INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION

2. T h e o r y a n d Definition

3. E f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r eon
c o n d u c t i vi t y of
Semiconductor

4. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

5. e x t r i n s i c s e m i c o n d u c t o r s

· n - t yp e s e m i c o n d u c t o r

7. p - t yp e s e m i c o n d u c t o r

8. e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y
o f s e mi c o n d u c t o r s
 INTRODUCTION

Semiconductors :-
Most of the solids can be placed in one of the two
classes: Metals and insulators. Metals are those through
which electric charge can easily flow, while insulators
are those through which electric charge is difficult to
flow. This distinction between the metals and the
insulators can be explained on the basis of the number
of free electrons in them. Metals have a large number of
free electrons which act as charge carriers, while
insulators have practically no free electrons.

There are however, certain solids whose electrical

conductivity is intermediate between metals and
insulators. They are called ‘Semiconductors’. Carbon,
silicon and germanium are examples of semi-
conductors. In semiconductors the outer most electrons
are neither so rigidly bound with the atom as in an
insulator, nor so loosely bound as in metal. At absolute
zero a semiconductor becomes an ideal insulator.
 Theory and
Definition

🠶 Semiconductors are the materials whose

electrical conductivity lies in between metals and insulator.
🠶The energy band structure of the semiconductors
is similar to the insulators but in their case, the size
of the
🠶 forbidden energy gap is much smaller than that of the
insulator. In this class of crystals, the forbidden gap is of
🠶 the order of about 1ev, and the two energy bands are
distinctly separate with no overlapping. At absolute 0
degree,
🠶 no electron has any energy even to jump the forbidden
gap and reach the conduction band. Therefore
the substance is an insulator.
 But when we heat the crystal and thus provide some energy to
the atoms and their electrons, it becomes an easy matter for some
electrons to jump the small (» 1 ev) energy gap and go to
conduction band. Thus, at higher temperatures, the crystal
becomes a conductor. This is the specific property of the crystal
which is known as a semiconductor.
E f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e on
c o n d u c t i vi t y o f S e m i c o n d u c t o r

At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators. The valence

band at absolute zero is completely filled and there are
no free electrons in conduction band. At room
temperature the electrons jump to the conduction band
due to the thermal energy. When the temperature
increases, a large number of electrons cross over the
forbidden gap and jump from valence to conduction
band. Hence conductivity of semiconductor increases
with temperature.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors.

In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as if there
are
8 electrons in its valence shell and therefore the entire
material behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.

A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of

1.1ev to shake off the valence electron. This energy
becomes available to it even at room temperature.

Due to thermal agitation of crystal structure, electrons

from a few covalent bonds come out. The bond from
which electron is freed, a vacancy is created there. The
vacancy in the covalent bond is called a hole.

This hole can be filled by some other electron in a

covalent bond. As an electron from covalent bond
moves to fill the hole, the hole is created in the covalent
bond from which the electron has moved. Since the
direction
of movement of the hole is opposite to that of the negative
electron, a hole behaves as a positive charge
carrier. Thus, at room temperature, a pure
semiconductor will have electrons and holes wandering
in random directions. These electrons and holes are
called intrinsic carriers.

As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will

be equal to the number of holes. In an intrinsic
semiconductor, if ne denotes the electron number
density in conduction band, nh the hole number density
in valence band and ni the number density or
concentration of charge carriers, then
ne = nh =n i
 ex t r i n s i c
semiconductors

i) n-type semiconductor- As the conductivity of intrinsic

semi-conductors is poor, so intrinsic semi-conductors are
of little practical importance. The conductivity of pure semi-
conductor can, however be enormously increased by
addition of some pentavalent or a trivalent impurity in a
very small amount (about 1 to 106 parts of the semi-
conductor).
ii)
P-type semiconductor-The process semiconductor so
as to improve its conductivity is called doping. Such semi-
conductors are called extrinsic semi- conductors. Extrinsic
semiconductors are of two types :
 n- type
semiconductor

When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the

periodic table like Arsenic is added to the pure semi-
conductor, then four of the five impurity electrons form
covalent bonds by sharing one electron with each of
the four nearest silicon atoms, and fifth electron from
each impurity atom is almost free to conduct electricity.

