File system in Linux:

1. ls
The ls command is used in Linux/Unix systems to list directory contents. It's a fundamental command
and has various options to display information in different formats. Here are some of the common
options used with the ls command:

Basic Usage:

ls: Simply lists the names of files and directories in the current working directory.

Options:

Long Format:

• -l: Displays detailed information about files and directories in long format, showing
permissions, owner, group, size, modification time, and name.
• -a: Shows all files, including hidden files (those starting with a dot .).
• -h: Prints file sizes in a human-readable format (e.g., KB, MB, GB).

Sorting:

• -t: Sorts by modification time, with the newest files first.

• -r: Reverses the sorting order.
• -S: Sorts by file size.
• -X: Sorts by extension.

Directories:

-d: Lists directories themselves, not their contents.

-R: Lists subdirectories recursively.

 • In Linux even when we use ls commands this is also a file here

Types of File system in Linux:

• Ext3
• Ext4
• XFS
• FAT

File System Structure:

• Root Directory (/): The top-level directory in the Linux file system.
• /bin: Contains essential system binaries (commands) accessible to all users.
• /etc: Configuration files for the system and installed applications.
• /home: Home directories for regular users.
• /var: Variable files like logs, temporary files, spool, mail, etc.
• /usr: User-related programs and files.
• /tmp: Temporary files.
 • Now check Root Folder

Commands:
$: represents Normal user

#: represents root user

• To check the host name: hostname

• To check the user logged in right now: whoami
• To check IP : ip addr
• To know the present working directory: pwd
• To list the file and folders/directories: ls
• To create a folder/directory: mkdir folder1
• Switch inside the directory which you have created : cd folder1
• To see what’s inside the folder: ls

• Now let’s create another folder inside this directory.

Mkdir folder2

• Now lets get outside of this folder: cd ..

• If directly wants to go in folder2: cd folder1/folder2
• Want to come outside directly to home location: cd

• To find a folder if multiple folders are there: find folder1/ -name folder2
• Now if there are directories with different names present in folder1
• Creating a file: touch file1
• Now wants to find this file then,

• How to delete a folder/directory: rmdir folder2

• Delete a directory with all of its files: rm -r media

• To list file in order of modification dates: ls -lt

• To see reverse order of modification date: ls -ltr
• To edit the file use VIM editior
• Command: vi file2
o Insert mode: press ‘I’
o Exit Mode: esc+ :wq
• See whats inside the file file2: cat file2

• To see full details: ls-ltr

 •

Practice commands
Switch to root user and where as an Other user we created the file there create the another file but
now as an root user

Now exit from root user and as an other user try to delete that file2 created by Root user.It will show
permission denied.

So file created by root user, we can’t do any change in that file

To see the file content we can use cat command or less command

Cat file18 or less file18

Use of word count commands: wc file18

1 is for 1 line is present

2 is for number of words

13 is for number of total characters

To compare the file we use diff command

Diff file18 file181

Now how to compress and decompress the file(like zip or unzip)

First create an archive file

Tar cvf files.tar file18 file181

Ls

The command tar cvf specifically means:

• c: Create a new archive. This flag tells tar to create an archive file.
• v: Verbose mode. This flag provides detailed information about the files being processed,
displaying the names of the files as they are added to the archive.
• f: File. This flag specifies the filename of the archive. The f flag should be followed by the
name of the archive file.
Now compress this file

Gzip files.tar

Now if we want to move this zip file from folder1 to folder5 which is present inside folder1

Cp files.tar.gz folder5/ (destination_folder)

Unzip this file now

Gunzip files.tar.gz

Untar the file

Tar xvf files.tar

To rename the files

mv file18 file17 (move the file18 to file17 and delete the file18 now)
To add the content of 2 filess into third file

Cat file17 file181 > filea

To split the file into two parts

Split -l 1 filea ( 1 representd number of lines want to split)

Usage of RM command:
The `rm` command in Linux is used to remove files and directories. It's a powerful command, so be
very careful when using it as deleted files are usually not recoverable. Here are several ways to use
the `rm` command:

1. Remove a Single File

To delete a single file:

```

rm filename
```

For example, to delete a file named `example.txt`:

```

rm example.txt

```

2. Remove Multiple Files

You can remove multiple files at once:

```

rm file1 file2 file3

```

For example, to delete files named `file1.txt`, `file2.txt`, and `file3.txt`:

```

rm file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt

```

3. Remove Files Using Wildcards

Wildcards can be used to match multiple files based on a pattern:

```

rm *.txt

```

This command will remove all files with a ".txt" extension in the current directory.

