Lecture 6

Embedded control system
Lecture 6
Displacement and position
sensors
Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an
object. Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in
relation to some reference point.
Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when an object
has moved with in particular critical distance of a transducer.
Displacement sensors
1. Potentiometer Sensors
Figure 1 Schematic of a potentiometer sensor for measurement of linear displacement

Figure 1 shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor employed to
measure the linear displacement. The potentiometer can be of linear or angular type. It
works on the principle of conversion of mechanical displacement into an electrical signal.
The sensor has a resistive element and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along
this conductive body, acting as a movable electric contact.
The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by using:
• a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
• a moving rod (for linear displacement)
• a cable that is kept stretched during operation
The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track comprises of
large number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire. Conductive plastic is made up of
plastic resin embedded with the carbon powder. Wire wound track has a resolution of the
order of ± 0.01 % while the conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1 μm.
During the sensing operation, a voltage Vs is applied across the resistive element. A
voltage divider circuit is formed when slider comes into contact with the wire. The output
voltage (VA) is measured as shown in the figure 2.2.2. The output voltage is proportional
to the displacement of the slider over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is
calibrated against the output voltage VA.
Figure .2 Potentiometer: electric circuit
Applications of potentiometer
These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure that the
moving member or component reaches its commanded position.
These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift
trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection
molding machines, woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used
in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
2. Strain Gauges
The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load to the
original length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we
can say,
ΔR/R α ε;
ΔR/R = G ε (2.2.5)
where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general, the value of
G is considered in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.
Figure 3 A pattern of resistive foils

Figure 2.2.4 Wheatstone’s bridge
Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the equation
2.2.5. It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure 3. These foils
are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing
material plastic (ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges are
secured to the workpiece by using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman 910 SL. As the
workpiece undergoes change in its
shape due to external loading, the resistance of strain gauge element changes. This change
in resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone’s resistance bridge as shown in
Figure 2.2.4. In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,
R2/ R1 = Rx / R3 (2.2.6)
where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable resistor, R1 and R3
are known constant value resistors. The measured deformation or displacement by the stain
gauge is calibrated against change in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the
voltage across nodes A and B equal to zero.
Applications of strain gauges

Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on machines and
failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing,
residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection
measurement, compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.
Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in automotives. In
particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic
press and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.
3. Capacitive element based sensor
Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear
displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It comprises of three plates,
with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement
might take in two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.
Figure 5 shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement
measurement of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2.
Figure 5 Displacement measurement using capacitive element sensor

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,
C = εr εo A / d (2.2.7)
where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo permittivity of
free space, A area of overlap between two plates and d the plate separation.
As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the
element/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between the plate
changes. This can be given as,
C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x) (2.2.8)
C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x) (2.2.9)
When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting out-ofbalance
voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.
Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of the object
towards the sensor plate is used for induction of change in plate separation. This changes the
capacitance which is used to detect the object.
Applications of capacitive element sensors
• Feed hopper level monitoring
• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications
o to measure shape errors in the part being produced
o to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools such as surface
grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles by measuring errors in the machine
tools themselves
• Assembly line testing
o to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design features
o to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc.
4. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Figure 6 Construction of a LVDT sensor

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for
measurement of linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ±
400 mm in general. It has non-linearity error ± 0.25% of full range. Figure 2.2.6
shows the construction of a LVDT sensor. It has three coils symmetrically
spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil and the other
two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in series in such a
way that their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core attached to the
element of which displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the
insulated tube.
Figure 7 Working of LVDT sensor
Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electromagnetic forces (emfs)
are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion in
each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced from
the central position as shown in Figure 7, say, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2, then more
emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage from the coils.
If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in proportion
with the displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such as low pass filters and
demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using LVDT sensors.
LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an absolute
position sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the
sensor, it is highly reliable. These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in
Servomechanisms, automated
measurement in machine tools.
A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of rotation.
Readers are suggested to prepare a report on principle of working and construction of RVDT
sensor.
Applications of LVDT sensors
• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications • To provide
displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders • To control weight and thickness of medicinal
products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
Quiz:
1. Explain the principle of working of LVDT.
2. Describe the working of RVDT with a neat sketch.
3. List the applications of potentiometer sensor in/around your home and
office/university.
References
1. Boltan, W., Mechatronics: electronic control systems in mechanical and
electrical engineering, Longman, Singapore, 1999.

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Embedded control system

Figure 1 Schematic of a potentiometer sensor for measurement of linear displacement

Figure 3 A pattern of resistive foils

Applications of strain gauges

Figure 5 Displacement measurement using capacitive element sensor

Figure 6 Construction of a LVDT sensor

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