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Composites Science, Technology, and Engineering
Understand critical principles of composites, such as design of durable structures,
choice of fibre, matrix, manufacturing process, and mechanics with this interdisciplin-
ary text. The book features up-to-date coverage of hybrids of fibres and particles and
explanation of failure criteria, and includes a comprehensive discussion on choice of
fibres, matrices, manufacturing technology, and micromechanics for durable compos-
ite structures. It provides the structure and properties of reinforcing fibres, particulates,
and matrices together with a discussion of fracture mechanics. This is an essential
guide for scientists and engineers wishing to discover the benefits of composite
materials for designing strong and durable structures.
Frank R. Jones was Emeritus Professor of Polymers and Composites at the University
of Sheffield.
Published online by Cambridge University Press

Composites Science,
Technology, and Engineering
FRANK R. JONES
University of Sheffield

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India
103 Penang Road, #05–06/07, Visioncrest Commercial, Singapore 238467
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107036123
DOI: 10.1017/9781139565943
© Frank R. Jones 2022
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2022
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Jones, Frank R., 1944– author.
Title: Composites science, technology, and engineering / Frank R. Jones, University of Sheffield.
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, [2022] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021041793 (print) | LCCN 2021041794 (ebook) | ISBN 9781107036123 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781139565943 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Composite materials. | BISAC: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING /
Materials Science / General
Classification: LCC TA418.9.C6 J587 2022 (print) | LCC TA418.9.C6 (ebook) | DDC 620.1/18–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021041793
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021041794
ISBN 978-1-107-03612-3 Hardback
Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/CompositesScience.
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.

of Sheffield.

Composites Science,
FRANK R. JONES


www.cambridge.org
DOI: 10.1017/9781139565943
ISBN 9781139565943 (epub)
ISBN 978-1-107-03612-3 Hardback

of Sheffield.

Composites Science,
FRANK R. JONES


www.cambridge.org
DOI: 10.1017/9781139565943
ISBN 9781139565943 (epub)
ISBN 978-1-107-03612-3 Hardback

Contents
Preface page xiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Historical Context 1
1.2 Definition of a Composite 4
1.2.1 Natural Composites 5
1.2.2 Micro-composites 5
1.2.3 Macro-composites 5
1.3 Types of Composites 5
1.3.1 Laminates 6
1.3.2 Discontinuous Fibrous Materials 6
1.3.3 Particulate Materials 7
1.3.4 Multicomponent Materials 7
1.4 Why Do Fibres Dominate Structural Composites? 8
1.4.1 Theoretical Strength 8
1.4.2 Actual Strength 8
1.5 The Concept of Specific Strength and Stiffness 13
1.6 Choice of Material and Process 16
1.7 Summary 19
1.8 Discussion Points 20
2 Fibres and Particulate Reinforcements 22

2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Carbon Fibres 25
2.2.1 Carbon Fibres from PAN Precursors 25
2.2.2 Carbon Fibres from Pitch Precursors 32
2.2.3 Interface and Interphase in CF Composites 34
2.2.4 Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fibres 35
2.3 Glass Fibres 37
2.3.1 E-Glass 38
2.3.2 AR Glass 39
2.3.3 High-Strength Glass (R- and S-Glasses) 39
2.3.4 D-Glass 40
2.3.5 Fibre Manufacture 40

vi Contents
2.3.6 Strength of Glass Fibres 41

2.3.7 Sizings and Binders 48
2.4 Advanced Polymer Fibres 55
2.4.1 Aramid Fibres 56
2.4.2 Other High-Performance Polymer Fibres 58
2.5 High Modulus Polyethylene (HMPE) Fibres 60
2.5.1 Surface Treatment 61
2.5.2 Other Polymer Fibres: Polypropylene Fibres 62
2.6 Natural Fibres 63
2.6.1 Bio-cellulose Fibres 63
2.6.2 Silk Fibres 64
2.7 Ceramic Fibres 64
2.7.1 Non-oxide Small-Diameter Fibres 66
2.7.2 Surface Finish of Small-Diameter Fibres 67
2.7.3 Oxide Fibres 68
2.8 Particulate Fillers and Reinforcements 68
2.9 Summary 70
3 Matrices 76
3.1 Introduction 76
3.1.1 Mechanisms of Viscoelasticity in Polymers 76
3.1.2 Magnitude of the Modulus (E) of a Glassy Polymer 77
3.1.3 Magnitude of the Modulus of a Rubber 79
3.2 Polymeric Matrices for Composites 80
3.2.1 Requirements of a Resin Matrix 81
3.3 Curing of Thermoset Resins 82
3.3.1 3D Step-Growth Polymerization 82
3.3.2 Phenolic Resins 83
3.3.3 Resole Resins 83
3.3.4 Novolak Resins 85
3.3.5 Resins for Composite Manufacture 86
3.3.6 Addition Polymerization 86
3.4 Epoxy Resins 87
3.4.1 Curing of Epoxy Resins 88
3.4.2 Compatibility of Polymers 94
3.4.3 Cure Property Diagrams 98
3.5 Unsaturated Polyesters Resins for Lamination 102
3.5.1 The Synthesis of Unsaturated Polyester 103
3.5.2 Formulation of Unsaturated Polyester Ester Resins 107
3.5.3 Polyester Formulation 108
3.5.4 Reactive Diluents 109
3.6 Curing of Polyester Resins 110
3.6.1 Curing Chemistry 112

