Integer - Wikipedia 01/01/2025, 00:30

Integer
An integer is the number zero (0), a positive
natural number (1, 2, 3, . . .), or the negation of a
positive natural number (−1, −2, −3, . . .).[1] The The integers arranged on a number line
negations or additive inverses of the positive
natural numbers are referred to as negative
integers.[2] The set of all integers is often denoted by the boldface Z or blackboard bold .[3][4]

The set of natural numbers is a subset of , which in turn is a subset of the set of all rational
numbers , itself a subset of the real numbers .[a] Like the set of natural numbers, the set of
integers is countably infinite. An integer may be regarded as a real number that can be
written without a fractional component. For example, 21, 4, 0, and −2048 are integers, while
1
9.75, 5 2 , 5/4, and √2 are not.[8]

The integers form the smallest group and the smallest ring containing the natural numbers. In
algebraic number theory, the integers are sometimes qualified as rational integers to
distinguish them from the more general algebraic integers. In fact, (rational) integers are
algebraic integers that are also rational numbers.

History
The word integer comes from the Latin integer meaning "whole" or (literally) "untouched",
from in ("not") plus tangere ("to touch"). "Entire" derives from the same origin via the French
word entier, which means both entire and integer.[9] Historically the term was used for a
number that was a multiple of 1,[10][11] or to the whole part of a mixed number.[12][13] Only
positive integers were considered, making the term synonymous with the natural numbers. The
definition of integer expanded over time to include negative numbers as their usefulness was
recognized.[14] For example Leonhard Euler in his 1765 Elements of Algebra defined integers to
include both positive and negative numbers.[15]

The phrase the set of the integers was not used before the end of the 19th century, when Georg
Cantor introduced the concept of infinite sets and set theory. The use of the letter Z to denote
the set of integers comes from the German word Zahlen ("numbers")[3][4] and has been
attributed to David Hilbert.[16] The earliest known use of the notation in a textbook occurs in
Algèbre written by the collective Nicolas Bourbaki, dating to 1947.[3][17] The notation was not

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adopted immediately. For example, another textbook used the letter J,[18] and a 1960 paper
used Z to denote the non-negative integers.[19] But by 1961, Z was generally used by modern
algebra texts to denote the positive and negative integers.[20]

The symbol is often annotated to denote various sets, with varying usage amongst different
authors: , , or for the positive integers, or for non-negative integers, and
for non-zero integers. Some authors use for non-zero integers, while others use it for non-
negative integers, or for {–1,1} (the group of units of ). Additionally, is used to denote
either the set of integers modulo p (i.e., the set of congruence classes of integers), or the set of p-
adic integers.[21][22]

The whole numbers were synonymous with the integers up until the early 1950s.[23][24][25] In
the late 1950s, as part of the New Math movement,[26] American elementary school teachers
began teaching that whole numbers referred to the natural numbers, excluding negative
numbers, while integer included the negative numbers.[27][28] The whole numbers remain
ambiguous to the present day.[29]

Algebraic properties
Like the natural numbers, is closed under the
operations of addition and multiplication, that is,
Integers can be thought of as discrete, equally
the sum and product of any two integers is an
spaced points on an infinitely long number line. In
integer. However, with the inclusion of the the above, non-negative integers are shown in blue
negative natural numbers (and importantly, 0), and negative integers in red.
, unlike the natural numbers, is also closed
under subtraction.[30]

The integers form a ring which is the most basic one, in the following sense: for any ring, there
is a unique ring homomorphism from the integers into this ring. This universal property,
namely to be an initial object in the category of rings, characterizes the ring .

is not closed under division, since the quotient of two integers (e.g., 1 divided by 2) need not
be an integer. Although the natural numbers are closed under exponentiation, the integers are
not (since the result can be a fraction when the exponent is negative).

The following table lists some of the basic properties of addition and multiplication for any
integers a, b, and c:

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Properties of addition and multiplication on integers

Addition Multiplication

Closure: a + b is an integer a × b is an integer

Associativity: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c
Commutativity: a+b=b+a a×b=b×a
Existence of an identity
element:
a+0=a a×1=a

Existence of inverse The only invertible integers (called units) are –1

elements:
a + (−a) = 0 and 1.

