MACHINE TOOL TESTING

Assuit University
Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Design and Production Section

Made by:
Basel Mohamed

Under supervision of:

Prof Dr. Refaat El_Sheikh
ENG. Heba Hussam
Contents
Types of machine tool tests ............................................................................................. 2
Purpose of Machine Tool Testing .................................................................................... 3
Machine Tool Error Sources ............................................................................................ 3
Kinematic Errors .......................................................................................................... 3
Thermo-Mechanical Errors .......................................................................................... 3
Loads and Dynamic Forces ......................................................................................... 4
Motion Control & Software Errors ................................................................................ 5
Spindle and Tool Errors ............................................................................................... 5
Type of Geometrical Checks on Machine Tools. ............................................................. 6
Straightness of plane surface test................................................................................ 6
Straightness of cylindrical surface test......................................................................... 7
Straightness of an axis test .......................................................................................... 8
Roundness test ............................................................................................................ 9
Use of Laser for Alignment Testing ............................................................................... 10
INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE ................................................ 11
CO-ORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES ................................................................... 12
Constructions of CMM ............................................................................................... 12
Working Principle ....................................................................................................... 12
Causes of Errors in CMM .......................................................................................... 13
Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 14

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 Types of machine tool tests

The accuracy of manufactured parts depends on the accuracy of machine tools.

The quality of work piece depends on Rigidity and stiffness of machine tool and its
components. Alignment of various components in relation to one another Quality and
accuracy of driving mechanism and control devices. It can be classified into:

 Static tests.
 Dynamic tests.
 Static tests
If the alignment of the components of the machine tool are checked under static
conditions then the test are called static test.

 ·Dynamic tests
If the alignment tests are carried out under dynamic loading condition. The
accuracy of machine tools which cut metal by removing chips is tested by two types of
test namely.

 Geometrical tests
 Practical tests

 Geometrical tests
In this test, dimensions of components, position of components and displacement
of component relative to one another is checked.

 ·Practical tests
In these test, test pieces are machined in the machines. The test pieces must be
appropriate to the fundamental purpose for which the machine has been designed.

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 Purpose of Machine Tool Testing

The dimensions of any work piece, its surface finishes and geometry depends on
the accuracy of machine tool for its manufacture. In mass production the various
components produced should be of high accuracy to be assembled on a non-sensitive
basis. The increasing demand for accurately machined components has led to
improvement of geometric accuracy of machine tools. For this purpose various checks on
different components of the machine tool are carried out.

Machine Tool Error Sources

Kinematic Errors
Kinematic errors are those built into the machine due to manufacturing
inaccuracies and clearances in its geometry-defining components such as linear
slideways and rotary bearings. They are always present regardless of any external factors
such as temperature and forces. Many kinematic errors only depend on position, such as
the straightness of an axis or the alignment between axes. Play in drives, slideways and
rotary bearings results in hysteresis effects, which cause different errors depending on
the direction of travel. Examples of these effects include backlash and lateral play.

Because kinematic errors are repeatable, they are relatively easy to compensate
using calibration. Traditionally, the emphasis was on making mechanical adjustments to
machines to eliminate these errors, for example, by grinding an axis flat. Although a good
standard of mechanical alignment is still the foundation for machine tool accuracy, the
use of computer numerical control (CNC) now allows much greater use of digital
correction. This means that if there is a measured high point on the x-axis, that produces
an error in the z-direction. Rrather than attempting to remove the high point on the x-axis,
it is easier to introduce a corrective offset in the CNC controller. So, when the x-axis
approaches the high point, the z-axis will automatically move in the opposite direction to
maintain straight line motion of the tool along the nominal x-axis.

Thermo-Mechanical Errors
Thermal expansion of machine tool components due to changes in operating
temperature will result in distortion of the machine geometry. These effects are caused
primarily by heat sources related to the operation of the machine, such as motors and
slideways. For this reason, it is standard practice to warm a machine using a pre-defined
warmup sequence that exercises motors and axes fully. The machine should only be
calibrated and operated in this warmed-up state. However, thermo-mechanical errors
remain for a number of reasons. Firstly, the machine may be operated either more

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intensively or less intensively than the warmup sequence. For this reason, in certain
cases where machines receive light intermittent use, improved accuracy may be achieved
when the warmup cycle is not used.