Contents vii
3.7 Resin Microstructure 116

3.8 Mechanical Properties of Cast Resins 117
3.9 Low-Profile Resins 119
3.10 Gel Coat Resins 119
3.11 Related Resins 119
3.11.1 Vinyl Ester Resins 119
3.11.2 Microstructure of Vinyl Ester Resins 120
3.11.3 Vinyl Urethanes 120
3.12 High-Temperature Resin Systems 121
3.12.1 Thermosetting Polyimides 121
3.13 Ceramic Matrices 124
3.13.1 Slurry Processing 125
3.13.2 Liquid Processing 125
3.13.3 Sol-Gel Processing 125
3.13.4 Chemical Vapour Infiltration 126
3.13.5 In-Situ Processing 127
3.14 Metal Matrices 127
3.14.1 Solid State 127
3.14.2 Liquid State 127
3.14.3 Deposition 127
3.14.4 In situ 127
3.15 Conclusions 128
4 Composites Fabrication 131

4.1 Introduction 131
4.2 Direct Impregnation 131
4.2.1 Hand Lay-Up 133
4.2.2 Spray-Up 134
4.2.3 Centrifugal Casting 134
4.2.4 Pultrusion 135
4.2.5 Filament Winding 136
4.2.6 Resin Transfer Moulding 137
4.2.7 Reinforced Reaction Injection Moulding 138
4.3 Indirect Impregnation 139
4.3.1 Moulding Materials 139
4.4 Autoclave Moulding 143
4.5 Inflatable Core Moulding 147
4.6 Hot Compaction 147
4.7 Other Moulding Techniques 148
4.7.1 Compression Moulding 148
4.7.2 Injection Moulding 149
4.8 Selection of Manufacturing Method 152
4.9 Conclusions 158

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The unfortunate major was traced to the house of Rainhill, where,
entering the garden, the pursuers soon found him. Gillespie, who
had got one of Anderson’s pistols, accompanied by Stevenson,
advanced upon the murderer, who came up with a fierce
countenance, asking what was the matter. 1694.
Paterson told him there had been a man
slain in Glasgow, and the murderer was supposed to be here: ‘If you
be he,’ added Paterson, ‘may God forgive you!’ Menzies replied: ‘It is
no business of yours;’ whereupon one of the others called out:
‘Dowhill, here is the man.’ Then the major, drawing his sword, and
using a horrible imprecation, came forward, crying: ‘What have the
rascals to do with me?’ The men retreated before him, and a pistol
was fired in self-defence, by which Menzies was slain. When
Paterson returned a minute after, he found him lying on his back,
dead, with his drawn sword across his breast.
Strange to say, Henry Fletcher, brother of Lord Salton, and
Lieutenant-colonel Hume, for the interest of his majesty’s forces,
raised a prosecution against the three Glasgow citizens for murder. It
ended in a verdict of Not proven.[133]
Previous to 1705, when the first professor Oct.

of anatomy was appointed in the university
of Edinburgh, there were only a few irregular attempts in the
Scottish capital to give instructions in that department of medical
education. We first hear of dissection of the dead body in our city in
the latter part of the year 1694, a little before which time the
celebrated Dr Archibald Pitcairn had left a distinguished position as
professor of medicine in the university of Leyden, and marrying an
Edinburgh lady, had been induced finally to settle there in practice.
On the 14th October, Pitcairn wrote to his friend, Dr Robert Gray of
London, that he was taking part in an effort to obtain subjects for
dissection from the town-council, requesting from them the bodies of
those who die in the correction-house called Paul’s Work, and have
none to bury them. ‘We offer,’ he says, ‘to wait on these poor for
nothing, and bury them after dissection at our own charges, which
now the town does; yet there is great opposition by the chief
surgeons, who neither eat hay nor suffer the oxen to eat it. I do
propose, if this be granted, to make better improvements in anatomy
than have been made at Leyden these thirty years; for I think most or
all anatomists have neglected or not known what was most useful for
a physician.’
The person ostensibly moving in this matter was Mr Alexander
Monteith, an eminent surgeon, and a friend of Pitcairn. In
compliance with his request, the town-council (October 24) gave him
a grant of the dead bodies of those dying in 1694.
the correction-house, and of foundlings who
die on the breast, allowing at the same time a room for dissection,
and freedom to inter the remains in the College Kirk cemetery, but
stipulating that he bury the intestines within forty-eight hours, and
the remainder of the body within ten days, and that his prelections
should only be during the winter half of the year.
Monteith’s brethren did not present any opposition to his
movement generally; they only disrelished his getting the Council’s
gift exclusively to himself. Proposing to give demonstrations in
anatomy also, they preferred a petition to the town-council, asking
the unclaimed bodies of persons dying in the streets, and foundlings
who died off the breast; and the request was complied with, on
condition of their undertaking to have a regular anatomical theatre
ready before the term of Michaelmas 1697.[134]
Such were the beginnings of the medical school of Edinburgh.
The Bass.
REIGN OF WILLIAM III.: 1695–1702.
During this period, the affairs of Scotland were in a marked degree

