer equal or better performance, are now available for both bands.
Diode mixer stages are used. The amplifier following the mixer may
utilize bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) at 4 GHz and FETs at 12 GHz,
or FETs may in fact be used in both bands.
The input de-multiplexer
The input de-multiplexer separates the broadband input, covering
the frequency range 3.7 to 4.2 GHz, into the transponder frequency
channels. This provides greater frequency separation between adjacent
channels in a group, which reduces adjacent channel interference. The
output from the receiver is fed to a power splitter, which in turn feeds
the two separate chains of circulators.

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Fig 2.11 Satellite Input Multiplexer

The full broadband signal is transmitted along each chain, and the
channelizing is achieved by means of channel filters connected to each
circulator. Each filter has a bandwidth of 36 MHz and is tuned to the
appropriate center frequency, as shown in Fig. 2.11. Although there are
considerable losses in the demultiplexer, these are easily made up in
the overall gain for the transponder channels.
The power amplifier
The fixed attenuation is needed to balance out variations in the
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input attenuation so that each transponder channel has the same nominal
attenuation, the necessary adjustments being made during assembly. The
variable attenuation is needed to set the level as required for different
types of service. Because this variable attenuator adjustment is an
operational requirement, it must be under the control of the ground
TT&C station.
Traveling-wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) are widely used in
transponders to provide the final output power required to the transmit
antenna. Figure 2.12 shows the schematic of a traveling wave tube (TWT)
and its power supplies. In the TWT, an electron-beam gun assembly
consisting of a heater, a cathode, and focusing electrodes is used to form
an electron beam. A magnetic field is required to confine the beam to
travel along the inside of a wire helix.

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Fig 2.12 Satellite TWTA

The magnetic field can be provided by means of a solenoid and

dc power supply. The comparatively large size and high power
consumption of solenoids make them unsuitable for use aboard satellites
and lower-power TWTs are used which employ permanent-magnet
focusing. The wave will travel around the helical path at close to the
speed of light, but it is the axial component of wave velocity which
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interacts with the electron beam.

This component is less than the velocity of light approximately in
the ratio of helix pitch to circumference. Because of this effective
reduction in phase velocity, the helix is referred to as a slow wave
structure. The advantage of the TWT over other types of tube amplifiers
is that it can provide amplification over a very wide bandwidth. Input
levels to the TWT must be carefully controlled, however to minimize
the effects of certain forms of distortion. The results from the nonlinear
transfer characteristic of the TWT are illustrated in Figure 2.13.

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Fig 2.13 Power Transfer Characteristics of a TWT

At low-input powers, the output-input power relationship is linear. At

higher power inputs, the output power saturates, the point of maximum
power output being known as the saturation point. The saturation point
is a very convenient reference point and input and output quantities are
usually referred to it. The linear region of the TWT is defined as the
region bound by the thermal noise limit at the low end and by what is
termed the 1-dB compression point at the upper end. This is the point
where the actual transfer curve drops.
Satellite Uplink and Downlink Analysis and Design
Introduction
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The link-power budget calculations basically relate two quantities,

the transmit power and the receive power, and show in detail how the
difference between these two powers is accounted for. Link-budget
calculations are usually made using decibel or decilog quantities.
Where no ambiguity arises regarding the units, the abbreviation dB is
used. For example, Boltzmann’s constant is given as 228.6 dB, although,
strictly speaking, this should be given as 228.6 deci logs relative to 1
J/K.
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
A key parameter in link-budget calculations is the equivalent
isotropic radiated power, conventionally denoted EIRP. The maximum
power flux density at some distance ‘r’ for transmitting antenna of gain
‘G i'

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An isotropic radiator with an input power equal to GPS would
produce the same flux density. Hence, this product is referred to as the
EIRP, or EIRP is often expressed in decibels relative to 1 W, or dBW.
Let PS be in watts; then [EIRP] = [PS] x [G] dB , where [PS] is also in
dBW and [G] is in dB.

Transmission Losses
The [EIRP] may be thought of as the power input to one end of the
transmission link, and the problem is to find the power received at the
other end. Losses will occur along the way, some of which are constant.
Other losses can only be estimated from statistical data, and some of
these are dependent on weather conditions, especially on rainfall.
The first step in the calculations is to determine the losses for
clear- weather or clear-sky conditions. These calculations take into
account the losses, including those calculated on a statistical basis which
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does not vary with time. Losses which are weather-related, and other
losses which fluctuate with time, are then allowed for by introducing
appropriate fade margins into the transmission equation.

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Free-space transmission:
As a first step in the loss calculations, the power loss resulting
from the spreading of the signal in space must be determined.
Feeder losses:
Losses will occur in the connection between the receive antenna
and the receiver proper. Such losses will occur in the connecting
waveguides, filters, and couplers. These will be denoted by RFL, or [RFL]
dB, for receiver feeder losses.
Antenna misalignment losses:
When a satellite link is established, the ideal situation is to have
the earth station and satellite antennas aligned for maximum gain, as
shown in Figure 2.14. There are two possible sources of off-axis loss,
one at the satellite and one at the earth station. The off-axis loss at the
satellite is taken into account by designing the link for operation on the
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actual satellite antenna contour; this is described in more detail in later
sections. The off-axis loss at the earth station is referred to as the
antenna pointing loss. Antenna pointing losses are usually only a few
tenths of a decibel. In addition to pointing losses, losses may result at the
antenna from misalignment of the polarization direction. The
polarization misalignment losses are usually small, and it will be
assumed that the antenna misalignment losses, denoted by [AML],
include both pointing and polarization losses resulting from antenna
misalignment.

36

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Fig 2.14 (a) Satellite and earth-station antennas aligned for maximum gain; (b) earth
station situated on a
given satellite “footprint,” and earth-station antenna misaligned.

The Link-Power Budget Equation

The losses for the link have been identified, the power at the
receiver, which is the power output of the link, may be calculated simply
as [EIRP] [LOSSES] [GRwww.EnggTree.com
], where the last quantity is the receiver antenna
gain. The major source of loss in any ground-satellite link is the free-
space spreading loss [FSL], the basic link-power budget equation
taking into account this loss only. However, the other losses also must be
taken into account, and these are simply added to [FSL].

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The losses for clear-sky conditions are

[LOSSES] = [FSL] +[RFL] +[AML]+[AA] -[PL] equation for the
received power is then [PR] = [EIRP] X [GR] -[LOSSES]
Whe
re
[PR] - the received power, dBW
[EIRP] - equivalent isotropic radiated power, dBW [FSL] free-
space spreading loss, dB [RFL] - receiver feeder loss, dB
[AML] -antenna misalignment loss, dB
[AA] - atmospheric absorption loss, dB [PL] polarization
mismatchloss, dB

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2.8.1 Amplifier Noise Temperature

Consider first the noise representation of the antenna and the low
noise amplifier (LNA) shown in Fig. 2.15. The available power gain
of the amplifier is denoted as G, and the noise power output, as Pno.

Fig 2.15 LNA Amplifier Gain

For the moment, the noisewww.EnggTree.com

power per unit bandwidth, which is simply
noise energy in joules as shown by the following Equation. The input
noise energy coming from the antenna is
N0,ant = kTant
The Uplink
The uplink of a satellite circuit is the one in which the earth
station is transmitting the signal and he satellite is receiving it
tspecifically that the uplink is being considered.

In the above equation, the values to be used are the earth

station EIRP, the satellite receiver feeder losses, and satellite receiver
G/T. The free-space loss and other losses which are frequency-
dependent are calculated for the uplink frequency.

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Input back-off
Since the number of carriers are present simultaneously in a TWTA, the
operating point must be backed off to a linear portion of the transfer
characteristic to reduce the effects of inter modulation distortion. Such
multiple carrier operation occurs with frequency- division multiple
access (FDMA). The point to be made here is that backoff (BO) must be
allowed for in the link- budget calculations. Suppose that the saturation
flux density for single-carrier operation is known. Input BO will be
specified for multiple-carrier operation, referred to the single- carrier
saturation level.
The earth-station EIRP will have to be reduced by the specified BO,
resulting in an uplink value of [EIRP] U = [EIRPS] U
+ [BO]i
The earth station HPA
The earth station HPA has to supply the radiated power plus the
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transmit feeder losses, denoted here by TFL, or [TFL] dB. These include
waveguide, filter, and coupler losses between the HPA output and the
transmit antenna. The earth station may have to transmit multiple carriers
and its output also will require back off, denoted by [BO]HPA. The earth
station HPA must be rated for a saturation power output given by
[PHPA,sat] = [PHPA] + [BO]HPA
Downlink
The downlink of a satellite circuit is the one in which the satellite is
transmitting the signal and the earth station is receiving it. Equation can be
applied to the downlink, but subscript D will be used to denote specifically
that the downlink is being considered.

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In the above equation, the values to be used are the satellite

EIRP, the earth- station receiver feeder losses, and the earth-station
receiver G/T. The free space and other losses are calculated for the
downlink frequency. The resulting carrier-to-noise density ratio appears
at the detector of the earth station receiver.
Output back-off
Where input BO is employed as described in a corresponding output
BO must be allowed for in the satellite EIRP. As the curve of Figure
2.16 shows that output BO is not linearly related to input BO. A rule of
thumb, frequently used, is to take the output BO as the point on the curve
which is 5 dB below the extrapolated linear portion. Since the linear
portion gives a 1:1 change in decibels, the relationship between input and
output BO is [BO]0 [BO]i 5 dB. For example, with an input BO of
[BO]i 11 dB, the corresponding output BO is [BO]0

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Fig 2.16 Input and output back- off relationship for the satellite traveling-wave-tube amplifier

Effects of Rain
In the C band and, more especially, the Ku band, rainfall is the
most significant cause of signal fading. Rainfall results in attenuation of
radio waves by scattering and by absorption of energy from the wave.
Rain attenuation increases with increasing frequency and is worse in the
Ku band compared with the C band. This produces a depolarization of
the wave; in effect, the wave becomes elliptically polarized. This is true
for both linear and circular polarizations, and the effect seems to be
much worse for circular polarization. The C/N0 ratio for the downlink

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alone, not counting the PNU contribution, is PR/PND, and the

combined C/N0 ratio at the ground receiver is

Fig 2.17 (a) Combined uplink and downlink (b) power flow diagram

The reason for this reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals method is that
a single signal power is being transferred through the system, while the
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various noise powers, which are present are additive. Similar reasoning
applies to the carrier-to-noise ratio, C/N.
Inter-modulation and Interference
Inter-modulation interference is the undesired combining of several
signals in a nonlinear device, producing new, unwanted frequencies
which can cause interference in adjacent receivers located at repeater
sites. Not all interference is a result of inter-modulation distortion. It can
come from co-channel interference, atmospheric conditions as well as
man-made noise generated by medical, welding and heating equipment.
Most inter-modulation occurs in a transmitter's nonlinear power
amplifier (PA). The next most common mixing point is in the front end
of a receiver. Usually it occurs in the unprotected first mixer of older
model radios or in some cases an overdriven RF front-end amp.
Inter-modulation can also be produced in rusty or corroded tower
joints, guy wires, turnbuckles and anchor rods or any nearby metallic
object, which can act as a nonlinear "mixer/rectifier" device.