Temperature also varies over time both due to the machine utilization and the
ambient environment. Machines may use temperature sensors located on the axes to
apply corrections for linear scaling errors. However, this assumes that thermal expansion
results in a homogeneous scale error, which is not the case. Temperature varies at
different positions on the machine due to changes in localized heat sources, both internal
(such as motors) and external (such as direct sunlight from a window aligning with a
machine). Temperature gradients are also found in indoor environments, due to warmer
air rising to the top of a room and cooler air settling to the bottom, of typically one degree
C per m. These effects can be very difficult to predict and compensate.

Considerable work has been done to understand how best to model and
compensate for thermal deformation in machine tools. Methods usually involve placing
temperature sensors on the major structural elements of a machine and then predicting
the deformation using either Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or an empirical model such
as deep learning. Achieving accurate predictions remains challenging due to a limited
number of temperature sensors giving an incomplete picture of the temperature gradients,
uncertainties in the temperature sensors themselves, uncertainties in the coefficient of
thermal expansion for the machine tool structure, and uncertainties in the models. These
are all areas that require further development in order to advance high precision
manufacturing.

Loads and Dynamic Forces

The weight of moving parts of the machine and of the work piece will cause a
repeatable displacement of the machine structure, which depends on the combination of
axis positions. The standard approach to kinematic calibration assumes that the errors in
each axis depend only on position along that axis. This means that each axis can be
calibrated in isolation and the resultant errors for any given position calculated by
superposition. However, when considering loads acting on the axes, this assumption is
not valid since when an axis as the end of the kinematic chain is fully extended, it will
exert a larger moment on the axis to which it is attached. For this reason, for the highest
accuracy, so called volumetric compensation must be carried out. This means that
instead of taking measurements at a number of discrete positions along each
independent axis, measurements are taken at grid positions within the volume of the
machine. The result is a far lengthier calibration process. The additional controller
software required to implement volumetric compensation can also be very expensive,
meaning that this is only applied for the most demanding applications. Luckily, the
inherent stiffness of machine tools means that these errors are usually very small,
probably less than a micron for typical CNC machine tools. However, for large gantry-

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based machines, operating at scales of several meters, volumetric compensation can
eliminate significantly larger errors.

Additional deformations of the machine tool structure, and resulting errors, are
caused by acceleration of the machine and workpiece mass, as well as process forces.
These can have a significant effect on machine errors. Inertial forces are predictable and
could, therefore, be compensated using model-based correction, although this is not
thought to be done by any current industrial control systems. Process forces are more
difficult to predict, although these forces may be reduced to have a negligible impact on
the final form of components by reducing the depth and feed rates for finishing cuts. This
involves a compromise between process time and accuracy.

Motion Control & Software Errors

Motion control errors include both physical effects, such as the dragging of cable
looms, and control interpolation errors, such as servo mismatch and reversal spikes.
Dynamic errors are those which are only present when the machine is in motion. Such
errors include controller errors such as reversal spikes, and servo mismatch and vibration.

Spindle and Tool Errors

A spindle is effectively an additional rotary axis with the important difference that
rotational positioning about the spindle axis does not need to be accurately controlled. In
fact, the spindle may be referred to as the rotary drive axis, however, due to the high
speed of operation, entirely different measurement techniques are required to measure
spindle errors. Errors associated with this axis are sometimes referred to as runout so
that radial errors are referred to as radial runout and axial errors as axial runout. Angular
positioning is generally not a consideration since the tool is continuously rotating within
the axis rather than being rotated accurately.

Although kinematically identical to any other rotary axis, in practice error sources
and detection are very different due to the far greater speed of rotation. Non-contact
sensors that provide very high frequency measurements are therefore required, such as
proximity sensors that make use of eddy current effects.
Additional errors are associated with the repeatability of the tool change operation
(index errors) and tool wear which affects tool length, tool diameter and tool geometry.
These may be calibrated using laser tool calibrators that are able to recalibrate the tool
position and size rapidly during operation of the machine.