subordinate to those of England. The king, absorbed in continental
wars and continental politics, paid little attention to his northern
kingdom; he left it chiefly to the care of its state-officers, using as a
medium of his own influence, William Carstares, a Presbyterian
minister of extraordinary worth, sincerity, and prudence, who had
gained his entire esteem and confidence, and who usually attended
him wherever he was. A parliament which sat in May 1695, was
chiefly occupied with the investigation of the Glencoe massacre, and
with measures connected with the rising commercial enterprise of
the country, including the formation of a native bank, and that of a
company for trading with Africa and the Indies. The latter of these
speculations was worked out in an expedition to Darien, and an
attempted settlement there, which, through English mercantile
jealousy, and the king’s indifference to Scottish interests, ended so
unfortunately as greatly to incense the Scottish nation, and increase
the party disaffected to the Revolution government. The misery
hence arising was increased by a dearth from a succession of bad
seasons. Nevertheless, this period will be found in our chronicle to
have been remarkable for the establishment of manufactories of
various kinds, and for various other industrial enterprises, shewing
that the national energies were beginning to take a decidedly new
direction. At the same time, instances of deplorable superstition,
cruelty, and intolerance were sufficiently numerous to attest that the
days of barbarism were not past.
Incessant efforts were made by the Jacobite party to procure the
restoration of King James, and the discontents excited by Darien
were greatly favourable to their views. Yet the heart of the middle
class throughout the more important provinces remained firm in
Presbyterianism, for which the Revolution government was the sole
guarantee; and in this lay an insuperable bar to all reactionary
projects. A war against France, which had begun immediately after
the Revolution (May 1689), was brought to a conclusion in
September 1697, by the treaty of Ryswick, which included an
acknowledgment by Louis XIV. of the title of King William to the
English throne. The exiled king, old and abandoned to ascetic
devotion, indulged a hope that he would outlive William, and be then
quietly recalled. He died, however, in September 1701, with only the
assurance of the French king in favour of the restoration of his son.
William survived him but a few months, dying of a fever and ague on
the 8th March 1702. His vigorous talents, his courage, his essential
mildness and tolerance, abated as they were by an unpopular
coldness of manners, are amply recognised in English history;
among the Scots, while Presbyterians thank him for the
establishment of their church, there is little feeling regarding the
Dutch king, besides a strong resentment of his concern in the affairs
of Glencoe and Darien.
This day, being Sunday, the Catholics of 1695. Feb. 17.

Edinburgh were so bold as to hold a
meeting for worship in the Canongate. It was fallen upon and
‘dissipat’ by the authorities, and the priest, Mr David Fairfoul, with
James De Canton and James Morris, fencing-masters, and John
Wilson of Spango, were committed to prison, while the Lord
Advocate obtained a list of other persons present. The Privy Council
ordered the four prisoners to be carried from the Canongate to the
Edinburgh Tolbooth, and appointed a committee to take what steps
it might think meet regarding the list of worshippers.
On the 28th February, the Council permitted the liberation of the
two fencing-masters, on assurance of their doing nothing offensive to
the government in future, under a penalty of five hundred merks. At
the same time, they ordained ‘Harry Graham, and his landlord,
James Blair, periwig-maker in Niddry’s Wynd; James Brown, son to
Hugh Brown, chirurgeon, and the said Hugh his father; John
Abercrombie, merchant in Edinburgh, and John Lamb in the Water
of Leith, to give bond in the same terms and under the same penalty;’
else to be kept in prison. Orders were given to search for John Laing,
writer, John Gordon, writer, and James Scott in the Canongate,
‘who, being also at the said meeting, have absconded.’ The priest
Fairfoul was treated with unexpected mercy, being liberated on
condition of banishment, not to return under a penalty of three
hundred pounds sterling.[135]
Robert Davidson, merchant in Ellon, Feb. 19.

Aberdeenshire, represented to the Privy
Council that he had been in a good way of merchandise, and
proprietor of a two-story house, when in the beginning of December
last some of Lord Carmichael’s dragoons were quartered upon him,
and deposited their powder in one of his low rooms. As they were
one morning dividing the powder, it caught 1695.
fire, and demolished the house, together
with his whole merchandise and household plenishing, carrying the
bed whereon he and his family lay to the top of the house, and
seriously injuring a relative who was living with him at the time, and
for the cost of whose cure he was answerable. Robert petitioned for
some compensation, and the Council—following its rule of a
vicarious beneficence—allowed him to raise a voluntary collection at
the church-doors of Aberdeenshire and the two adjacent counties.[136]
There never, perhaps, was any mystic Feb.