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Rohini College Of Engineering & Technology

CEC352-SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
3.1 Satellite Uplink and Downlink Analysis and Design
Introduction
The link-power budget calculations basically relate two quantities,
the transmit power and the receive power, and show in detail how the
difference between these two powers is accounted for. Link-budget
calculations are usually made using decibel or decilog quantities. Where
no ambiguity arises regarding the units, the abbreviation dB is used. For
example, Boltzmann’s constant is given as 228.6 dB, although, strictly
speaking, this should be given as 228.6 deci logs relative to 1 J/K.
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
A key parameter in link-budget calculations is the equivalent
isotropic radiated power, conventionally denoted EIRP. The maximum
power flux density at some distance ‘r’ for transmitting antenna of gain
‘G i' www.EnggTree.com

An isotropic radiator with an input power equal to GPS would

produce the same flux density. Hence, this product is referred to as the
EIRP, or EIRP is often expressed in decibels relative to 1 W, or dBW.
Let PS be in watts; then [EIRP] = [PS] x [G] dB , where [PS] is also in
dBW and [G] is in dB.

Transmission Losses
The [EIRP] may be thought of as the power input to one end of the
transmission link, and the problem is to find the power received at the
other end. Losses will occur along the way, some of which are constant.
Other losses can only be estimated from statistical data, and some of these
are dependent on weather conditions, especially on rainfall.

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Rohini College Of Engineering & Technology

CEC352-SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

The first step in the calculations is to determine the losses for clear-
weather or clear-sky conditions. These calculations take into account the
losses, including those calculated on a statistical basis which does not vary
with time. Losses which are weather-related, and other losses which
fluctuate with time, are then allowed for by introducing appropriate fade
margins into the transmission equation.

Free-space transmission:
As a first step in the loss calculations, the power loss resulting from
the spreading of the signal in space must be determined.
Feeder losses:
Losses will occur in the connection between the receive antenna and
the receiver proper. Such losses will occur in the connecting waveguides,
www.EnggTree.com
filters, and couplers. These will be denoted by RFL, or [RFL] dB, for receiver
feeder losses.
Antenna misalignment losses:
When a satellite link is established, the ideal situation is to have
the earth station and satellite antennas aligned for maximum gain, as
shown in Figure 2.14. There are two possible sources of off-axis loss,
one at the satellite and one at the earth station. The off-axis loss at the
satellite is taken into account by designing the link for operation on the
actual satellite antenna contour; this is described in more detail in later
sections. The off-axis loss at the earth station is referred to as the antenna
pointing loss. Antenna pointing losses are usually only a few tenths of a
decibel. In addition to pointing losses, losses may result at the antenna
from misalignment of the polarization direction. The polarization
misalignment losses are usually small, and it will be assumed that the
antenna misalignment losses, denoted by [AML], include both pointing
and polarization losses resulting from antenna misalignment.

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Rohini College Of Engineering & Technology

CEC352-SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Fig 2.14 (a) Satellite and earth-station antennas aligned for maximum gain; (b) earth
station situated on a
given satellite “footprint,” and earth-station antenna misaligned.

The Link-Power Budget Equation

The losses for the link have been identified, the power at the receiver,
which is the power outputwww.EnggTree.com
of the link, may be calculated simply as [EIRP]
[LOSSES] [GR], where the last quantity is the receiver antenna gain. The
major source of loss in any ground-satellite link is the free-space
spreading loss [FSL], the basic link-power budget equation taking into
account this loss only. However, the other losses also must be taken into
account, and these are simply added to [FSL].
The losses for clear-sky conditions are
[LOSSES] = [FSL] +[RFL] +[AML]+[AA] -[PL] equation for the
received power is then [PR] = [EIRP] X [GR] -[LOSSES]
Where
[PR] - the received power, dBW
[EIRP] - equivalent isotropic radiated power, dBW [FSL] free-space
spreading loss, dB [RFL] - receiver feeder loss, dB
[AML] -antenna misalignment loss, Db [AA] - atmospheric absorption
loss, dB [PL] polarization mismatchloss, dB

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Rohini College Of Engineering & Technology

CEC352-SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Ionospheric scintillation

Ionospheric scintillation is a rapid fluctuation of radio-frequency signal

phase and/or amplitude, generated as a signal passes through the
ionosphere. Scintillation occurs when a radio frequency signal in the
form of a plane wave traverses a region of small scale irregularities in
electron density. The irregularities cause small-scale fluctuations in
refractive index and subsequent differential diffraction (scattering) of
the plane wave producing phase variations along the phase front of the
signal. As the signal propagation continues after passing through the
region of irregularities, phase and amplitude scintillation develops
through interference of multiple scattered signals.

Ionospheric scintillationwww.EnggTree.com
is a well-known phenomenon that has been
studied extensively in the past yet it remains a difficult phenomenon to
predict or model on a large scale. Scintillation is caused by small-scale
fluctuations in the refractive index of the ionospheric medium which in
turn are the result of inhomogeneities. Inhomogeneities in the
ionospheric medium are produced by a wide range of phenomena (eg
plasma bubbles), and those responsible for scintillation occur
predominantly in the F-layer of the ionosphere at altitudes between 200
and 1000km. The primary disturbance region, however, is typically in
the F-region between 250 and 400km. E-layer irregularities such as
sporadic-E and auroral E can also produce scintillation but their effect
on L-band GPS signals is minimal.

Ionospheric scintillation is primarily an equatorial and high-latitude

ionospheric phenomenon, although it can (and does) occur at lower
intensity at all latitudes.

In terms of geographic (geomagnetic) distribution, ionospheric

scintillation generally peaks in the sub-equatorial anomaly regions,

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located on average ~15° either side of the geomagnetic equator, as can

be seen in Figure 1, below.

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Figure 1: S4 Scintillation index at GPS L1 (1575.42MHz)

assuming constant local time (2300) at all longitudes.

The figure shows "WBMOD" model predictions of the 90th percentile

S4 index at 2300 Local Time (everywhere) at the S.Hem autumnal
equinox (DOY 091) for GPS L1 (1575.42MHz), low magnetic activity
(Kp=10) and high solar activity (SSN=150). Apart from the two strong
scintillation bands following ~15° geomagnetic latitude contours, also
obvious is the enhanced scintillation between the two bands of maxima
and in the polar regions. The mid- latitude regions are relatively free of
scintillation, especially at GHz frequencies, however at lower
frequencies, closer to 100MHz there can at times be significant
scintillation activity.

In terms of diurnal distribution, equatorial ionospheric scintillation

generally peaks several hours after dusk, as can be seen in Figure 2,
below.

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Figure 2: S4 Scintillation index at GPS L1 (1575.42MHz)
assuming constant Universal time (1200). The dashed lines
represent lines of constant geomagnetic latitude (as marked).

The figure shows "WBMOD" model predictions under the same

conditions as Figure 1 but for 1200UT, rather than at constant local
time. The choice of 1200UT during equinox means the left and right
hand borders of the plot are at midday local time, the vertical centre
line of the plot (longitude 180°) corresponds to local midnight, and
dusk is at longitude 90°. Each division on the X axis (15°) corresponds
to 1 hour. Again, two strong scintillation bands can be seen roughly
corresponding to ±15° geomagnetic latitude (as indicated by the dashed
lines). The equatorial scintillation is present at decreasing intensity
levels throughout most of the nightside. The scintillation peak in the
equatorial regions occurs between 2100 and 2200 local time.

In general, GPS receivers located at mid-latitude sites in Australia (-

40° < latitude < -20°) will not be significantly affected by ionospheric
scintillation. GPS receivers located at latitudes north of -20° in
Australia may experience some degree of ionospheric scintillation,

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primarily when tracking satellites at low elevation angles to the north,

and during active geomagnetic conditions. Locations as far north as
Darwin and the Cape York Peninsula are likely to experience
ionospheric scintillation more regularly on satellites tracking to the
north of the station since the Line Of Sight (LOS) to these satellites will
generally pass through the equatorial anomaly regions. GPS receivers
located at latitudes southwards of -40° will commonly see ionospheric
scintillation activity associated with geomagnetic storm activity, on
satellites tracking to the south of the receiver, with the most significant
scintillation occurring under the auroral zones.

Ionospheric scintillation affects trans-ionospheric radio signals up to a

few GHz in frequency and as such can have detrimental impacts on
satellite-based communication and navigation systems (such as GPS-
based systems) and also on scientific instruments requiring
observations of trans-ionospheric radio signals (eg radio-astronomy).

Amplitude scintillation directly affects the signal to noise ratio (C/No)

of signals in a GPS receiver, as well as the noise levels in code and
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phase measurements. Amplitude scintillation can be sufficiently severe
that the received GPS signal intensity from a given satellite drops
below the receivers tracking threshold, causing loss of lock on that
satellite, and hence the need to re-acquire the GPS signal(s). This
results in reduced accuracy navigation solutions, data loss and cycle
slips. The nominal C/No for the L1 signal is about 45dB-Hz, and
tracking may be lost when the signal drops below ~25dB-Hz,
dependent on the receiver-specific tracking loop.