Distributivity: a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c) and (a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c)
No zero divisors: If a × b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0 (or both)

The first five properties listed above for addition say that , under addition, is an abelian group.
It is also a cyclic group, since every non-zero integer can be written as a finite sum 1 + 1 + ... + 1
or (−1) + (−1) + ... + (−1). In fact, under addition is the only infinite cyclic group—in the sense
that any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to .

The first four properties listed above for multiplication say that under multiplication is a
commutative monoid. However, not every integer has a multiplicative inverse (as is the case of
the number 2), which means that under multiplication is not a group.

All the rules from the above property table (except for the last), when taken together, say that
together with addition and multiplication is a commutative ring with unity. It is the prototype of
all objects of such algebraic structure. Only those equalities of expressions are true in for all
values of variables, which are true in any unital commutative ring. Certain non-zero integers
map to zero in certain rings.

The lack of zero divisors in the integers (last property in the table) means that the commutative
ring is an integral domain.

The lack of multiplicative inverses, which is equivalent to the fact that is not closed under
division, means that is not a field. The smallest field containing the integers as a subring is
the field of rational numbers. The process of constructing the rationals from the integers can be
mimicked to form the field of fractions of any integral domain. And back, starting from an
algebraic number field (an extension of rational numbers), its ring of integers can be extracted,
which includes as its subring.

Although ordinary division is not defined on , the division "with remainder" is defined on
them. It is called Euclidean division, and possesses the following important property: given two
integers a and b with b ≠ 0, there exist unique integers q and r such that a = q × b + r and
0 ≤ r < |b|, where |b| denotes the absolute value of b. The integer q is called the quotient and r is
called the remainder of the division of a by b. The Euclidean algorithm for computing greatest
common divisors works by a sequence of Euclidean divisions.

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The above says that is a Euclidean domain. This implies that is a principal ideal domain,
and any positive integer can be written as the products of primes in an essentially unique
way.[31] This is the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.

Order-theoretic properties
is a totally ordered set without upper or lower bound. The ordering of is given by:
:... −3 < −2 < −1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < .... An integer is positive if it is greater than zero, and
negative if it is less than zero. Zero is defined as neither negative nor positive.

The ordering of integers is compatible with the algebraic operations in the following way:

1. If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d

2. If a < b and 0 < c, then ac < bc
Thus it follows that together with the above ordering is an ordered ring.

The integers are the only nontrivial totally ordered abelian group whose positive elements are
well-ordered.[32] This is equivalent to the statement that any Noetherian valuation ring is either
a field—or a discrete valuation ring.

Construction

Traditional development
In elementary school teaching, integers are often intuitively defined as the union of the
(positive) natural numbers, zero, and the negations of the natural numbers. This can be
formalized as follows.[33] First construct the set of natural numbers according to the Peano
axioms, call this . Then construct a set which is disjoint from and in one-to-one
correspondence with via a function . For example, take to be the ordered pairs
with the mapping . Finally let 0 be some object not in or , for example the
ordered pair (0,0). Then the integers are defined to be the union .

The traditional arithmetic operations can then be defined on the integers in a piecewise fashion,
for each of positive numbers, negative numbers, and zero. For example negation is defined as
follows:

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The traditional style of definition leads to many different cases (each arithmetic operation needs
to be defined on each combination of types of integer) and makes it tedious to prove that
integers obey the various laws of arithmetic.[34]

Equivalence classes of ordered pairs

In modern set-theoretic mathematics, a
more abstract construction[35][36] allowing
one to define arithmetical operations
without any case distinction is often used
instead.[37] The integers can thus be
formally constructed as the equivalence
classes of ordered pairs of natural numbers
(a,b).[38]
The intuition is that (a,b) stands for the
result of subtracting b from a.[38] To
confirm our expectation that 1 − 2 and 4 − 5
denote the same number, we define an
equivalence relation ~ on these pairs with
the following rule:
Red points represent ordered pairs of natural numbers.
Linked red points are equivalence classes representing
the blue integers at the end of the line.
precisely when

Addition and multiplication of integers can be defined in terms of the equivalent operations on
the natural numbers;[38] by using [(a,b)] to denote the equivalence class having (a,b) as a
member, one has:

.
.

The negation (or additive inverse) of an integer is obtained by reversing the order of the pair:

Hence subtraction can be defined as the addition of the additive inverse:

The standard ordering on the integers is given by:

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if and only if .