history better attested than that of ‘the
Rerrick Spirit.’ The tenant of the house, many of his neighbours, the
minister of the parish, several other clergymen, the proprietor of the
ground living half a mile off, all give their testimonies to the various
things which they ‘saw, heard, and felt.’ The air of actuality is helped
even by the local situation and its associations. It is in the same
parish with Dundrennan Abbey, where Queen Mary spent her last
night in Scotland. It is upon the same rock-bound coast which Scott
has described so graphically in his tale of Guy Mannering, which was
indeed founded on facts that occurred in this very parish. Collin, the
house of the laird, still exists, though passed into another family.
Very probably, the house of Andrew Mackie himself would also be
found by any one who had the curiosity to inquire for it; nor would
he fail, at the same time, to learn that the whole particulars of this
narration continue to be fresh in popular recollection, though four
generations have passed away since the event. Few narrations of the
kind have included occurrences and appearances which it was more
difficult to reconcile with the theory of trick or imposture.
Andrew Mackie, a mason, occupied a small farm, called Ring-croft,
on the estate of Collin, in the parish of Rerrick, and stewartry of
Kirkcudbright. He is spoken of as a man ‘honest, civil, and harmless
beyond many of his neighbours,’ and we learn incidentally that he
had a wife and some children. In the course of the month of February
1695, Andrew was surprised to find his young cattle frequently loose
in the byre, and their bindings broken. Attributing it to their
unruliness, he got stronger bindings; but still they were found loose
in the morning. Then he removed the beasts to another place; and
when he went to see them next morning, he 1695.
found one bound up with a hair tether to
the roof-beam, so strait, that its feet were lifted off the ground. Just
about this time, too, the family were awakened one night with a smell
of smoke; and when they got up, they found a quantity of peats lying
on the floor, and partially kindled. It seemed evident that some
mischievous agent was at work in Ring-croft; but as yet nothing
superhuman was in the surmises of the family.
On Wednesday, the 7th of March, a number of stones were thrown
in the house—‘in all places of it’—and no one could tell whence they
came, or who threw them. This continued during day and night, but
mostly during the night, for several days, the stones often hitting the
members of the family, but always softly, as if they had less than half
their natural weight. A kind of fear began to take possession of the
little household, and the father’s fireside devotions waxed in
earnestness. Here, however, a new fact was developed: the stone-
throwing was worst when the family was at prayers. On the Saturday
evening, the family being for some time without, one or two of the
children, on entering, were startled to observe what appeared a
stranger sitting at the fireside, with a blanket about him. They were
afraid, and hesitated; but the youngest, who was only nine or ten
years of age, chid the rest for their timidity, saying: ‘Let us sain
[bless] ourselves, and then there is no ground to fear it!’ He
perceived that the blanket around the figure was his. Having blessed
himself, he ran forward, and pulled away the blanket, saying: ‘Be
what it will, it hath nothing to do with my blanket.’ It was found to be
a four-footed stool set on end, and the blanket cast over it.
Attending church on Sunday, Andrew Mackie took an opportunity,
after service, of informing the minister, Mr Telfair, how his house
had been disturbed for the last four days. The reverend gentleman
consequently visited Ring-croft on Tuesday. He prayed twice,
without experiencing any trouble; but soon after, as he stood
conversing with some people at the end of the barn, he saw two
stones fall on the croft near by, and presently one came from the
house to tell that the pelting within doors had become worse than
ever. He went in, prayed again, and was hit several times by the
stones, but without being hurt. After this there was quiet for several
days. On Sunday it began again, and worse than before, for now the
stones were larger, and where they hit, they gave pain. On the
ensuing Wednesday, the minister revisited 1695.
the house, and stayed a great part of the
night, during which he was ‘greatly troubled.’ ‘Stones and several
other things,’ says he, ‘were thrown at me; I was struck several times
on the sides and shoulders very sharply with a great staff, so that
those who were present heard the noise of the strokes. That night it
threw off the bed-side, and rapped upon the chests and boards as one
calling for access. As I was at prayer, leaning on a bed-side, I felt
something pressing up my arm. I, casting my eyes thither, perceived
a little white hand and arm, from the elbow down, but presently it
evanished.’
The neighbours now began to come about the house, to gratify
their curiosity or express sympathy; and both when they were within
doors, and when they were approaching or departing, they were
severely pelted. Mackie himself got a blow from a stone, which
wounded his forehead. After several apparent efforts of a visionary
being to seize him by the shoulder, he was griped fast by the hair of
the head, and ‘he thought something like nails scratched his skin.’
This, however, was little in comparison to what happened with some
of the neighbours, for, as attested by ‘Andrew Tait in Torr,’ they were
seized and dragged up and down the house by the clothes. ‘It griped
one John Keig, miller in Auchencairn, so by the side, that he
entreated his neighbours to help: it cried it would rive [tear] the side
from him. That night it lifted the clothes off the children, as they
were sleeping in bed, and beat them on the hips as if it had been with
one’s hand, so that all who were in the house heard it. The door-bar
and other things would go thorough the house, as if a person had
been carrying them in his hand; yet nothing seen doing it. It also
rattled on chests and bed-sides with a staff, and made a great noise.’
‘At night it cried, “Whisht! whisht!” at every sentence in the close of
prayer; and it whistled so distinctly, that the dog barked and ran to
the door, as if one had been calling to hound him.’
At the request of the laird, Charles M‘Lellan of Collin, a number of
ministers put up public prayers on account of these strange
occurrences, and on the 4th of April two came to the house to see
what they could do in behalf of the family. They spent the night in
fasting and prayer, but with no other apparent effect than that of
rendering the supposed spirit more ‘cruel.’ One of the reverend
gentlemen got a wound in the head from a stone, and the other had
his wig pulled off, and received several sore blows, which, however,
were healed quickly. A fiery peat was 1695.
thrown amongst the people, and in the
morning when they arose from prayer, ‘the stones poured down on
all who were in the house to their hurt.’
Two days after, the affair took a new turn, when Mackie’s wife was
induced to lift a stone which she found loose at the threshold of the
house, and perceived underneath ‘seven small bones, with blood, and
some flesh, all closed in a piece of old soiled paper;’ the blood being
fresh and bright. She presently ran to the laird’s house, about a
quarter of a mile distant, to fetch him; and while she was gone, the
spirit became worse than ever, ‘throwing stones and fire-balls in and
about the house; but the fire, as it lighted, did evanish. It thrust a
staff through the wall above the children in bed, shook it over them,
and groaned.’ The laird came and lifted the bones and flesh, after
which the trouble ceased for a little time. Next day, however, being
Sunday, it recommenced with throwing of stones and other heavy
articles, and set the house twice on fire. In the evening, when the
eldest boy was coming home, ‘an extraordinary light fell about him,
and went before him to the house, with a swift motion.’
On the ensuing morning, the 8th April, Mackie found in his close a
letter written and sealed with blood, superscribed thus: ‘3 years tho
shall have to repent a net it well.’ Within he read: ‘Wo be to the
Cotlland Repent and tak warning for the door of haven ar all Redy
bart against the I am sent for a warning to the to fllee to god yet
troublt shallt this man be for twenty days a 3 rpent rpent Scotland
or els tow shall.’[137]
Following up the old notion regarding the touching of a murdered
person in order to discover the murderer, all the surviving persons
who had lived in the house during the twenty-eight years of its
existence, were convened by appointment of the civil magistrate
before Charles M‘Lellan of Collin, ‘and did all touch the bones,’ but
without any result.
On a committee of five ministers coming two days after to the
house, the disturbing agency increased much in violence. According
to the parish minister, Telfair, who was present on this occasion, ‘It
came often with such force, that it made all the house shake; it brake
a hole through the timber and thatch of the 1695.
roof, and poured in great stones, one
whereof, more than a quarter weight, fell upon Mr James Monteath
his back, yet he was not hurt.’ When a guard was set upon the hole in
the roof, outside, it broke another hole through the gable from the
barn, and threw stones in through that channel. ‘It griped and
handled the legs of some, as with a man’s hand; it hoised up the feet
of others, while standing on the ground; thus it did to William
Lennox of Millhouse, myself, and others.’
After this, the disturbances went on with little variation of effect
for a week or more. A pedler felt a hand thrust into his pocket.
Furniture was dragged about. Seeing a meal-sieve flying about the
house, Mackie took hold of it, when the skin was immediately torn
out. Several people were wounded with the stones. Groaning,
whistling, and cries of Whisht—Bo, bo—and Kuck, kuck! were
frequently heard. Men, while praying, were over and over again lifted
up from the ground. While Mackie was thrashing in the barn, some
straw was set fire to, and staves were thrust at him through the wall.
When any person was hit by a stone, a voice was heard saying: ‘Take
that till you get more;’ and another was sure to come immediately.
On the 24th of April, there was a fast and humiliation in the parish
on account of the demonstrations at Ring-croft; and on that day the
violences were more than ever extreme, insomuch that the family
feared they should be killed by the stones. ‘On the 26th, it threw
stones in the evening, and knocked on a chest several times, as one to
have access, and began to speak, and call those who were sitting in
the house witches and rooks, and said it would take them to hell. The
people then in the house said among themselves: “If it had any to
speak to it, now it would speak.” In the meantime, Andrew Mackie
was sleeping. They wakened him, and then he, hearing it say: “Thou
shalt be troubled till Tuesday,” asked, “Who gave thee a
commission?” It answered: “God gave me a commission, and I am
sent to warn the land to repent, for a judgment is to come, if the land
do not quickly repent;” and commanded him to reveal it upon his
peril. And if the land did not repent, it said it would go to its father,
and get a commission to return with a hundred worse than itself, and
it would trouble every particular family in the land. Andrew Mackie
said: “If I should tell this, I would not be believed.” Then it said:
“Fetch [your] betters; fetch the minister of 1695.
the parish, and two honest men on
Tuesday’s night, and I shall declare before them what I have to say.”
Then it said: “Praise me, and I will whistle to you; worship me, and I
will trouble you no more.” Then Andrew Mackie said: “The Lord,
who delivered the three children out of the fiery furnace, deliver me
and mine this night from the temptations of Satan!” It replied: “You
might as well have said, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.”’ On a
humble person present here putting in a word, the voice told him he
was ill-bred to interfere in other people’s discourse. ‘It likewise said:
“Remove your goods, for I will burn the house.”’
The house was actually set on fire seven times next day, and the
care of the inmates preventing damage of this kind from extending,
the end of the house was pulled down in the evening, so that the
family was forced to spend the night in the barn. On the second next
day, the house being again set fire to several times, Mackie carefully
extinguished all fires about the place, and poured water upon his
hearth; yet after this, when there was no fire within a quarter of a
mile, the conflagrations, as was alleged, were renewed several times.
The period announced in the bloody letter of the 8th instant was
now approaching, and in a conversation with Mackie, the supposed
spirit good-naturedly informed him that, ‘except some casting of
stones on Tuesday to fulfil the promise,’ he should have no more
trouble. Tuesday, being the 30th of April, was the twenty-third day
from the finding of the letter. That night, Charles M‘Lellan of Collin
and several neighbours were in the barn. As he was at prayer, he
‘observed a black thing in the corner of the barn, and it did increase,
as if it would fill the whole house. He could not discern it to have any
form, but as if it had been a black cloud; it was affrighting to them
all. Then it threw bear-chaff and mud in their faces, and afterwards
did grip severals who were in the house by the middle of the body, by
the arms, and other parts of their bodies, so strait, that some said for
five days thereafter they thought they felt those grips.’ Such,
excepting the firing of a sheep-cot next day, was the last that was
seen, heard, or felt of the Rerrick Spirit.
So great was the impression made by these incidents, that early in
the ensuing year Mr Telfair published an account of them in a small
pamphlet, which went through a second edition in Scotland, and was
reprinted, with alterations of language, in 1695.
[138]
London. At the end appeared the
attestations of those who ‘saw, heard, and felt’ the various things
stated—namely, ‘Mr Andrew Ewart, minister at Kells; Mr James
Monteath, minister at Borgue; Mr John Murdo, minister at
Crossmichael; Mr Samuel Stirling, minister at Parton; Mr William
Falconer, minister at Kelton; Charles M‘Lellan of Collin, William
Lennox of Millhouse, Andrew and John Tait in Torr, John Cairns in
Hardhills, William Macminn, John Corsby, Thomas Macminn,
Andrew Paline, &c.’ It may be remarked, that for each particular
statement in the Relation, the names of the special witnesses are
given; and their collected names are appended, as to a solemn
document in which soul and conscience were concerned.
The degree of respect felt by the Mar. 19.