Since the signal power on the GPS L2 frequency is significantly less

than that of L1 (~6dB lower), and civil dual frequency receivers use
non-optimal codeless or semicodeless techniques for tracking L2 which
results in lower C/No values, ionospheric scintillation is much more
likely to impact the GPS L2 signal.

Phase scintillation, if sufficiently severe, may stress phase-lock loops

in GPS receivers resulting in a loss of phase lock. Phase scintillation
also has a significant impact on phase-sensitive systems such as space-
based radars (eg image defocussing in synthetic aperture radars (van de

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Kamp et al, 2007)) and some ground-based radio-astronomy facilities

(eg SKA/LOFAR prototypes (van Bemmel et al, 2007)).

Measuring Ionospheric Scintillation

There are numerous measures of ionospheric scintillation. Perhaps the
most common of these is the amplitude scintillation index S4, and the
phase scintillation index Prms. Ionospheric scintillation models produce
statistical measures of the specified scintillation index. To produce
maps it is necessary to either specify thresholds of this index or to
specify a percentage of time an index is exceeded.

Amplitude scintillation - S4

Amplitude scintillation is quantified by the S4 parameter which is

defined as the square-root of the normalised variance of signal
intensity over a given interval of time:
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where I is the signal intensity.

S4 is a dimensionless number with a theoretical upper limit of 1.0,
commonly estimated over an interval of 60 seconds.
There are two defined regimes of amplitude scintillation: weak and
strong, which roughly correspond to the type of scattering associated
with each. Strong scintillation is generally considered to occur when
S4 is greater than ~0.6 and is associated with strong scattering of the
signal in the ionosphere. Below this is weak scintillation. An S4 level
below 0.3 is unlikely to have a significant impact on GPS.

Phase scintillation - Φrms

Phase scintillation is quantified by the Prms (or Φrms) index which is
defined as the standard deviation of the signal phase over a given
time interval. This index is measured either in radians or degrees. A

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Prms greater than ~ 1° is considered to be strong scintillation. At mid-

latitudes, Prms rarely exceeds 1° for more than 1% of the time.

Other scintillation parameters

CkL - Log of the height-integrated irregularity strength (calculated

on L.O.S paths from the ground to an overhead satellite). A measure
of the total "power" in the electron-density irregularities along a
vertical path passing through the entire ionosphere.

Scintillation Intensity (SI) index - Derived from scintillation data

recorded on paper chart. Scintillation Intensity index (SI) is defined
as:

where Pmax is the power of the 3rd peak down from the maximum
excursion shown during a scintillation occurrence, and Pmin is the
power of the 3rd peakwww.EnggTree.com
up from the minimum excursion. These values
can be readily and rapidly scaled from a calibrated chart. The SI
index is expressed in decibels (dB). An SI value of 15dB corresponds
to an S4 of about 0.6.

Ionospheric Scintillation Monitor (ISM)

An Ionospheric Scintillation Monitor (ISM) is a single- or dual-
frequency GPS receiver specifically designed to monitor ionospheric
scintillation levels in real time. The ISM has wide-bandwidth tracking
loops to maintain lock longer during intervals of strong ionospheric
scintillation, and samples at a rate of 50 Hz to calculate the scintillation
statistics S4 and Prms. The wide-bandwidth tracking improves tracking
through strong scintillation however loss of lock on single or multiple
satellites can still occur during extreme events, requiring re-acquisition
of the GPS signal(s).

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SWS Radio and Space Services uses GPS Silicon Valley's GPS
Ionospheric Scintillation and TEC Monitor (GISTM) system Model
GSV4004B to monitor Ionospheric Scintillation in real time. The
GSV4004B consists of an L1/L2 GPS Antenna, a dual-frequency GPS
receiver (NovAtel's Euro-3M with modified firmware), and a low
phase noise oven-controlled crystal oscillator (OCXO), housed in
NovAtel's EuroPak-3M enclosure. The OCXO is required for
monitoring phase scintillation.

The primary purpose of the ISM system is to collect ionospheric

scintillation statistics (S4 and Prms) for all visible GPS satellites (up to
eleven satellites) and store these (ISMR) binary data logs on the
receiver controller hard disk for post processing. The ISM control
software can be programmed to collect the ISMR data logs that are
generated every 1 minute. Alternatively, raw phase and amplitude data
at 0.02 second temporal resolution (50Hz) and code/carrier divergence
at 1s (1Hz) can be recorded from the ISM. These data can be used to
reconstruct the statistical scintillation indices, such as S4 recorded in
the ISMR data log, from raw data. This allows the user to modify the
parameters used in the www.EnggTree.com
derivation of scintillation indices, such as de-
trending and filter cut-off parameters

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3.3 Rain Induced Attenuation: Rain attenuation is a function of
rain rate. The rain rate is measured in millimeters per hour. The
total attenuation is given as A=αL Db α-Specfic attenuation L-
Effective path length of the signal through the rain The geometric,
or slant, path length is shown as LS. This depends on the antenna
angle of elevation and the rain height hR, which is the height at
which freezing occurs.

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• The effective path length is given in terms of the slant length by L

= LSrp where rp is a reduction factor which is a function of the

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percentage time p and LG, the horizontal projection of LS. LG = LS
cos El With all these factors together into one equation, the rain
attenuation in decibels is given by,

Link budget calculations

Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power:

A key parameter in link budget calculations is the equivalent isotropic

radiated power (EIRP). An isotropic radiator with an input power equal
to GPS would produce the same flux density. Hence this product is
referred to as the equivalent isotropic radiated power. EIRP = GPS,

G= Gain and PS = Power Supplied.

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Free Space Loss

In the loss calculations, the power loss resulting from the

spreading of the signal in space must be determined. The power
flux density at the receiving antenna is given as

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3.8 Interference

With many telecommunications services using radio

transmissions, interference between services can arise in
a number of ways.

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Fig (a)
Possible interference modes between satellite circuits and a terrestrial
station Fig. (a) are classified by the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU, 1985) as follows: A1: terrestrial station transmissions,
possibly causing interference to reception by an earth station A2: earth
station transmissions, possibly causing interference to reception by a
terrestrial station B1: space station transmission of one space system,
possibly causing interference to reception by an earth station of
another space system B2: earth station transmissions of one space
system, possibly causing interference to reception by a space station
of another space system C1: space station transmission, possibly

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CEC352-Satellite Communication
causing interference to reception by a terrestrial station C2: terrestrial
station transmission, possibly causing interference to reception by a
space station E: space station transmission of one space system,
possibly causing interference to reception by a space station of another
space system F: earth station transmission of one space system,
possibly causing interference to reception by an earth

Combined [C/I] due to interference on both uplink and downlink

Interference may be considered as a form of noise, and assuming that
the interference sources are statistically independent, the interference
powers may be added directly to give the total interference at receiver
B. The uplink and the downlink ratios are combined in exactly the
same manner described for noise, resulting in Here, power ratios must
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be used, not decibels, and the subscript “ant” denotes the combined
ratio at the output of station B receiving antenna station of another
space system

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System Noise Temperature
Consider first the noise representation of the antenna and
the low noise amplifier (LNA) shown in Fig. 2.15. The available
power gain of the amplifier is denoted as G, and the noise power
output, as Pno.

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Fig 2.15 LNA Amplifier Gain
For the moment, the noise power per unit bandwidth, which is
simply noise energy in joules as shown by the following Equation.
The input noise energy coming from the antenna is
N0,ant = kTant
2.8.1 TheUplink
The uplink of a satellite circuit is the one in which the earth
station is transmitting the signal and he satellite is receiving it
tspecifically that the uplink is being considered.

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In the above equation, the values to be used are the earth
station EIRP, the satellite receiver feeder losses, and satellite
receiver G/T. The free-space loss and other losses which are
frequency-dependent are calculated for the uplink frequency.
2.8.2 Input back-off
Since the number of carriers are present simultaneously in a
TWTA, the operating point must be backed off to a linear portion
of the transfer characteristic to reduce the effects of inter
modulation distortion. Such multiple carrier operation occurs
with frequency- division multiple access (FDMA). The point to
be made here is that backoff (BO) must be allowed for in the link-
budget calculations. Suppose that the saturation flux density for
single-carrier operation is known. Input BO will be specified for
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multiple-carrier operation, referred to the single- carrier saturation
level.
The earth-station EIRP will have to be reduced by the specified
BO, resulting in an uplink value of [EIRP] U =
[EIRPS] U + [BO]i
2.8.3The earth station HPA
The earth station HPA has to supply the radiated power plus
the transmit feeder losses, denoted here by TFL, or [TFL] dB.
These include waveguide, filter, and coupler losses between the
HPA output and the transmit antenna. The earth station may have to
transmit multiple carriers and its output also will require back off,
denoted by [BO]HPA. The earth station HPA must be rated for a
saturation power output given by

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[PHPA,sat] = [PHPA] + [BO]HPA
2.8.4 Downlink

The downlink of a satellite circuit is the one in which the

satellite is transmitting the signal and the earth station is receiving
it. Equation can be applied to the downlink, but subscript D will be
used to denote specifically that the downlink is being considered.

In the above equation, the values to be used are the satellite

EIRP, the earth- station receiver feeder losses, and the earth-
station receiver G/T. The free space and other losses are
calculated for the downlink frequency. The resulting carrier-to-
noise density ratio appears at the detector of the earth station
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receiver.
2.8.5 Output back-off
Where input BO is employed as described in a corresponding
output BO must be allowed for in the satellite EIRP. As the curve
of Figure 2.16 shows that output BO is not linearly related to
input BO. A rule of thumb, frequently used, is to take the output
BO as the point on the curve which is 5 dB below the extrapolated
linear portion. Since the linear portion gives a 1:1 change in
decibels, the relationship between input and output BO is [BO]0
[BO]i 5 dB. For example, with an input BO of [BO]i 11 dB, the
corresponding output BO is [BO]0

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Fig 2.16 Input and output back- off relationship for the satellite traveling-wave-
tube amplifier

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3.5 Link Design with and without frequency reuse

• Intra –orbital links :connect consecutive satellites on the same
orbits
• Inter –orbital links :connect two satellites on the different orbits

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Design of the Satellite System

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Atmospheric Layers
A signal traveling between an earth station and a satellite must pass
through the earth’s atmosphere, including the ionosphere, as shown
Atmospheric Losses

• Losses occur in the earth’s atmosphere as a result of energy

absorption by the atmospheric gases.