As the pentavalent impurity increases the number of

free electrons, it is called donor impurity. The electrons
so set free in the silicon crystal are called extrinsic
carriers and the n-type Si-crystal is called n-type
extrinsic semiconductor. Therefore n-type Si-crystal will
have a large number of free electrons (majority carriers)
and have a small number of holes (minority carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction band one can think
that all such electrons create a donor energy level
just below the conduction band as shown in figure.

As the energy gap between donor energy level and the

conduction band is very small, the electrons can easily
raise themselves to conduction band even at room
temperature. Hence, the conductivity of n-type extrinsic
semiconductor is markedly increased.

In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number

density of the conduction band (ne) and the number
density of holes in the valence band (nh) differ from that
in a pure semiconductor. If ni is the number density of
electrons is conduction band, then it is proved that
ne nh =n i2

p - t yp e s e m i c o n d u c
tor

If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi-

conductor, the impurity atom can provide only three
valence electrons for covalent bond formation. Thus a
gap is left in one of the covalent bonds. The gap acts as
a hole that tends to accept electrons. As the trivalent
impurity atoms accept electrons from the silicon crystal,it
is called acceptor impurity. The holes so created are
extrinsic carriers and the p-type Si-crystal so obtained is
called p-type extrinsic semiconductor. Again, as the pure
Si-crystal also possesses a few electrons and holes,
therefore, the p-type si-crystal will have a large number
of holes (majority carriers) and a small number of
electrons (minority carriers).
Its terms of valence and conduction band one can think
that all such holes create an accepter energy level just
above the top of the valance band as shown in figure.
The electrons from valence band can raise themselves
to the accepter energy level by absorbing thermal
energy at room temperature and in turn create holes in
the valence band.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in p-type
semiconductor is approximately equal to that of the
acceptor atoms (Na) and is very large as compared to
the number density of conduction band electrons (ne).
Thus, nh» Na > > ne

electricalresistivity
o f s e mi c o n d u c t o r
s

Consider a block of semiconductor of length l1 area of

cross-section A and having number density of electrons
and holes as ne and nh respectively. Suppose that on
applying a potential difference, say V, a current I flows
through it as shown in figure. The electron current (Ic)
and the hole current (Ih) constitute the current I flowing
through the semiconductor i.e.
I=Ie +Ih (i)
 It ne is the number density of conduction
band electrons in the semiconductor and ve, the drift
velocity of electrons then
Ie = eneAve
Similarly, the hole current, Ih = enhAvh
From (i) I = eneAve + enhAvh
I=eA(neve +nhvh) (ii)
If r is the resistivity of the material of the
semiconductor, then the resistance offered by the
semiconductor to the flow of current is given by :
R=  l/A (iii)
Since V = RI, from equation (ii) and (iii) we
have V = RI =  l/A eA (neve + nh vh)
V=  le(neve +nhvh) (iv)
If E is the electric field set up across the semiconductor,
then:
E=V/l (v)
from equation (iv) and (v), we have
E = e (neve + nhvh)
1/ = e (ne ve/E + nh vh/E)
On applying electric field, the drift velocity
acquired by the electrons (or holes) per unit strength of
electric field is called mobility of electrons (or holes).
Therefore,
mobility of electrons and holes is given by :
e = ve/E and h = vh/E
1/ =e(ne e +nh h) (vi)
Also,  = 1/ is called conductivity of the material
of semiconductor
 =e(ne e +nh h) (vii)

The relation (vi) and (vii) show that the conductivity and
resistivity of a semiconductor depend upon the electron
and hole number densities and their mobilities. As
ne and nh increases with rise in temperature, therefore,
conductivity of semiconductor increases with rise in
temperature and resistivity decreases with rise in
temperature.
.

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 bibl o g r a p h y
1.www.google.com
2.www.wikipedia.com
3.www.ncert.nic.in
4. Pradeep class 12 Physics
5. HC Verma class 12 Physics