authorities of this age for the rights of the
individual, is shewn very strikingly in a custom which was now and
for a considerable time after largely practised, of compromising with
degraded and imputedly criminal persons for banishment to the
American plantations. For example, at this date, thirty-two women of
evil fame, residing in Edinburgh, were brought before the
magistrates as a moral nuisance. We do not know what could have
been done to them beyond whipping and hard labour; yet they were
fain to agree that, instead of any other punishment, they should be
banished to America, and arrangements for that purpose were
immediately made.
In the ensuing June, a poor woman of the same sort, named Janet
Cook, residing in Leith, was denounced for offences in which a father
and son were associated—a turpitude which excited a religious
horror, and caused her to be regarded as a criminal of the highest
class. The Lord Advocate reported of Janet to the Privy Council, that
she had been put under the consideration of the Lords of Justiciary,
as a person against whom ‘probation could not be found,’ but that
the Lords were nevertheless ‘of opinion she might be banished the
kingdom,’ and she herself had ‘consented to her banishment.’ The
Lords of the Privy Council seem to have had no more difficulty about
the case than those of the Court of 1695.
Justiciary had had; they ordered that Janet
should depart furth of the kingdom and not return, ‘under the
highest pains and penalties.’
In January 1696, a woman named Elizabeth Waterstone,
imprisoned on a charge identical in all respects with the above, was,
in like manner, without trial, banished, with her own consent, to the
plantations.
On the 7th of February 1697, four boys who were notorious
thieves, and eight women who were that and worse, were called
before the magistrates of Edinburgh, and ‘interrogat whether or not
they would consent freely to their own banishment furth of this
kingdom, and go to his majesty’s plantations in America.’ ‘They one
and all freely and unanimously consented so to do,’ and
arrangements were made by the Privy Council for their deportation
accordingly. It was only ordained regarding the boys that Lord Teviot
might engage them as recruits for Flanders, in which case he was
immediately to commence maintaining them.
On the 15th February 1698, Robert Alexander, ‘a notorious horse-
stealer,’ now in prison, was willing to appease justice by consenting
to banishment without trial. He likewise made discoveries enabling
several countrymen to recover their horses. The Privy Council
therefore ordained him to be transported by the first ship to the
plantations of America, not to return thence under pain of death.
William Baillie, ‘ane Egyptian,’ prisoner in the Tolbooth of
Edinburgh, but regarding whom we hear of no specific offence and
no trial, was summarily ordered (Sep. 12, 1699) to be transported in
the first ship going to the plantations, the skipper to be allowed a
proper gratuity from the treasury, and at the same time to give
caution for five hundred merks that he would produce a certificate of
the man being landed in America.[139]
It was long before justice in Scotland took any qualm about this
free-and-easy way of dealing with accused persons. So late as 1732,
two men of humble rank—Henderson, a sedan-carrier, and
Hamilton, a street-cadie—suspected of being accessory to the
murder of an exciseman, having petitioned for banishment before
trial, were sent from the jail in Edinburgh to Glasgow, there to wait a
vessel for the plantations.[140]
The Earl of Home, as a dangerous person, 1695. Apr. 3.
had for some time been confined to his
house of the Hirsel, near Coldstream; but now he was required to
enter himself prisoner in Edinburgh Castle. He represented himself
as under such indisposition of body as to make this unendurable, and
the Council therefore ordered Dr Sir Thomas Burnet, the king’s
physician, to take a chirurgeon with him to the Hirsel, and inquire
into the state of his lordship’s health. The doctor and surgeon
reported in such terms that the earl was allowed to remain at the
Hirsel, but not without caution to the extent of two thousand pounds
sterling. For their pains in travelling fifty miles and back, and giving
this report, the Council allowed Dr Burnet two hundred merks (£11,
2s. 2d.), and Gideon Elliot, chirurgeon, one hundred merks.[141]
A hership of cattle having taken place on May 20.