The weather-related losses are referred to as atmospheric

attenuation and the absorption losses by gases are known as
absorption. Atmospheric scintillation:

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This is a fading phenomenon, the fading period being several tens of
seconds.

It is caused by differences in the atmospheric refractive index,

which in turn results in focusing and defocusing of the radio waves,
which follow different ray paths through the atmosphere.
• Fade margin in the link power-budget calculations are used for
Atmospheric Scintillation.

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3.6 Ionospheric Effects

• Radio waves traveling between satellites and earth stations

must pass through the ionosphere.

• The ionosphere is the upper region of the earth’s atmosphere,

which has been ionized, mainly by solar radiation. • The free

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electrons in the ionosphere are not uniformly distributed but form in

layers, which effect the signal.
Ionospheric Layers

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Link Design With and without Frequency Reuse

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• Frequency reuse is employed to reduce the crosspolarization

caused by ionosphere, ice crystals in the upper atmosphere and

• rain, when the wave being transmitted from satellite to earth

station.

• Frequency reuse achieved with spot-beam antennas, and these

may be combined with polarization reuse to provide an effective
bandwidth.

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The bandwidth allocated for C band service is 500 MHz, and this
is divided into sub bands, one for each transponder. A typical
transponder bandwidth is 36 MHz, and allowing for a 4-MHz
guard band between transponders, 12 such transponders can be

• accommodated in the 500-MHz bandwidth. this number can be

doubled. Polarization isolation refers to the fact that carriers,
which may be on the same frequency but with opposite senses of
polarization, can be isolated from one another by receiving

• With antennas linear match polarized carriers can be separated in

this way, and with circular polarization, left-hand circular and
right-hand circular polarizations can be separated. Because the
carriers with opposite senses of polarization may overlap in
frequency, this technique is referred to as frequency reuse

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UNIT IV SATELLITE ACCESS

4.1 Modulation and Multiplexing: Voice, Data, Video
Communications satellites are used to carry telephone, video, and data signals, and can use both
analog and digital modulation techniques.

Modulation:

Modification of a carrier’s parameters (amplitude, frequency, phase or a combination of them) in

dependence on the symbol to be sent.

Modulation is the process of transforming a carrier signal so that it can carry the information of a
message signal. It superimposes the contents of the message signal over a high-frequency carrier
signal, which is then transmitted over communication channels.

Modulation can be of two types −

 Analog Modulation
 Digital Modulation
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Analog Modulation

Here, the analog information signal is transformed to the analog carrier signal so that it can travel
large distances without substantial loss.

Analog modulation can be of three types −

 Amplitude Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation

Digital Modulation

Digital modulation is the process of converting a digital bit stream into an analog carrier wave for
transmission via a communication channel.

Digital modulation is broadly divided into two categories −

 Bandpass Modulation as in baseband transmission:

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Here, the bits are converted directly into signals.

 Passband Modulation as in passband transmission:
Here, the amplitude, phase or frequency of the carrier signal is regulated to transmit the bits.

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Multiplexing:

Task of multiplexing is to assign space, time, frequency, and code to each communication channel
with a minimum of interference and a maximum of medium utilization Communication channel
refers to an association of sender(s) and receiver(s) that want to exchange data One of several
constellations of a carrier’s parameters defined by the used modulation scheme.

Multiplexing is a method of combining more than one signal over a shared medium. Multiplexing
divides the capacity of a communication channel into several logical channels, each for a data
stream. The method of extracting the original data streams from the multiplexed signal is called
demultiplexing.

The methods of multiplexing are as follows –

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Voice, Data, Video :

The modulation and multiplexing techniques that were used at this time were analog, adapted from
the technology developed for the change to digital voice signals made it easier for long-distance.

A satellite voice and data connection can also be configured to carry video, internet, or other data
services.

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Stuffing bits and words are added to the satellite data stream as needed to fill
empty bit and word spaces. Primarily for video provided that a satellite link's over
all carrier-to-noise but in to older receiving equipment at System and Satellite
Specification Ku band satellite parameters.

Modulation And Multiplexing:

In analog television (TV) transmission by satellite, the base band video signal and
one or two audio subcarriers constitute a composite video signal.

Digital modulation is obviously the modulation of choice for transmitting digital

data. Voice are digitized analog signals may conveniently share a channel with
digital data, allowing a link to carry a varying mix of voice and data traffic.

Digital signals from different channels are interleaved for transmission through
time division multiplexing. TDM carry any type of traffic on the bent pipe
transponder that can carry voice, video, or data as the marketplace demands.

Hybrid multiple access schemes can use time division multiplexing of baseband
channels which are then modulate.
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4.2 Analog - Digital Transmission System

1. Analog vs. Digital Transmission:

Compare at two levels:

1. Data—continuous (audio) vs. discrete (text)

2. Signaling—continuously varying electromagnetic wave vs. sequence of voltage

pulses.

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• Improving digital technology

• Data integrity. Repeaters take out cumulative problems in transmission.

• Can thus transmit longer distances.

• Easier to multiplex large channel capacities with digital

• Easy to apply encryption to digital data

• Better integration if all signals are in one form. It is difficult to integrate voice,
video and digital data.

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Analog Transmission

• An analog wave form (or signal) is characterized by being continuously

variable along amplitude and frequency.

• Analog facilities have limited bandwidth, which means they cannot support
high-speed data.

• Another characteristic of analog transmission is that noise is accumulated as

the signal traverses the network. As the signal moves across the distance, it
loses power and becomes impaired by factors such as moisture.

• By the time the signal arrives at the amplifier, it is not only attenuated, it is
also impaired and noisy ending up with very high error rates.

Digital Transmission

• Digital transmission is quite different from analog transmission.

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• For one thing, the signal is much simpler.

• Rather than being a continuously variable wave form, it is a series of

discrete pulses, representing one bits and zero bits.

• Digital networks use regenerative repeaters.

• The repeater regenerates the weak and impaired signal to pass on to the next
point in the network, in the essence eliminating noise and thus vastly
improving the error rate.

Digital Transmission of Analog Signals

• To transmit analog message signals, such as voice and video signals, by

digital means, the signal has to be converted to a digital signal.

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• This process is known as the analog-to-digital conversion, or sometimes

referred as digital pulse modulation.

• Two important techniques of analog-to-digital conversion are Pulse Code

Modulation (PCM) and Delta Modulation (DM).

2. Digital Data/Analog Signals:

Must convert digital data to analog signal such device is a modem to translate
between bit-serial and modulated carrier signals?

To send digital data using analog technology, the sender generates a carrier signal
at some continuous tone (e.g. 1-2 kHz in phone circuits) that looks like a sine
wave. The following techniques are used to encode digital data into analog signals.

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Resulting bandwidth is centered on the carrier frequency.

• Amplitude-shift modulation (keying): vary the amplitude (e.g. voltage) of the

signal. Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

• Frequency-shift modulation: two (or more tones) are used, which are near the
carrier frequency. Used in a full-duplex modem (signals in both directions).

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• Phase-shift modulation: systematically shift the carrier wave at uniformly

spaced intervals. For instance, the wave could be shifted by 45, 135, 225, 315
degree at each timing mark. In this case, each timing interval carries 2 bits of
information. Why not shift by 0, 90, 180, 270? Shifting zero degrees means no
shift, and an extended set of no shifts leads to clock synchronization difficulties.

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM): Divide the frequency spectrum into

smaller subchannels, giving each user exclusive use of a subchannel (e.g., radio
and TV). One problem with FDM is that a user is given all of the frequency to use,
and if the user has no data to send, bandwidth is wasted — it cannot be used by
another user.

Time division multiplexing (TDM): Use time slicing to give each user the full
bandwidth, but for only a fraction of a second at a time (analogous to time sharing
in operating systems). Again, if the user doesn’t have data to sent during his time
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slice, the bandwidth is not used (e.g., wasted).

Statistical multiplexing: Allocate bandwidth to arriving packets on demand. This

leads to the most efficient use of channel bandwidth because it only carries useful
data. That is, channel bandwidth is allocated to packets that are waiting for
transmission, and a user generating no packets doesn’t use any of the channel
resources.

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4.3 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)

 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) has become the synonym for

digital television and for data broadcasting world-wide.

 DVB services have recently been introduced in Europe, in North-

and South America, in Asia, Africa and Australia.

 This topic aims at describing what DVB is all about and at

introducing some of the technical background of a technology that
makes possible the broadcasting.

 Digital Video Broadcasting is a common standard for digital

television and video used in many parts of the world.
 There are different www.EnggTree.com
DVB standards, such as:
 DVB-T, DVB-T2 for digital terrestrial television
 DVB-C and DVB-C2 for cable television
 DVB-S and DVB-S2 for satellite television
 DVB-SH for microwave
 DVB was born in Europe in the early 1990s when a group of
broadcasters, consumer equipment manufacturers, and regulatory
bodies formed the European Launching Group (ELG) to discuss
the introduction of digital television throughout Europe.
 The ELG later became the DVB Project, which now has more than
220 organizations in more than 29 countries worldwide.

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 DVB also refers to an industry-led collaboration of the world’s

leading digital TV and technology companies.
 Manufacturers, software developers, network operators,
broadcasters, and regulators all partner to design open technical
standards for the delivery of digital TV and other broadcast
services.
How Digital Video Broadcasting works
• Unlike analog television, digital televisions transform data into
"packets" of compressed data.
• The data is subject to encoding and decoding, which ensures high-
quality multimedia without the lag faced by analog television
broadcasting.
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• DVB networks rely on their interactivity solutions, a limited set of
return channels and relevant specifications for the multipoint
distribution of data.
• A fundamental decision of the DVB Project was the selection of
MPEG-2, one of a series of MPEG standards for compression of
audio and video signals.
• MPEG-2 reduces a single signal bandwidth from 166 Mbps to 5
Mbps, allowing broadcasters to transmit digital signals using an
existing cable, satellite and terrestrial systems.
• MPEG-2 uses the lossy compression method, which means the
digital signal sent to the television is compressed and some data is
lost.