It is easily verified that these definitions are independent of the choice of representatives of the
equivalence classes.

Every equivalence class has a unique member that is of the form (n,0) or (0,n) (or both at once).
The natural number n is identified with the class [(n,0)] (i.e., the natural numbers are
embedded into the integers by map sending n to [(n,0)]), and the class [(0,n)] is denoted −n
(this covers all remaining classes, and gives the class [(0,0)] a second time since –0 = 0.

Thus, [(a,b)] is denoted by

If the natural numbers are identified with the corresponding integers (using the embedding
mentioned above), this convention creates no ambiguity.

This notation recovers the familiar representation of the integers as {..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...} .

Some examples are:

Other approaches
In theoretical computer science, other approaches for the construction of integers are used by
automated theorem provers and term rewrite engines. Integers are represented as algebraic
terms built using a few basic operations (e.g., zero, succ, pred) and using natural numbers,
which are assumed to be already constructed (using the Peano approach).

There exist at least ten such constructions of signed integers.[39] These constructions differ in
several ways: the number of basic operations used for the construction, the number (usually,
between 0 and 2), and the types of arguments accepted by these operations; the presence or
absence of natural numbers as arguments of some of these operations, and the fact that these
operations are free constructors or not, i.e., that the same integer can be represented using only
one or many algebraic terms.

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The technique for the construction of integers presented in the previous section corresponds to
the particular case where there is a single basic operation pair that takes as arguments
two natural numbers and , and returns an integer (equal to ). This operation is not free
since the integer 0 can be written pair(0,0), or pair(1,1), or pair(2,2), etc.. This technique of
construction is used by the proof assistant Isabelle; however, many other tools use alternative
construction techniques, notable those based upon free constructors, which are simpler and can
be implemented more efficiently in computers.

Computer science
An integer is often a primitive data type in computer languages. However, integer data types can
only represent a subset of all integers, since practical computers are of finite capacity. Also, in
the common two's complement representation, the inherent definition of sign distinguishes
between "negative" and "non-negative" rather than "negative, positive, and 0". (It is, however,
certainly possible for a computer to determine whether an integer value is truly positive.) Fixed
length integer approximation data types (or subsets) are denoted int or Integer in several
programming languages (such as Algol68, C, Java, Delphi, etc.).

Variable-length representations of integers, such as bignums, can store any integer that fits in
the computer's memory. Other integer data types are implemented with a fixed size, usually a
number of bits which is a power of 2 (4, 8, 16, etc.) or a memorable number of decimal digits
(e.g., 9 or 10).

Cardinality
The set of integers is countably infinite, meaning it is possible to pair each integer with a unique
natural number. An example of such a pairing is

(0, 1), (1, 2), (−1, 3), (2, 4), (−2, 5), (3, 6), . . . ,(1 − k, 2k − 1), (k, 2k ), . . .
More technically, the cardinality of is said to equal ℵ0 (aleph-null). The pairing between
elements of and is called a bijection.

See also
Canonical factorization of a positive integer
Mathematics portal
Complex integer
Hyperinteger
Integer complexity
Integer lattice

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Integer part
Integer sequence
Integer-valued function
Mathematical symbols
Parity (mathematics)
Profinite integer

Number systems

Zero: 0
One: 1
Natural
Integer Prime numbers
Composite
Rational numbers
Negative integers
Real
Complex
Finite decimal
Fraction Dyadic (finite binary)
Repeating decimal

Algebraic irrational
Irrational Irrational period
Transcendental

Imaginary

Footnotes
a. More precisely, each system is embedded in the next, isomorphically mapped to a subset.[5]
The commonly-assumed set-theoretic containment may be obtained by constructing the
reals, discarding any earlier constructions, and defining the other sets as subsets of the
reals.[6] Such a convention is "a matter of choice", yet not.[7]

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External links

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Integer - Wikipedia 01/01/2025, 00:30

"Integer" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Integer), Encyclopedia of

Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
The Positive Integers – divisor tables and numeral representation tools (http://www.positivei
ntegers.org)
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (http://oeis.org/) cf OEIS
Weisstein, Eric W. "Integer" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Integer.html). MathWorld.
This article incorporates material from Integer on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Integer&oldid=1260315372"

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