the lands of Lord Rollo, in Perthshire, the
Master of Rollo was pleased to prosecute the matter a little more
energetically than was convenient to some of his neighbours. He
seems to have particularly excited the resentment of James
Edmonstoun of Newton, one of whose tenants was found in
possession of a cow reclaimed as part of the hership. Newton, being
soon after at the house of Clavidge, spoke some despiteful words
regarding the Master, which were afterwards taken notice of. At the
same house, about the same time, Patrick Graham, younger of
Inchbrakie, spoke in the like angry terms of the Master. ‘It has been
noised in the country,’ said he, ‘that I have courted the Master of
Rollo, and fawned upon him; but when occasion serves, something
different will be seen.’
These two hot-headed men spent a couple of days together at
Ryecroft, a house of young Inchbrakie, and probably there inflamed
their common resentment by talking over their grievances. On the
day noted in the margin, hearing that the Master of Rollo was to go
in the afternoon to Invermay House, they rode to his house of
Duncrub, and from that place accompanied him to Invermay,
together with the Laird of Clavidge and a gentleman named
M‘Naughton. Inchbrakie was remarked to have no sword, while his
companion Newton was provided with one. Supping at the
hospitable board of Invermay, these two conducted themselves much
in the manner of men seeking a quarrel. Inchbrakie said to the
Master: ‘Master, although John Stewart killed and salted two of your
kine, you surely will not pursue him, since 1695.
your father and his Miss ate them!’
Hereupon Clavidge remarked that this was not table-talk; to which
Newton made answer: ‘I think you are owning that.’ Then Inchbrakie
and Newton were observed to whisper together, and the latter was
heard saying: ‘I will not baulk you, Inchie.’ Afterwards, they went out
together, and by and by returned to table. What was the subject of
their conversation during absence, might only too easily be inferred
from what followed.
At ten o’clock the party broke up, and the strangers mounted their
horses, to ride to their respective homes. The Laird of Invermay,
having observed some mischief brewing in the mind of Newton,
endeavoured to make him stay for the night, but without success.
The Master, Clavidge, and M‘Naughton rode on, with Inchbrakie a
little in front of them. When Newton came up, Inchbrakie and he
turned a little aside, and Newton was then observed to loose his belt
and give his sword to Inchbrakie. Then riding on to the rest of the
party, he contrived to lead Clavidge and M‘Naughton a little ahead,
and commenced speaking noisily about some trivial matter. Hearing,
however, the clashing of two swords behind them, Clavidge and
M‘Naughton turned back, along with Newton, and there saw the
Master of Rollo fallen on his knees, while Inchbrakie stood over him.
The latter called out to Newton, ‘He has got it.’ Clavidge rushed to
sustain the sinking man, while Inchbrakie and Newton went apart
and interchanged a few hurried sentences. Presently Newton came
up again, when Clavidge, perceiving that the Master was wounded to
the death, cried out: ‘O God, such a horrid murder was never seen!’
To this Newton, standing coolly by, said: ‘I think not so—I think it
has been fair.’ The poor Master seems to have died immediately, and
then Newton went again aside with Inchbrakie, gave him his own
hat, and assisted him to escape. In the morning, when the two
swords were found upon the ground, the bloody one proved to be
Newton’s.
Inchbrakie fled that night to the house of one John Buchanan,
whom he told that he had killed the Master of Rollo, adding, with
tokens of remorse: ‘Wo worth Newton—wo worth the company!’ and
stating further that Newton had egged him on, and given him a
weapon, when he would rather have declined fighting.
Inchbrakie escaped abroad, and was outlawed, but, procuring a
remission, returned to his country in 1720. 1695.
[142]
James Edmonstoun of Newton was
tried (Aug. 6, 1695) for accession to the murder of John Master of
Rollo, and condemned to banishment for life.[143] It is stated that,
nevertheless, he carried the royal standard of James VIII. at the
battle of Sheriffmuir, and even after that event, lived many years on
his own estate in Strathearn.[144]
The Estates at this date advert to the fact May.