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• This lost data does not affect how the human eye perceives the
picture.
Increased Security with Digital Video Broadcasting
• DVB uses conditional access (CA) systems to prevent external
piracy.
• There are numerous CA systems available to content providers,
allowing them to choose the CA system they feel is adequate for
the services they provide.
• Each CA system provides a security module that scrambles and
encrypts data.
• DVB allows content providers to offer their services anywhere
regardless of geographic location.
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• It expands its services easily and inexpensively, and ensures
restricted access to subscribers, thus reducing lost revenue due to
unauthorized viewing.

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4.4 Multiple Access Techniques

 The transmission from the BS in the downlink can be heard by each and
every mobile user in the cell, and is referred as broadcasting.
Transmission from the mobile users in the uplink to the BS is many-to-
one, and is referred to as multiple access.

 Multiple access schemes to allow many users to share simultaneously a

finite amount of radio spectrum resources.
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 Should not result in severe degradation in the performance of the

system as compared to a single user scenario.
 Approaches can be broadly grouped into two categories: narrowband
and wideband.

 Multiple Accessing Techniques : with possible conflict and conflict - free

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 Random access
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple access (TDMA)
 Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) : an example is
Code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)

Duplexing

For voice or data communications, must assure two way communication

(duplexing, it is possible to talk and listen simultaneously). Duplexing
may be done using frequency or time domain techniques.
 Forward (downlink) band provides traffic from the BS to the mobile
 Reverse (uplink) band provides traffic from the mobile to the BS.

4.4.1 Frequency division duplexing (FDD)

 Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user, one for downlink
and one for uplink.
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 A large interval between these frequency bands must be allowed so that
interference is minimized.

Figure 4.5 Frequency Separation

4.4.2. Time division duplexing (TDD)

 In TDD communications, both directions of transmission use one

contiguous frequency allocation, but two separate time slots to provide
both a forward and reverse link.

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ðv Because t r ansmi ssi on fro m mobil e t o BS and fro m BS t o mobi le al t ern at es

i n t i me, thi s scheme is al so kno wn as pi ng pong .
ðv As a consequence of t he use of t he same fre quency band, t he
comm un i cat ion quali t y i n bot h di rect ions i s t he same. Thi s is di ffere nt
fro m FDD.

Fig u r e 4.6 Ti me Slot

4.4.3 FDM A

ðv I n FD MA , each user i s all ocat ed a unique fre quency band or channel.

Dur i ng t he per i od of t he call , no ot her user can shar e t he same fre quency
band.
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Fig u r e 4.7 FD M A Chann el s

ðv Al l chann el s i n a cel l ar e avai labl e t o all t he mobil es. Channel assi gnment
i s carr ied out on a fi rst -come fi rst - ser ved basi s.

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ðv The number of channel s, gi ven a fre quency spect ru m BT , depends on the

modul at ion t echni que (hence Bw or Bc ) and t he guar d bands betw een t he
channel s 2Bguar d .

ðv These guar d bands al low for i mperfect fil t ers and oscil l at ors and can be
used t o mi ni mi ze adj acent chann el i nt erf erence.
ðv FD M A i s usuall y impl ement ed i n narro wband syst ems.

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F ig u r e 4.8 F DM A/F DD /T DD

No n li n ear eff ect s i n FDMA

ð§ In a FD MA system, many channels share t he same antenna at the BS. The

power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near
saturation are non linear.
ð§ The nonlinear ties generate int er -modulation frequ encies.
ð§ Undesirable harmonics generated outside the mobile radio band cause
interference to adjacent servic es.
ð§ Undesirable h armonics present inside the band ca use interference to other
users in the mobile system.

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4.4.4 TDM A

ð§ TD MA systems divi de the channel t ime into fr ames. Each fr ame is fu r ther
par t it ioned into t ime slots. I n each slot only one user is all owed to eith er
t r ansmit or r eceiv e.

ð§ Unli ke FD MA, only di git al data and digit al modulat ion must be used.

ð§ Each user occupies a cycli cally r epeat ing t ime slot , so a channel may be
thou ght of as a par t icular t ime slot of ever y fr ame, wher e N t ime slots
compr ise a fr ame.

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F ig u r e 4.9 T DMA Chann el s

F eatu r es

ðv Mu lt iple channels per carr ier or RF channels.

ðv Bu r st t r ansmission since channels ar e used on a t imeshar ing basis.

o Tr ansmitter can be t ur ned off dur ing idle per iods.

ðv Nar row or wi de bandwi dth depends on factor s such as modulat ion

scheme, num ber of voice channels per carr ier channel.

ðv H igh I SI H igher t ransmission symbol r ate, hence r esult ing in high I SI .

o Adapt iv e equali zer r equir ed.

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F ig u r e 3.10 T DMA Chann el s t i m e sl ot

ðv A guar d t ime between the t wo t ime slots must be all owed in ord er to avoid
o inte r fer ence, especiall y in the upli nk dir ect ion. ðv mobil es
All synchr onize wi th BS t o minimize inte r fer ence. should

ðv Eff icient power ut il izat ion : FD MA systems r equir e a 3- to 6-dB power back
o off in ord er to compensate for inte r -modulat ion effects.
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ðv Eff icient handoff : TDMA systems can t ake advant age of t he fact th at the
t r ansmitter is swi t ched off dur ing idle t ime slots to impr ove the handoff
pr ocedur e. An enhanced li nk cont r ol, such as th at pr ovided by mobile
assisted handoff (MA H O) can be carr ied out by a subscriber by listening to
o neighbor ing base st at ion dur ing the idle slot of the TD MA fr ame.

ðv Eff iciency of TD MA

ðv Eff iciency of TD MA is a measur e of the percent age of bits per fr ame whi ch
cont ain t r ansmitt ed dat a. The t r ansmit ted data include source and channel
coding bits.

·
ðv bOH includes all over head bits such as pr eamble, guar d bits, et c.

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4.4.5 Cod e Di v isi on M u l t i p le Access (CDMA)

ðv Spr eading signal (code) consists of chips

ð§ H as Chip per iod and and hence, chip r ate

ð§ Spr eading signal use a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence (a pseudo-

r andom sequence)

ð§ PN sequence is call ed a codewor d

ð§ Each user has its own cord wor d

ð§ Codewor ds ar e or tho gonal. (low auto corr elat ion)

ð§ Chip r ate is or der of magnitu de lar ger th an the symbol r at e.

ðv The r eceiv er corr elator distinguishes the sender s signal by examining the
wi deband signal with the same t ime-synchr onized spr eading code

ðv The sent signal is r ecover ed by despr eading pr ocess at the r eceiv er .

CDMA Ad va nt ag es: www.EnggTree.com

ðv L ow power spect r al densit y.

ð§ Signal is spr ead over a lar ger fr equency band

ð§ Other systems suff er less fr om the t r ansmitter

ðv I nte r fer ence li mited oper at ion

ð§ All fr equency spect r um is used

ðv Pr iva cy

ð§ The codewor d is kn own only bet ween the sender and r eceiv er .
Hen ce other user s can not decode the messages th at ar e in
t r ansit

ðv Reduct ion of mu lt ipat h affects by using a lar ger spect r um

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CDMA d at a

F ig u r e 4.11 CD M A Chann el s t r ans m i ssi on

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D SSS Tra n smi t te r:

F ig u r e 4.12 CD M A Tr an sm i tter

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D SSS Receiv er

F ig u r e 4.13 CD M A Recei v er

ðv FD MA/C DMA www.EnggTree.com

ð§ Avai lable wi deband spect r um is fr equency divi ded into number
narr owband r adio channels. CDMA is empl oyed inside each channel.

ðv DS/FHMA

ð§ The signals ar e spr ead using spr eading codes (dir ect sequence
signals
ð§ ar e obt ained), but t hese signal ar e not
t r ansmitted over a constant
ð§ carr ier fr equency; t hey ar e t r ansmitted over a fr equency
hopping carr ier fr equency.

ðv Ti me Di vision CDMA (TCDMA)

ðq Each cell is using a differ ent spr eading code (CDMA employed
between cell s) th at is conveyed to the mobil es in its ra nge.

ðq I nside each cell (inside a CDMA channel), TD MA is employed to

mu lt iplex mult iple user s.

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ðv Ti me Division Fr equency Hopping

ðq At each t ime slot , the user is hopped to a new fr equency accor ding to
a pseudo-r andom hopping sequence.

ðq Em ployed in sever e co-inte r fer ence and mult i -path envir onments.

Bluetooth and GSM ar e using th is techn ique

ðv A lar ge num ber of independent ly steer ed high-gain beams can be for med
wi thout any r esult ing degr adat ion in SNR r at i o.

ðv Beams can be assigned to indivi dual user s, the r eby assur ing th at all links
oper ate wi th maxi mum gain.

ðv Adapt iv e beam for ming can be easily implemented to impr ove the system
capacity by suppr essing co channel inte r fer ence.

Advant age of CDMA

ðv I t is r ecognized that CDM A s capacity gains over TDM A

ðv FDM A ar e ent irely due to I t s ti ght er, dynamic contr ol over the use of the
power domain. www.EnggTree.com
ðv Choosing a new non-or tho gonal PN sequence a CDM A syst em does not
encounter the di fficulties of choosing a spar e carr ier fr equency or ti me slot to
carry a Tr aff ic Channel

ðv Ensure that inter ference will not be too great if it begins to tran smit -t hat
th ere is still enough space left in the power domain.

Disa d va nt ag es of CDMA

ðv Satelli t e tra nsponder s are channeliz ed t oo nar rowly for roadband CDM A,
which is the most at tra cti ve for m of CDM A.

ðv Power control cannot be as ti ght as it is in a t err estrial system because

of long roun d-trip d elay.

4.5. Ch ann el allo cat ion sch em es

I n r adio r esource management for wi r eless and cell ular net wor k, channel
all ocat ion schemes ar e r equir ed to all ocate bandwi dth and commun icat ion
channels to base stat ions, access points and ter minal equipment.