4. Remove a Directory and Its Contents

To remove a directory and all its contents (including files and subdirectories):

```

rm -r directory_name

```

For example, to delete a directory named `folder` and all its contents:

```

rm -r folder

```

5. Prompt Before Removal

To be prompted before each file is removed, use the `-i` flag:

```

rm -i filename

```

For example:

```

rm -i example.txt

```

This will prompt for confirmation before deleting `example.txt`.

6. Force Removal (No Confirmation)

To force deletion without confirmation, use the `-f` flag:

```
rm -f filename

```

For example:

```

rm -f file.txt

```

This will delete `file.txt` without confirmation.

7. Verbose Output

To show a more detailed output while deleting files, use the `-v` flag:

```

rm -v filename

```

For example:

```

rm -v example.txt

```

This will display the process of removing `example.txt`.

#CAT Command:
The cat command (short for concatenate) is used to display the contents of one or multiple files,
creating, or combining files.

Usage:

cat filea
This command displays the contents of the file named filename in the terminal.

bash

cat filea xab

This command displays the contents of both file1 and file2 in the order listed.

2. less Command
The less command is a terminal pager that allows you to view and navigate through the contents of
a file.

Usage:

less filename

This command opens filename in a paginated view, allowing you to scroll up and down through the
content.

Basic Navigation:

• Press the Spacebar to move forward one page.

• Press the B key to move backward one page.
• Use the Arrow keys to scroll line by line.
• Press Q to quit less and return to the terminal.

Searching:

• Press / to start a forward search. Type your search term and press Enter.
• Press ? to start a backward search.

3. more Command
Similar to less, the more command is a terminal pager used to display the contents of a file one
screen at a time.

Usage:
more filename

Basic Navigation:

• Press the Spacebar to move forward one page.

• Press Enter to move forward one line.
• Press Q to quit more and return to the terminal.

This command displays the content of the file filename one page at a time. Press the spacebar to
view the next page and press q to exit.

4. head Command
The head command is used to display the beginning lines of a file.

Usage:

head filename

This command shows the first ten lines of the file filename by default. You can also specify the
number of lines to display using the -n option. For example:

head -n 20 filename

This will display the first 20 lines of the file.

5. tail Command
The tail command is used to display the ending lines of a file.

Usage:
tail filename

This command displays the last ten lines of the file filename by default. Similar to head, you can
specify the number of lines to display using the -n option. For example:

tail -n 15 filename

This will display the last 15 lines of the file.

Remember, these commands are used to view or display the content of files in the terminal. They
don't modify the files themselves. They are useful for reading or quickly viewing the content of files
directly within the terminal.

Permissions in FileSystem:
Ubuntu (and other Linux-based systems), the chmod command is used to change the permissions of
files and directories. It allows users to modify the read, write, and execute permissions for the owner,
group, and others. Here's a detailed breakdown of how to use chmod:

Basic Permissions

Each file and directory in Linux has permissions represented by three categories: owner, group, and
others. These permissions can be set as read (r), write (w), and execute (x). These permissions are
represented numerically as well: read (4), write (2), and execute (1).

chmod Syntax
The chmod command follows this syntax:

chmod who=permissions file

who: Represents who the permission change will apply to and can be:
u (user/owner)

g (group)

o (others)

a (all/ugo - user, group, others)

permissions: Represents the permissions to be set, using combinations of:

r (read) 4

w (write) 2

x (execute) 1

file: Specifies the file or directory whose permissions are to be changed.

Usage Examples:
Changing File Permissions

Symbolic Mode:

To give the owner of the file read, write and execute permissions:

Chmod u+rwx filea

Numeric Mode:

To give the owner only read permission:

Chmod 400 filea

Changing Directory Permissions

Symbolic Mode:

To give the owner and group read, write, and execute permissions:

Chmod ug+rwx folder1

Numeric Mode:

To give the owner and group read and write permissions:

Chmod 660 folder1

Permission Combination Examples

Symbolic Representation:
The chmod command often requires administrative permissions (use sudo or be logged in as the
owner or with relevant permissions)

CHOWN Command: (Change ownership)

Chown owner:group filename

Chown simran:simran filea

CHGRP Command:
The `chgrp` command in Unix-like operating systems is used to change the group ownership of a file
or directory. Here's the basic syntax of the `chgrp` command:

```

chgrp [OPTIONS] GROUP FILE

```

- `GROUP`: The name of the group to which you want to change the ownership.

- `FILE`: The file or directory for which you want to change the group ownership.
Here are some common options used with `chgrp`:

- `-R` or `--recursive`: Recursively change the group ownership of directories and their contents.

- `--reference=REFERENCE_FILE`: Set the group ownership to that of the reference file.