that sundry lands lying along the sea-coast
had been ruined, in consequence of their being overwhelmed with
sand driven from adjacent sand-hills, ‘the which has been mainly
occasioned by the pulling up by the roots of bent, juniper, and broom
bushes, which did loose and break the surface and scroof of the sand-
hills.’ In particular, ‘the barony of Cowbin and house and yards
thereof, lying in the sheriffdom of Elgin, is quite ruined and
overspread with sand,’ brought upon it by the aforesaid cause.
Penalties were accordingly decreed for such as should hereafter pull
up bent or juniper bushes on the coast sand-hills.[145]
A remarkable geological phenomenon, resulting in the ruin of a
family of Morayland gentry, is here in question. We learn from an act
of parliament, passed two months later, that, within the preceding
twenty years, two-thirds of the estate of Culbin had been
overwhelmed with blown sand, so that no trace of the manor-house,
yards, orchards, or mains thereof, was now to be seen, though
formerly ‘as considerable as many in the country of Moray.’
Alexander Kinnaird of Culbin now represented to the parliament,
that full cess was still charged for his lands, being nearly as much as
the remainder of them produced to him in rent; and he petitioned
that his unfortunate estate might, in consideration of his
extraordinary misfortune, be altogether exempted from cess. Three
years after this date, we hear of the remaining fourth part of Culbin
as sold for the benefit of the creditors of the proprietor, and himself
suing to parliament for a personal protection. In time, the entire ruin
of the good old barony was completed. Hugh Miller says: ‘I have
wandered for hours amid the sandwastes of this ruined barony, and
seen only a few stunted bushes of broom, and a few scattered tufts of
withered bent, occupying, amid utter 1695.
barrenness, the place of what, in the middle
of the seventeenth century, had been the richest fields of the rich
province of Moray; and, where the winds had hollowed out the sand,
I have detected, uncovered for a few yards-breadth, portions of the
buried furrows, sorely dried into the consistence of sun-burned
brick, but largely charged with the seeds of the common cornfield
weeds of the country, that, as ascertained by experiment by the late
Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, still retain their vitality. It is said that an
antique dove-cot, in front of the huge sand-wreath which enveloped
the manor-house, continued to present the top of its peaked roof
over the sand, as a foundered vessel sometimes exhibits its vane over
the waves, until the year 1760. The traditions of the district testify
that, for many years after the orchard had been enveloped, the
topmost branches of the fruit-trees, barely seen over the surface,
continued each spring languidly to throw out bud and blossom; and
it is a curious circumstance, that in the neighbouring churchyard of
Dike there is a sepulchral monument of the Culbin family, which,
though it does not date beyond the reign of James VI., was erected by
a lord and lady of the lost barony, at a time when they seem to have
had no suspicion of the utter ruin which was coming on their house.
The quaint inscription runs as follows:
VALTER : KINNAIRD : ELIZABETH : INNES : 1613 :
THE : BVILDARS : OF : THIS : BED : OF : STANE :
AR : LAIRD : AND : LADIE : OF : COVBINE :
QVHILK : TVA : AND : THARS : QVHANE : BRAITHE IS : GANE :
PLEIS : GOD : VIL : SLEIP : THIS : BED : VITHIN :
I refer to these facts, though they belong certainly to no very remote

age in the past history of our country, chiefly to shew that in what
may be termed the geological formations of the human period, very
curious fossils may be already deposited, awaiting the researches of
the future. As we now find, in raising blocks of stone from the
quarry, water-rippled surfaces lying beneath, fretted by the tracks of
ancient birds and reptiles, there is a time coming when, under thick
beds of stone, there may be detected fields and orchards, cottages,
manor-houses, and churches—the memorials of nations that have
perished, and of a condition of things and a stage of society that have
for ever passed away.’[146]
The same advantages of situation which June 4.