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The object ive is to achieve maxi mum system spect r al efficiency in bit/s/Hz/s ite
by means of fr equency r euse, but stil l assur e a cer t ain gr ade of ser vi ce by avoiding
co-channel inte r fer ence and adj acent channel inte r fer ence among near by cells or
net wor ks th at shar e the bandwi dth. Ther e ar e t wo t ypes of str ategies th at ar e
foll owed:-

ðv Fix ed: FCA, fix ed channel all ocat ion: M anu all y assigned by t he net wor k
oper ator
ðv Dynamic:

ð§ DCA, dynamic channel all ocat ion,

ð§ DF S, dynamic fr equency select ion
ð§ Spr ead spect r um

4.5.1 F CA

I n Fix ed Ch an n el Allo cat ion or Fix ed Ch ann el Assig n m en t (FCA)

each cell is giv en a pr edeter mined set of fr equency channels.

FCA r equir es manual fr equency plann ing, which is an ard uous t ask in
TD MA and FD MA based systems, since such systems ar e highly sensit ive to co-
channel inte r fer ence fr om www.EnggTree.com
near by cell s t hat ar e r eusing the same channel.

This r esults in t r aff ic congestion and some call s being lost when t r aff ic gets
heavy in some cell s, and idle capacity in ot her cell s.

4.5.2. D CA an d DF S

Dy n amic Fr equ en cy Sel ect ion (DF S) may be appli ed in wi r eless

net wor ks wi th sever al adjacent non-cent r ally cont r oll ed access points.

A mor e efficient way of channel all ocat ion would be Dy n amic Ch ann el
Allo cat ion or Dy n amic Ch ann el Assi gn m en t (DCA) in which voice channel ar e
not allocated to cell per manent ly , instead for ever y call r equest base station
r equest channel fr om MSC.

4.6 Sp r ead sp ect r u m

Spr ead spect r um can be consider ed as an alter nat iv e to complex DCA

algor it hms. Spr ead spect r um avoids cochannel inte r fer ence between adj acent

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

INTELSAT Series
INTELSAT stands for International Telecommunications Satellite. The organization was created
in 1964 and currently has over 140 member countries and more than 40 investing entities (see
http://www.intelsat.com/ for more details).
In July 2001 INTELSAT became a private company and in May 2002 the company began providing
end-to-end solutions through a network of teleports, leased fiber, and points of presence (PoPs) around the
globe.
Starting with the Early Bird satellite in 1965, a succes- sion of satellites has been launched at
intervals of a few years. Figure 1.1 illustrates the evolution of some of the INTELSAT satellites. As the
figure shows, the capacity, in terms of number of voice channels, increased dramatically with each
succeeding launch, as well as the design lifetime.
These satellites are in geostationary orbit, meaning that they appear to be stationary in relation to
the earth. At this point it may be noted that geosta- tionary satellites orbit in the earth’s equatorial plane
and their position is specified by their longitude.
For international traffic, INTELSAT covers three main regions—the Atlantic Ocean Region
(AOR), the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), and the Pacific Ocean Region (POR) and what is termed Intelsat
America’s Region.
For the ocean regions the satellites are positioned in geostationary orbit above the particular ocean,
where they provide a transoceanicwww.EnggTree.com
telecommunications route. For example, INTELSAT satellite 905 is
positioned at 335.5° east longitude.
The INTELSAT VII-VII/A series was launched over a period from October 1993 to June 1996.
The construction is similar to that for the V and VA/VB series, shown in Fig. in that the VII series has
solar sails rather than a cylindrical body.
The VII series was planned for service in the POR and also for some of the less demanding services
in the AOR. The antenna beam coverage is appropriate for that of the POR. Figure 1.3 shows the antenna
beam footprints for the C -band hemispheric cover- age and zone coverage, as well as the spot beam
coverage possible with the Ku-band antennas (Lilly, 1990; Sachdev et al., 1990) When used in the AOR,
the VII series satellite is inverted north for south (Lilly, 1990), minor adjustments then being needed only
to optimize the antenna pat- terns for this region. The lifetime of these satellites ranges from 10 to 15 years
depending on the launch vehicle.Recent figures from the INTELSAT Web site give the capacity for the
INTELSAT VII as 18,000 two-way telephone circuits and three TV channels; up to 90,000 two-way
telephone circuits can be achieved with the use of “digital circuit multiplication.”The INTELSAT VII/A
has a capacity of 22,500 two-way telephone circuits and three TV channels; up to 112,500 two-way
telephone circuits can be achieved with the use of digital circuit multiplication. As of May 1999, four
satellites were in service over the AOR, one in the IOR, and two in the POR.

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Figure 5.1 INTELSAT Series

The INTELSAT VIII-VII/A series of satellites was launched over the period February 1997 to
June 1998. Satellites in this series have similar capacity as the VII/A series, and the lifetime is
14 to 17 years.
It is standard practice to have a spare satellite in orbit on high- reliability routes (which can
carry preemptible traffic) and to have a ground spare in case of launch failure.
Thus the cost for large international schemes can be high; for example, series IX, described
later, represents a total investment of approximately $1 billion.

Figure 5.2 Region of globe

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

INSAT

INSAT or the Indian National Satellite System is a series of multipurpose geo-

stationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting,
meteorology, and search and rescue operations.

Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in

the Asia Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of
Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department,All India Radio and Doordarshan.
The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level
INSAT Coordination Committee.

INSAT satellites provide transponders in various bands (C, S, Extended C and Ku) to
serve the television and communication needs of India. Some of the satellites also have the Very
High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR), CCD cameras for metrological imaging.

The satellites also incorporate transponder(s) for receiving distress alert signals for
search and rescue missions in the South Asian and Indian Ocean Region, as ISRO is a
member of the Cospas-Sarsat programme.

INSAT System www.EnggTree.com

The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) System Was Commissioned With The Launch
Of INSAT-1B In August 1983 (INSAT-1A, The First Satellite Was Launched In April 1982
But Could Not Fulfil The Mission).

INSAT System Ushered In A Revolution In India’s Television And Radio Broadcasting,

Telecommunications And Meteorological Sectors. It Enabled The Rapid Expansion Of TV
And Modern Telecommunication Facilities To Even The Remote Areas And Off-Shore
Islands.

Satellites In Service

Of The 24 Satellites Launched In The Course Of The INSAT Program, 10 Are Still In
Operation.INSAT-2E

It Is The Last Of The Five Satellites In INSAT-2 Series{Prateek }. It Carries

Seventeen C-Band And Lower Extended C-Band Transponders Providing Zonal And Global
Coverage With An Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) Of 36 Dbw.

It Also Carries A Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) With Imaging Capacity In
The Visible (0.55-0.75 µm), Thermal Infrared (10.5-12.5 µm) And Water Vapour (5.7-7.1
µm) Channels And Provides 2x2 Km, 8x8 Km And 8x8 Km Ground Resolution
Respectively.

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

INSAT-3A

The Multipurpose Satellite, INSAT-3A, Was Launched By Ariane In April 2003. It Is

Located At 93.5 Degree East Longitude. The Payloads On INSAT-3A Are As Follows:

12 Normal C-Band Transponders (9 Channels Provide Expanded Coverage From

Middle East To South East Asia With An EIRP Of 38 Dbw, 3 Channels Provide India
Coverage With An EIRP Of 36 Dbw And 6 Extended C -Band Transponders Provide India
Coverage With An EIRP Of 36 Dbw).
A CCD Camera Provides 1x1 Km Ground Resolution, In The Visible (0.63 - 0.69 µm),
Near Infrared (0.77-0.86 µm) And Shortwave Infrared (1.55-1.70 µm) Bands.

INSAT-3D

Launched In July 2013, INSAT-3D Is Positioned At 82 Degree East Longitude.

INSAT-3D Payloads Include Imager, Sounder, Data Relay
Transponder And Search & Rescue Transponder. All The Transponders Provide Coverage
Over Large Part Of The Indian Ocean Region Covering India, Bangladesh,
Bhutan,Maldives, Nepal, Seychelles, Sri Lanka And Tanzania For Rendering Distress
Alert Services
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INSAT-3E

Launched In September 2003, INSAT-3E Is Positioned At 55 Degree East Longitude And

Carries 24 Normal C-Band Transponders Provide An Edge Of Coverage EIRP Of 37 Dbw Over
India And 12 Extended C-Band Transponders Provide An Edge Of Coverage EIRP Of 38
Dbw Over India.

KALPANA-1

KALPANA-1 Is An Exclusive Meteorological Satellite Launched By PSLV In

September 2002. It Carries Very High Resolution Radiometer And DRT Payloads To
Provide Meteorological Services. It Is Located At 74 Degree East Longitude. Its First
Name Was METSAT. It Was Later Renamed As KALPANA- 1 To Commemorate Kalpana
Chawla.

Edusat

Configured For Audio-Visual Medium Employing Digital Interactive Classroom

Lessons And Multimedia Content, EDUSAT Was Launched By GSLV In September 2004.
Its Transponders And Their Ground Coverage Are Specially Configured To Cater To The
Educational Requirements.

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

GSAT-2

Launched By The Second Flight Of GSLV In May 2003, GSAT-2 Is Located At

48 Degree East Longitude And Carries Four Normal C-Band Transponders To Provide 36
Dbw EIRP With India Coverage, Two K u Band Transponders With 42 Dbw EIRP Over India
And An MSS Payload Similar To Those On INSAT-3B And INSAT-3C.

INSAT-4 Series:

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Figure : INSAT 4A

INSAT-4A is positioned at 83 degree East longitude along with INSAT-2E and

INSAT-3B. It carries 12 Ku band 36 MHz bandwidth transponders employing 140 W
TWTAs to provide an EIRP of 52 dBW at the edge of coverage polygon with footprint
covering Indian main land and 12 C -band 36 MHz bandwidth transponders provide an
EIRP of 39 dBW at the edge of coverage with expanded radiation patterns encompassing
Indian geographical boun dary, area beyond India in southeast and northwest regions. [8]
Tata Sky, a joint venture between the TATA Group and STAR uses INSAT-4A for
distributing their DTH service.