#Examples:

1. Change the group of a file:

```Syntax:

chgrp groupname filename

chgrp staff myfile.txt

```

2. Change the group of a directory and its contents recursively

```Syntax

chgrp -R groupname directoryname

chgrp -R developers project_directory

```

3. Change the group of a file to match another file's group:

```Syntax

chgrp --reference=referencefile targetfile

chgrp --reference=templatefile newfile

```

Linux File Types:

In Linux, files are categorized into several types based on their nature and purpose. Here are some
common file types:

1. Regular Files (Regular Text Files):

- These are the most common type of files.

- They contain data, such as text files, binary files, and program executables.

```

$ ls -l

-rw-r--r-- 1 user user 12345 Nov 16 10:00 example.txt

```

2. Directories:
- Directories contain lists of file names and their corresponding inode numbers.

- They are analogous to folders in other operating systems.

```

$ ls -l

drwxr-xr-x 2 user user 4096 Nov 16 09:59 my_directory/

```

3. Symbolic Links (Soft Links):

- Symbolic links are shortcuts or pointers to another file or directory.

- They are similar to Windows shortcuts.

 ```

$ ls -l

lrwxrwxrwx 1 user user 8 Nov 16 10:02 link_to_file -> myfile

```

4. Block Special Files:

- These files provide buffered input/output for device drivers.

- They are often used for accessing devices like hard drives.

```

$ ls -l

brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 1 Nov 16 10:04 sda1

```

5. Character Special Files:

- Similar to block special files, but provide unbuffered access.

- Often used for devices like terminals.

- Files that read/write data character by character

 ```

$ ls -l

crw-rw-rw- 1 root tty 5, 1 Nov 16 10:06 tty1

```

6. FIFO (Named Pipes):

- FIFOs are special files used for communication between processes.

- They are named pipes.

- data getting transferred between processes in FIFO manner

```

$ ls -l

prw-r--r-- 1 user user 0 Nov 16 10:08 my_pipe

```
7. Sockets:
- Sockets are special files used for inter-process communication.

- They enable communication between processes on the same or different machines.

```

$ ls -l

srwxr-xr-x 1 user user 0 Nov 16 10:10 my_socket

```

8. Device Files:
- Device files represent physical and virtual devices on the system.

- They are found in the `/dev` directory.

```

$ ls -l /dev/sda

brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 0 Nov 16 10:12 /dev/sda

```

These are the main file types in Linux, and they serve various purposes in the system. The output of
the `ls -l` command provides information about file permissions, ownership, size, and modification
time.
#Link Files in Linux:

In Linux, a "link" typically refers to two types of links: symbolic links (soft links) and hard links.

1. Symbolic Links (Soft Links):

- A symbolic link is a separate file that acts as a pointer or reference to another file or directory.

- It is similar to a Windows shortcut.

- Symbolic links can span different file systems and can link to files or directories that may not exist.

Creating a symbolic link:

```bash

ln -s target_file link_name

```

Example:

```bash

ln -s /path/to/target/file /path/to/link

```

Example Output:

```bash

$ ls -l

lrwxrwxrwx 1 user user 8 Nov 16 10:02 link_to_file -> myfile

```

2. Hard Links:
- A hard link is a reference to the same inode (data and disk block location) as the original file.

- Changes to the data in one file are reflected in all hard links.

- Hard links cannot span different file systems, and they must be on the same file system as the
original file.
 Creating a hard link:

```bash

ln target_file link_name

```

Example:

```bash

ln /path/to/target/file /path/to/link

```

Example Output:

```bash

$ ls -l

-rw-r--r-- 2 user user 12345 Nov 16 10:00 myfile

```

It's important to note that when the last hard link to a file is deleted, the data is not immediately
deleted from the disk. It is only freed when there are no more references to the inode, which
happens when all links to the file are removed.

Practical:

Let’s say we have a file1 inside a folder1

• Now we want to create a soft link (shortcut) for this file1

• Inside a temp folder we will create a soft link
Now ill go to the folder1 where our file1 exists originally and make some changes in the file at that
location.

You will see the change you are making by staying in the original location those changes are getting
reflected in the softlink as well

Also the changes you make in shortcuts are visible in the file1 present in original location.

If you delete the original file the softlink will also be deleted

HardLink:

First create a test File inside Folder1 TestFile

Now wil create a hardlink

 • Hardlink will appear to you as a normal file only
• Adding some content in the Test File present in original location
• You will see whatever you are updating in Test file present in the original location
those same changes are getting reflected in the Hardlink file as well this works same
as your soft file.

• Now let’s try to delete the original file

• Content is still there in the Hardlink Fill even when we have deleted the original File

Locate Command:
The locate command is typically part of the findutils package on Unix-like systems. To use
the locate command, you need to ensure that this package is installed. The installation
process may vary depending on your operating system.
apt-get update
apt-get install findutils
apt install plocate
locate file21
locate file21 | grep “Hello”
-i is for case sensitive search