are now thought to 1695.
adapt Peterhead
for a harbour of refuge for storm-beset vessels—placed centrally and
prominently on the east coast of Scotland—rendered it very
serviceable in affording shelter to vessels pursued by those French
privateers which, during the present war, were continually scouring
the German Ocean. Very lately, four English vessels returning from
Virginia and other foreign plantations with rich commodities, would
have inevitably been taken if they had not got into Peterhead
harbour, and been protected there by the fortifications and the
‘resoluteness’ of the inhabitants. The spirit manifested in keeping up
the defences, and maintaining a constant guard and watch at the
harbour, had incensed the privateers not a little; and one Dunkirker
of thirty-four guns took occasion last summer to fire twenty-two
great balls at the town, nor did he depart without vowing (as
afterwards reported by a Scottish prisoner on board) to return and
do his endeavour to set it in a flame. The people, feeling their danger,
and exhausted with expensive furnishings and watchings, now
petitioned the Privy Council for a little military protection—which
was readily granted.[147]
As political troubles subsided in Scotland, June.
the spirit of mercantile enterprise rose and
gained strength. The native feelings of this kind were of course
stimulated by the spectacle of success presented in England by the
East India Company, and the active trade carried on with the
colonies. These sources of profit were monopolies; but Scotland
inquired, since she was an independent state, what was to hinder her
to have similar sources of profit established by her own legislature.
The dawnings of this spirit are seen in an act passed in the Scottish
parliament in 1693, wherein it is declared, ‘That merchants may
enter into societies and companies for carrying on trade as to any
sort of goods to whatsoever countries not being at war with their
majesties, where trade is in use to be, and particularly, besides the
kingdoms of Europe, to the East and West Indies, to the Straits and
Mediterranean, or upon the coast of Africa, or elsewhere,’ and
promising to such companies letters-patent for privileges and other
encouragements, as well as protection in case of their being attacked
or injured. Amongst a few persons favouring this spirit, was one of
notable character and history—William Paterson—a native of
Scotland, but now practising merchandise 1695.
in London—a most active genius, well
acquainted with distant countries, not visionary, animated, on the
contrary, by sound commercial principles, yet living, unfortunately
for himself, before the time when there was either intelligence or
means for the successful carrying out of great mercantile adventures.
Paterson, in the early part of this year, had gained for himself a
historical fame by projecting and helping to establish the Bank of
England. For his native country he at the same time projected what
he hoped would prove a second East India Company.
At the date noted, an act passed the Scottish parliament, forming
certain persons named into an incorporation, under the name of The
Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies, who should
be enabled to ‘plant colonies, and build cities and forts, in any
countries in Asia, Africa, or America, not possest by any European
sovereign,’ ‘by consent of the natives and inhabitants thereof,’ and to
take all proper measures for their own protection and the
advancement of their special objects, only acknowledging the
supremacy of the king by the annual payment of a hogshead of
tobacco. It was scrupulously arranged, however, that at least one half
of the stock of this Company should be subscribed for by Scotsmen
residing either at home or abroad.
Although the war pressed sorely on the resources of England,
Paterson calculated securely that there was enough of spare capital
and enterprise in London to cause the new Scottish trading scheme
to be taken up readily there. When the books for subscription were
opened in October, the whole £300,000 offered to the English
merchants was at once appropriated. By this time, the fears of the
East India Company and of the English mercantile class generally
had been roused; it was believed that the Scottish adventurers would
compete with them destructively in every place where they now
enjoyed a lucrative trade. The parliament took up the cry, and voted
that the noblemen and gentlemen named in the Scottish act were
guilty of a high crime and misdemeanour. Irritated rather than
terrified by this denunciation, these gentlemen calmly proceeded
with their business in Scotland. The subscription books being opened
on the 26th of February 1696, the taking up of the stock became
something like a national movement. It scarcely appeared that the
country was a poor one. Noblemen, country gentlemen, merchants,
professional men, corporations of every kind, flocked to put down
their names for various sums according to their ability, till not
merely the £300,000 devoted to Scotsmen 1695.
was engaged for, but some additional
capital besides.[148] In a list before me, with the sums added up, I find
the total is £336,390 sterling; but, of course, the advance of this large
sum was contemplated as to be spread over a considerable space of
time, the first instalment of 25 per cent. being alone payable within
1696.
Meanwhile the furious denunciations of the English parliament
proved a thorough discouragement to the project in London, and
nearly the whole of the stockholders there silently withdrew from it;
under the same influence, the merchants of Hamburg were induced
to withdraw their support and co-operation, leaving Scotland to work
out her own plans by herself.
African Company’s House at Bristo Port, Edinburgh.
She proceeded to do so with a courage much to be admired. A

handsome house for the conducting of the Company’s business was
erected; schemes for trade with Greenland, with Archangel, with the
Gold Coast, were considered; the qualities of goods, possible
improvements of machinery, the extent of 1695.
the production of foreign wares, were all the
subject of careful inquiry. Under the glow of a new national object,
old grudges and antipathies were forgotten. William Paterson,
indeed, had set the pattern of a non-sectarian feeling from the
beginning, for, writing from London to the Lord Provost of
Edinburgh in July 1695, we find him using this strain of language,
hitherto unwonted in Scotland: ‘Above all, it is needful for us to make
no distinction of parties in this great undertaking; but of whatever
nation or religion a man be, he ought to be looked upon, if one of us,
to be of the same interest and inclination. We must not act apart in
anything, but in a firm and united body, and distinct from all other
interests whatsoever.’
The design of Paterson presents such indications of a great, an
original, and a liberal mind, as to make the obscurity which rests on
his history much to be regretted. The narrow, grasping, and
monopolising spirit which had hitherto marked the commerce of

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Preface page xiii

2 Fibres and Particulate Reinforcements 22

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3.7 Resin Microstructure 116

4 Composites Fabrication 131

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Previous to 1705, when the first professor Oct.

During this period, the affairs of Scotland were in a marked degree

This day, being Sunday, the Catholics of 1695. Feb. 17.

Robert Davidson, merchant in Ellon, Feb. 19.

There never, perhaps, was any mystic Feb.

The degree of respect felt by the Mar. 19.

A hership of cattle having taken place on May 20.

The Estates at this date advert to the fact May.

I refer to these facts, though they belong certainly to no very remote

The same advantages of situation which June 4.

She proceeded to do so with a courage much to be admired. A

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