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

 INSAT-4A
 INSAT-4B
 Glitch In INSAT 4B
 China-Stuxnet Connection
 INSAT-4CR
 GSAT-8 / INSAT-4G
 GSAT-12 /GSAT-10
VSAT

VSAT stands for very small aperture terminal system. This is the dis- tinguishing
feature of a VSAT system, the earth-station antennas being typically less than 2.4 m in
diameter (Rana et al., 1990). The trend is toward even smaller dishes, not more than 1.5
m in diameter (Hughes et al., 1993).

In this sense, the small TVRO terminals for direct broadcast satellites could be
labeled as VSATs, but the www.EnggTree.com
appellation is usually reserved for private networks, mostly
providing two-way communications facilities.
Typical user groups include bank- ing and financial institutions, airline and hotel
booking agencies, and large retail stores with geographically dispersed outlets.

Figure 5.4 VSAT Block Diagrams

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

VSAT network

The basic structure of a VSAT network consists of a hub station which provides
a broadcast facility to all the VSATs in the network and the VSATs themselves which
access the satellite in some form of multiple- access mode.

The hub station is operated by the service provider, and it may be shared among
a number of users, but of course, each user organ- ization has exclusive access to its
own VSAT network.

Time division mul- tiplex is the normal downlink mode of transmission from
hub to the VSATs, and the transmission can be broadcast for reception by all the
VSATs in a network, or address coding can be used to direct messages to selected
VSATs.

A form of demand assigned multiple access (DAMA) is employed in some

systems in which channel capacity is assigned in response to the fluctuating
demands of the VSATs in the network.

Most VSAT systems operate in the Ku band, although there are some C- band
systems in existence (Rana et al., 1990).
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Applications

 Supermarket shops (tills, ATM machines, stock sale updates and stock
ordering).
 Chemist shops - Shoppers Drug Mart - Pharmaprix. Broadband
direct to the home. e.g. Downloading MP3 audio to audio players.
 Broadband direct small business, office etc, sharing local use with many
PCs.
 Internet access from on board ship Cruise ships with internet cafes,
commercial shipping communications.

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

GSM

Services and Architecture

If your work involves (or is likely to involve) some form of wireless public
communications, you are likely to encounter the GSM standards. Initially
developed to support a standardized approach to digital cellular communications
in Europe, the "Global System for Mobile Communications" (GSM) protocols are
rapidly being adopted to the next generation of wireless telecommunications systems.
In the US, its main competition appears to be the cellular TDMA systems based
on the IS-54 standards. Since the GSM systems consist of a wide range of components,
standards, and protocols.

The GSM and its companion standard DCS1800 (for the UK, where the 900
MHz frequencies are not available for GSM) have been developed over the last
decade to allow cellular communications systems to move beyond the
limitations posed by the older analog systems.

Analog system capacities are being stressed with more users that can be effectively
supported by the available frequency allocations. Compatibility between types of
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systems had been limited, if non-existent.

By using digital encoding techniques, more users can share the same
frequencies than had been available in the analog systems. As compared to the
digital cellular systems in the US (CDMA [IS -95] and TDMA [IS-54]), the
GSM market has had impressive success. Estimates of the numbers of telephones
run from 7.5 million GSM phones to .5 million IS54 phones to .3 million for
IS95.

GSM has gained in acceptance from its initial beginnings in Europe to other parts
of the world including Australia, New Zealand, countries in the Middle East and
the far east. Beyond its use in cellular frequencies (900 M Hz for GSM, 1800 MHz
for DCS1800), portions of the GSM signaling protocols are finding their way into
the newly developing PCS and LEO Satellite communications systems.

While the frequencies and link characteristics of these systems differ from the
standard GSM air interface, all of these systems must deal with users
roaming from one cell (or satellite beam) to another, and bridge services to public
communication networks including the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN), and public data networks (PDN).

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

The GSM architecture includes several subsystems

The Mobile Station (MS) -- These digital telephones include vehicle, portable
and hand-held terminals. A device called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
that is basically a smart -card provides custom information about users such as the
services they've subscribed to and their identification in the network

The Base Station Sub-System (BSS) -- The BSS is the collection of

devices that support the switching networks radio interface. Major components
of the BSS include the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) that consists of the radio
modems and antenna equipment.
In OSI terms, the BTS provides the physical interface to the MS where the BSC
is responsible for the link layer services to the MS. Logically the transcoding
equipment is in the BTS, however, an additional component.

The Network and Switching Sub-System (NSS) -- The NSS provides the
switching between the GSM subsystem and external networks along with the
databases used for additional subscriber and mobility management.

Major components in the NSS include the Mobile Servi ces Switching Center
(MSC), Home and Visiting Location Registers (HLR, VLR). The HLR and VLR
databases are interconnectedwww.EnggTree.com
through the telecomm standard Signaling System 7
(SS7) control network.

The Operation Sub-System (OSS) -- The OSS provides the support functions
responsible for the management of network maintenance and services.
Components of the OSS are responsible for network operation and maintenance,
mobile equipment management, and subscription management and charging.

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

Figure: GSM Block Diagrams

Several channels are used in the air interface

 FCCH - the frequency correction channel - provides frequency

synchronization information in a burst
 SCH - Synchronization www.EnggTree.com
Channel - shortly following the FCCH burst (8
bits later), provides a reference to all slots on a given frequency
 PAGCH - Paging and Access Grant Channel used for the transmission of
paging information requesting the setup of a call to a MS.
 RACH - Random Access Channel - an inbound channel used by the MS to
request connections from the ground network. Since this is used for the
first access attempt by users of the network, a random access scheme is
used to aid in avoiding collisions.
 CBCH - Cell Broadcast Channel - used for infrequent transmission of
broadcasts by the ground network.
 BCCH - Broadcast Control Channel - provides access status information
to the MS. The information provided on this channel is used by the MS to
determine whether or not to request a transition to a new cell
 FACCH - Fast Associated Control Channel for the control of handovers
 TCH/F - Traffic Channel, Full Rate for speech at 13 kbps or data at 12,
6, or 3.6 kbps
 TCH/H - Traffic Channel, Half Rate for speech at 7 kbps, or data at 6 or
3.6 kbps

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Rohini College of Engineering & Technology CEC352-Satellite Communication

Mobility Management

One of the major features used in all classes of GSM networks (cellular,
PCS and Satellite) is the ability to support roaming users. Through the control
signaling network, the MSCs interact to locate and connect to users throughout
the network.
"Location Registers" are included in the MSC databases to assist in the
role of determining how, and whether connections are to be made to roaming
users. Each user of a GSM MS is assigned a Home Location Register (HLR)
that is used to contain the user's location and subscribed services.

Difficulties facing the operators can include

a. Remote/Rural Areas. To service remote areas, it is often economically

unfeasible to provide backhaul facilities (BTS to BSC) via terrestrial lines
(fiber/microwave).
b. Time to deploy. Terrestrial build-outs can take years to
plan and implement.
c. Areas of ‘minor’ interest. These can include small isolated centers
such as tourist resorts, islands, mines, oil exploration sites, hydro-
electric facilities. www.EnggTree.com
d. Temporary Coverage. Special events, even in urban areas, can
overload the existing infrastructure.

GSM service security

GSM was designed with a moderate level of service security. GSM uses
several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 stream
ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy.

GSM uses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) for data transmissions
like browsing the web. The most commonly deployed GPRS ciphers were publicly
broken in 2011The researchers revealed flaws in the commonly used GEA/1.

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ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

5.4 GPS Position Location Principles, Differential GPS

Definition and History of GPS positioning

GPS Definition

Global Positioning System GPS (Global Position System) is a space rendezvous

and fixed-point navigation system that can be used for timing and ranging,
providing continuous, real-time, high-precision three-dimensional position, three-
dimensional speed, and time information to users worldwide.

The generation and development of GPS, from TRANSIT to GPS

(1) In October 1957, the first artificial earth satellite in the sky, space-based
electronic navigation was born.

(2) The United States built the Meridian Satellite Navigation and Positioning
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System (TRANSIT) in 1964.

(3) The United States began to build the Global Positioning System (GPS) in 1973,
and it was fully completed and put into operation in 1994.

The initial development of GPS positioning was mainly used for military purposes.
Such as the army, navy, and air force to provide real-time, all-weather, and global
navigation services, intelligence collection, nuclear explosion monitoring,
emergency communications, and demolition positioning.

As the GPS system enters the experimental and practical stage, the high degree of
automation of its positioning technology and the high accuracy and great potential
it achieves have attracted the general attention of governments and the great
interest of surveyors.

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Especially in recent years, GPS positioning technology has made rapid

development in the research of application basis, the development of new
application fields, and the development of software and hardware.

The composition of the GPS system

The space satellite part consists of 21 working satellites and 3 backup satellites.

The ground control part consists of 1 main control station, 5 monitoring stations,
and 3 injection stations.

The basic types of user receivers are navigation type and terrestrial type. The earth
type receiver is divided into single frequency type (L1) and dual-frequency type
(L1, L2).

The GPS positioning method classification

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The GPS positioning method can be divided into static positioning and dynamic
positioning according to the state of the user receiver antenna in the measurement,
and absolute positioning and relative positioning according to the positioning
result.

Static positioning, that is, in the positioning process, the location of the receiver
antenna (observatory) relative to the surrounding ground points, in a static state;
while dynamic positioning is the opposite, that is, in the positioning process, the
receiver antenna is in motion, the positioning results are continuously changing.

Absolute positioning, also known as single-point positioning, is the independent

determination of the absolute position of the user receiver antenna (station) in the
WGS-84 coordinate system using GPS.

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Relative positioning is to determine the relative position between the receiver

antenna (observatory) and a ground reference point in the WGS-84 coordinate
system, or the relative position between the two observatories.

Various positioning methods can also have different combinations, such as static
absolute positioning, static relative positioning, dynamic absolute positioning,
dynamic relative positioning, etc. At present, in the field of engineering and
mapping, the most widely used are static relative positioning and dynamic relative
positioning.

According to the data solution of relative positioning, whether it is real-time or not,

it can be divided into post-processing positioning and real-time dynamic
positioning (RTK), among which, post-processing positioning can be further
divided into static (relative) positioning and dynamic (relative) positioning.