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 Type of Geometrical Checks on Machine Tools.

Different types of geometrical tests conducted on machine tools are as follows:

1. Straightness.
2. Flatness.
3. Parallelism, equidistance and coincidence.
4. Roundness
5. Rotations.

Straightness of plane surface test

The surface-being-measured may be inclined relative to the measuring device. If

no correction is made for the slope then the measured tolerance will be larger than the
actual value. The slide shows how to correct for slope by plotting results on a graph paper.
Another technique is to zero the dial indicator at three widely spaced points on the
surface-being-measured. To do this the bottom surface of the part must be supported by
adjusted supports which can be adjusted to give the zero readings. Once adjustment is
completed the dial readings can be used directly to determine the tolerance. The
tolerance is given by the difference between the highest and lowest readings.

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Straightness of cylindrical surface test

Measurement of a straightness of a circular surface is more complicated than for

a flat surface. A common practice is to use V blocks to support the part, as shown in the
slide; this is an approximate method of measurement. V blocks add additional error as
the part may not be circular, it could be lobed.
To ensure that the line-being-measured is along the axis the dial indicator is moved
across the part at each measuring point. The lowest reading is taken as the measurement
(represents the highest point on the part). The part may be inclined relative to the
measuring device, so correction needs to be made for this. The technique is the same as
for a flat surface.
Complete measurement of the surface is not cost effective. Normal practice is to
measure four times around the part, with a spacing of 90 degrees. Each and every
measured section (longitudinal line) must lie within the straightness tolerance.

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Straightness of an axis test

To measure straightness of a shaft axis at RFS two dial indicators are required.
The part is held between centers. In each longitudinal section the values R=(Au-Al)/2 are
determined. Where Au is the reading of the upper dial indicator and Al is the reading of
the lower dial indicator. The difference between Rmax and Rmin within one section
represents the straightness deviation of the axis for this section. The straightness
deviation of the axis is the maximum of the section deviations; at least 4 sections must
be measured. The method shown in this slide is an approximate method for assessing
straightness.
Note that it is not possible to measure straightness of an axis directly. The only
measurements that can be taken are those on the outside surface of the part. This is true
for all measuring methods.

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Roundness test

The slide shows an approximate method for assessing circularity. The part is
rotated with the dial indicator stationary. The full indicator movement (FIM) is
determined - it is the difference between the highest and lowest values. The deviation is
half this value.
FIM=Amax-Amin.
Deviation=FIM/2
With two point measurements, two measurements are taken 180 degrees apart.
Two point measurement will not detect lobing of the part. Lobing is known to occur for
certain machining operations, e.g., centre less grinding and reaming. Where lobing is
suspected three point measurement or other methods should be used. Correction
values are used to obtain accurate assessments of circularity when using 3 or more
point measurement methods.

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 Use of Laser for Alignment Testing

 The alignment tests can be carried out over greater distances and to a greater
degree of accuracy using laser equipment.
 Laser equipment produces real straight line, whereas an alignment telescope
provides an imaginary line that cannot be seen in space.
 This is important when it is necessary to check number of components to a
predetermined straight line. Particularly if they are spaced relatively long distances
apart, as in aircraft production and in shipbuilding.
 Laser equipment can also be used for checking flatness of machined surface by
direct displacement. By using are optical square in conjunction with laser equipment
squareness can be checked with reference to the laser base line.

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 This testing is particularly suitable in aircraft production, shipbuilding etc. Where a
number of components, spaced long distance apart, have to be checked to a
predetermine straight line. Other uses of laser equipment are testing of flatness of
machined surfaces, checking square ness with the help of optical square etc. These
consist of laser tube will produces a cylindrical beam of laser about 10mm diameter
and an auto reflector with a high degree of accuracy. Laser tube consists of helium-
neon plasma tube in a heat aluminum cylindrical housing. The laser beam comes out
of the housing from its centre and parallel to t stability is the order of
0.2”detectorofhead arcand per read out unit. Number of photocell are arranged to
compare laser beam in each half horizontally and vertically. This is housed on a shard
which has two adjustments to translate the detector in its two orthogonal measuring
directions perpendicular to the laser beam. The devices detect the alignment of flat
surfaces perpendicular to a reference line of sight.

INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE

With laser interferometer it is possible to measure length to accuracy of 1 part in

106 on a routine basis. With the help of two retro reflectors placed at a fixed distance and
a length measuring laser interferometer the change in angle can be measured to an
accuracy of 0.1 second. The device uses sine Principle. The line joining the poles the
retro-reflectors makes the hypotenuse of the right triangle. The change in the path
difference of the reflected beam represents the side of the triangle opposite to the angle
being measured. Such laser interferometer can be used to measure an angle up to ± 10
degrees with a resolution of 0. 1 second.

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 CO-ORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES

Measuring machines are used for measurement of length over the outer surfaces
of a length bar or any other long member. The member may be either rounded or flat and
parallel. It is more useful and advantageous than vernier calipers, micrometer, screw
gauges etc. the measuring machines are generally universal character and can be used
for works of varied nature. The co-ordinate measuring machine is used for contact
inspection of parts. When used for computer-integrated manufacturing these machines
are controlled by computer numerical control. General software is provided for reverse
engineering complex shaped objects. The component is digitized using CNC, CMM and
it is then converted into a computer model which gives the two surface of the component.
These advances include for automatic work part alignment on the table. Savings in
inspection 5 to 10 percent of the time is required on a CMM compared to manual
inspection methods.

Constructions of CMM
Co-ordinate measuring machines are very useful for three dimensional
measurements. These machines have movements in X-Y-Z co-ordinate, controlled and
measured easily by using touch probes. These measurements can be made by
positioning the probe by hand, or automatically in more expensive machines. Reasonable
accuracies are 5 micro in. or 1 micrometer. The method these machines work on is
measurement of the position of the probe using linear position sensors. These are based
on moiré fringe patterns (also used in other systems). Transducer is provided in tilt
directions for giving digital display and senses positive and negative direction.

Working Principle
CMM is used for measuring the distance between two holes. The work piece is
clamped to the worktable and aligned for three measuring slides x, y and z. The
measuring head provides a taper probe tip which is seated in first datum hole and the
position of probe digital read out is set to zero. The probe is then moved to successive
holes, the read out represent the co-ordinate part print hole location with respect to the
datum hole. Automatic recording and data processing units are provided to carry out
complex geometric and statistical analysis. Special co-ordinate measuring machines are
provided both linear and rotary axes. This can measure various features of parts like
cone, cylinder and hemisphere. The prime advantage of co-ordinate measuring machine
is the quicker inspection and accurate measurements.

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Causes of Errors in CMM
1) The table and probes are in imperfect alignment. The probes may have a degree of
run out and move up and down in the Z-axis may cause perpendicularity errors. So CMM
should be calibrated with master plates before using the machine.
2) Dimensional errors of a CMM is influenced by:
 Straightness and perpendicularity of the guide ways.
 Scale division and adjustment.
 Probe length.
 Probe system calibration, repeatability, zero point setting and reversal
error.
 Error due to digitization.
 Environment
3) Other errors can be controlled by the manufacture and minimized by the measuring
software. The length of the probe should be minimum to reduce deflection.
4) The weight of the work piece may change the geometry of the guide ways and
therefore, the work piece must not exceed maximum weight.
5) Variation in temperature of CMM, specimen and measuring lab influence the
uncertainly of measurements.
6) Translation errors occur from error in the scale division and error in straightness
perpendicular to the corresponding axis direction.
7) Perpendicularity error occurs if three axes are not orthogonal.

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 Conclusion
Finally, we know about machine tool testing and it’s classification:
 Static test.
 Dynamic test:
 Geometrical test.
 Practical test.

And Machine Tool Error Sources

 Kinematic Errors
 Thermo-Mechanical Errors
 Loads and Dynamic Forces
 Motion Control & Software Errors
 Spindle and Tool Errors

And how to:

 Measuring straightness of flat plane, cylinder and axis by using dial indicator.
 Measuring roundness by using dial indicator.
 Using laser for alignment testing.
 Using Co-ordinate measuring machines.

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