GPS Positioning Principle www.EnggTree.com

Absolute GPS Positioning Principle

The basic principle of absolute positioning by GPS is based on the observed

geometric distance between the GPS satellite and the user receiver antenna, and the
instantaneous coordinates of the satellite (XS, YS, ZS) to determine the location of
the point corresponding to the user receiver antenna, i.e. the location of the
observatory.

Let the phase center coordinates of the receiver antenna be (X, Y, Z).

The instantaneous coordinates of the satellite (XS, YS, ZS) can be obtained
according to the navigation message, so there are only three unknown quantities X,
Y, Z in the equation, and the coordinates of the station (X, Y, Z) can be solved as
long as three GPS satellites are received at the same time. It can be seen that the

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essence of GPS single-point positioning is the backward rendezvous of spatial

distance.

Absolute GPS positioning map

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Relative GPS Positioning Principle

The relative GPS positioning also called differential GPS positioning, is the most
accurate positioning method in GPS positioning at present.

The basic positioning principle is to use two GPS user receivers placed at the two
ends of the baseline and observe the same GPS satellites synchronously to
determine the relative position or baseline vector of the baseline endpoints
(measurement sites) in the WGS-84 coordinate system.

GPS post-processing positioning methods

At present, the relative positioning mode is widely used in engineering. The post-
processing positioning methods are static GPS positioning and dynamic GPS
positioning.

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Static relative GPS positioning

(1) Method

Several GPS receivers are placed on the endpoints of the baseline, kept stationary,
and more than 4 satellites are observed simultaneously. Several periods of time can
be observed, with each period lasting from ten minutes to about one hour. Finally,
the observation data are input into the computer and the coordinates of each point
are calculated by the software.

(2) It is the most accurate operation mode. It is mainly used for geodesy, control
measurement, deformation measurement, and engineering measurement.

(3) Accuracy can reach (5mm + 1ppm)

Dynamic relative GPS positioning

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(1) Method

First, establish a reference station, and place a receiver on it to continuously

observe the visible satellite, another receiver in the first point of static observation
for a few minutes, and then in the other points in turn to observe a few seconds.
Finally, the observation data are input into the computer and the coordinates of
each point are calculated by the software. The operating range of dynamic relative
positioning generally cannot exceed 15km.

(2) It is suitable for fractional measurement with low accuracy requirements.

(3) Accuracy can be achieved (10-20mm + 1ppm)

GPS real-time dynamic positioning (RTK) method

1. RTK working principle and method

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Compared with the dynamic relative positioning method, the positioning mode is
the same, only a set of data chains is added between the reference station and the
mobile station to realize the real-time calculation and real-time output of the
coordinates of each point.

2. RTK is suitable for the construction sampling and fragmentation

measurement which does not require high accuracy.

3. The operating range is about 10km.

4. Accuracy can be achieved (10-20mm + 1ppm)

Differential GPS

Differential GPS( DGPS) is a system in which differences between observed and

computed co-ordinates ranges ( known as differential corrections) at a particular
known point are transmittedwww.EnggTree.com
to users(GPS receivers at other points) to upgrade the
accuracy of the users receivers position.

Differential GPS Positioning

Differential positioning user finds the point position derived from the satellite
signals and applies correction to that position. These corrections, difference of the
determined position and the known position are generated by a Reference
Receiver, whose position is known and is fed to the instrument and are used by the
second Receiver to correct its internally generated position. This is known as
Differential GPS positioning.

Differential Correction

Differential correction is a technique that greatly increases the accuracy of the

collected DGPS data.

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It involves using a receiver at a known location - the "base station“- and comparing
that data with DGPS positions collected from unknown locations with "roving
receivers."

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5.5 Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS/DTH)

Introduction

Satellites provide broadcast transmissions in the fullest sense of the word, since
antenna footprints can be made to cover large areas of the earth. The idea of using
satellites to provide direct transmissions into the home has been around for many
years, and the services provided are known generally as direct broadcast satellite
(DBS) services. Broadcast services include audio, television, and Internet services.

A type of satellite service that allows direct transmission of signals from the
satellites present in the geostationary orbit to the personal dish antennas present in
homes audiences is known as Direct Broadcast Satellite. It is abbreviated as DBS.

More simply, DBS is regarded as a technique of transmitting messages or signals

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directly to the general public (existing as an individual or a community) using
artificial satellites orbiting the earth. The frequency band in which the DBS
operates change according to the region in which the operation is taking place.

DBS

Direct Broadcast Television is nothing but digital TV. The use of satellites for the
purpose of providing services directly to homes using satellites has evolved several
years ago, more specifically, DBS-TV was introduced in the year 1986. The
various broadcasting services offered by the DBS are audio, video and internet
services.

The frequency band of operation for the direct broadcast television service changes
according to the region of operation. Generally, Ku-band (14/12 GHz) is specified
for DBS services as it is less prone to problems such as interference. The reason is

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that at such high-frequency bands the chances of congestion are quite low, along
with that, ku-band is not utilized in terrestrial microwave communication. When
the frequency is high then the receiving antenna required will also be of small
length and due to smaller antenna size higher value of EIRP is obtained from the
satellite. This resultantly reduces the overall cost of the equipment.

For DBS, it is said that the satellites used for providing the service offers broadcast
transmission in a way that the antenna footprints are made wide so that it can cover
a sufficiently large region. Thus, the satellite in motion in space when receives a
signal from one earth station then that respective signal can be received by various
home TV dish antennas that are present within the footprint region. Thus, DBS
allows direct reception of signal that is coming from the satellite.

It is to be noted here that at the receiving end, it can be a single user that is willing
to receive or it can be a www.EnggTree.com
group of users among which the received signal is
distributed.

DBS is known to be an active field of satellite development and can help in

providing innovations in other fields as well such as HDTV.

DBS – Home Receiver

The home receiver system of a Direct Broadcast System mainly has 2 units
namely, an outdoor unit and an indoor unit. Let us first see:

The Outdoor Unit

The figure below represents the schematic of the Outdoor Unit for the DBS Home
Receiver:

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Block diagram of outdoor unit of DBS

It is clearly shown in the above figure that the dish antenna at the receiver first
receives the downlink signal from the satellite which is in the range from 12.2 GHz
to 12.7 GHz. The received signal is then focussed towards the receive horn. The
receive horn directs the signal towards the polarizer that helps to pass the left-hand
circular or right-hand circular polarized signals by performing adequate switching.

There is a low noise block that contains a combination of a Low Noise Amplifier
(LNA) and a downconverter. The LNA is the unit that is responsible for the
amplification of low strength signals. These are the signals that are hardly
recognized by the antenna and necessary amplification must be performed without
the addition of noise. Now, the downconverter comes into action and down-
conversion of the signal in the range from 12.2 to 12.7 GHz is performed which is

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converted into the range 950 to 1450 MHz. The reason for this down conversion is
that for the transmission of a signal from the connecting cable to the indoor unit,
these down-converted frequencies are suited properly.

It is to be noted here that in order to gather most of the signal the arrangement of
the receiving antenna must be such that it should exhibit an obstruction-free view
from the satellite cluster in space. And as there is a cluster of satellites thus, the
beamwidth of the antenna should be sufficiently wide so that it can receive from all
the satellites present in the cluster.

The Indoor Unit

The figure below shows the block diagram representation of the indoor unit:

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Block diagram of indoor unit of DBS

The tuner is the foremost block of the indoor unit which is used for selecting the
transponder. As we know that the down-converted frequency is in the range from
950 to 1450 MHz but the guard band of 24 MHz is maintained by the transponder

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in the selected bandwidth. Thus, out of the 32 transponders, any of them must be
received by the indoor unit.

It is to be noted here that for a single polarization only a signal from 16

transponders must be available. The modulation of the carrier at the centre
frequency performed here is QPSK. Further, demodulation of the quadrature
phase-shift keying modulated signal is performed and it is converted into the
equivalent bitstream. Once this is done then an error correction scheme is
implemented to eliminate the errors from the received sequence.

Here demultiplexing of the received sequence is performed where individual

programs get separated and then get separated in the buffer memories so that
further processing may take place. At this stage, further processing may correspond
to the conditional accessibility, usage history view, modem connection, etc.

Applications of DBS www.EnggTree.com

The approach of transmitting the signals directly from the satellite to the home
receivers helps in providing broadcast services of audio and video along with other
interactive data services. A properly installed DBS system helps in providing
information when any rapid disaster (such as forest fire) occurs in any remote area.
DBS also finds applications in fields where on-demand information is required
such as weather forecasting. One of the basic applications includes providing
distance learning programs.

Direct to home Broadcast (DTH):

DTH stands for Direct-To-Home television. DTH is defined as the reception of

satellite programmes with a personal dish in an individual home.

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 DTH Broadcasting to home TV receivers take place in the ku band(12 GHz).

This service is known as Direct To Home service.

 DTH services were first proposed in India in 1996. Finally in 2000, DTH
was allowed.

 The new policy requires all operators to set up earth stations in India within
12 months of getting a license. DTH licenses in India will cost $2.14 million
and will be valid for 10 years.

 Working principal of DTH is the satellite communication. Broadcaster

modulates the received signal and transmit it to the satellite in KU Band and
from satellite one can receive signal by dish and set top box.

DTH Block Diagram:

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 A DTH network consists of a broadcasting centre, satellites, encoders,
multiplexers, modulators and DTH receivers

 The encoder converts the audio, video and data signals into the digital
format and the multiplexer mixes these signals.

 It is used to provide the DTH service in high populated area A Multi Switch
is basically a box that contains signal splitters and A/B switches.

 The outputs of group of DTH LNBs are connected to the A and B inputs of
the Multi Switch.

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Block Diagram of DTH Service

Advantages of DTH:

 DTH also offers digital quality signals which do not degrade the picture or
sound quality. www.EnggTree.com
 It also offers interactive channels and program guides with customers having
the choice to block out programming which they consider undesirable.

 One of the great advantages of the cable industry has been the ability to
provide local channels, but this handicap has been overcome by many DTH
providers using other local channels or local feeds.

 The other advantage of DTH is the availability of satellite broadcast in rural

and semi urban areas where cable is difficult to install.

What is the difference between DTH and DBS?

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Direct to home technology is the satellite television broadcasting process which is

actually intended for home reception. This technology is originally referred to
direct broadcast satellite (DBS) technology.

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