Block-1

BGYCT – 133
Indira Gandhi National Open University CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,

School of Sciences
MINERALOGY AND
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Volume
1
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND MINERALOGY
BLOCK 1
BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 7
BLOCK 2
MINERALOGY 79
1
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, J & K Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University M.S. University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy (Retd.) Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha
Volume Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Dr. S.D. Shukla (Retd.) (Units 1 & 2) Prof. Meenal Mishra (Units 3, 6 & 7) Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh (Units 4 & 5)
Department of Geology School of Sciences School of Sciences
SGRR (PG) College, Dehradun IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Content and Language Editors

Prof. Pankaj Srivastava (Units 1 to 3) Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Units 4 to 7)
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology
Jammu University, Jammu University of Delhi, Delhi
Transformation: Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Course Coordinators: Prof. Meenal Mishra and Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Audio Visual Materials
Dr. Amitosh Dubey Prof. Meenal Mishra and Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Producer, EMPC, IGNOU Content Coordinators
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for assistance in preparation of CRC and some of the figures.
December, 2019
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-89969-67-2
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only
for educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s
office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.
Printed by : Chandra Prabhu Offset Printing Works Pvt. Ltd., C-40, Sector-8, Noida-201301 (U.P.)
2
BGYCT-133: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, MINERALOGY AND
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Block 1 Basic Concepts of Crystallography

Unit 1 Crystal Properties
Unit 2 Crystal Symmetry
Unit 3 Crystal Systems
Block 2 Mineralogy
Unit 4 Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks
Unit 5 Classification of Minerals
Unit 6 Rock-Forming Minerals-I
Unit 7 Rock-Forming Minerals-II
Block 3 Optical Mineralogy

Unit 8 Polarising Microscope
Unit 9 Optical Properties of Minerals
Unit 10 Optical Properties of Rock-Forming Minerals
Block 4 Economic Geology

Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
Unit 12 Processes of Ore Formation
Unit 13 Metallic Minerals
Unit 14 Non-Metallic Minerals
Unit 15 Coal and Petroleum
3
List of audio / video materials related to this course
1. Geology at IGNOU - 1
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/53486
2. Geology Around Us - 1
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/63948
3. Minerals and Their Uses
4. Microscopic Study of Basaltic Rocks

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RGL3XB2x3E&t=2s
5. Introduction to Ore Deposits

6. Classifications of Ore Deposits

7. Early Magmatic Deposits

8. Late Magmatic Deposits

9. Contact Metasomatic and Contact Metamorphic Deposits

10. Hydrothermal Mineralisation

11. Textures related to zoning in Igneous rocks

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wrbw0MQzSQU
Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials

pertaining to the course you may visit Youtube page of the School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Alternatively, you can visit eGyankosh website at

http://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/36575
4
BGYCT-133: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, MINERALOGY
AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Man has always been fascinated by the beauty and forms of colourful minerals. Archaeological
finds of unusual shaped rocks and minerals suggest that minerals have been an important part
of our society since prehistoric times. Man has been using minerals for carving out tools and
making pots/utensils, ornaments, for medicinal purposes, and also as paints and pigments
making use of their characteristics such as hardness, colour, luster, chemistry, etc. We are all
familiar with the importance of the mineral halite (i.e. sodium chloride, commonly known as table
salt) for its taste and utility in food preservation. However, not all of us are familiar that almost all
the objects we see all around us and use at home or outside are derived from minerals. Right
from metals, jewellery, building and road construction materials, cosmetics, fuel, components in
electic and electronic items, automobiles, etc. are all derived from one or other minerals. Man
has learnt early that minerals are formed in nature by some natural processes and has been
interested to know the processes and locations of potential mineral deposits from where these
minerals could be extracted.
This course introduces you to three core branches of geology, viz. crystallography, mineralogy,
and economic geology. The course consists of four blocks. First block i.e. Block 1: Basic
Concepts of Crystallography would introduce you to the crystallography, a branch of dealing
with geometry of crystals, their properties and crystal systems. Second and third blocks are
devoted to the megascopic and microscopic studies of minerals, respectively. In Block 2:
Mineralogy, you will learn about physical properties of minerals useful in their identification,
classification of minerals, and physical properties of common rock-forming minerals. Block 3:
Optical Mineralogy would introduce you to the polarising microscope used to study optical
properties of minerals in their identification. You will also study optical properties of common
rock-forming minerals. And, the fourth block deals with minerals of economic significance which
are a subject matter of the branch known as economic geology. In the Block 4: Economic
Geology, you would learn about metallic and non-metallic minerals deposits, processes of their
formation, properties and their Indian distribution.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this course, you should be able to:
• define crystal and discuss crystal properties, elements of symmetry and crystal systems;
• list physical properties of minerals and describe mineral classification schemes, and physical
properties of common rock-forming minerals;
• elaborate optical properties of common rock-forming minerals, and
• discuss properties of metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits including coal and petroleum,
processes of their formation, and their distribution in India.
This course would equip you with the basic understanding of crystallography, mineralogy and
economic geology which would help you to learn about rocks that you would study in the next
core course, their identification and the process of their formation.
We wish you all success in this endeavour!
5
VOLUME 1: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND MINERALOGY
The course BGYCT-133 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology consists of
four blocks, which have been packaged in two volumes.
The Volume 1 consists of two blocks namely, crystallography and mineralogy. The first block,
Block 1: Basic Concepts of Crystallography will introduce you to the crystallography, which
deals with crystals, their properties, laws of crystallography, crystal symmetry and crystal
systems. Minerals crystallise in regular geometric forms under favourable conditions. Crystals
have distinct internal atomic structure and hence their characteristics are important to identify
different types of minerals. Crystallography, the branch of mineralogy dealing with the study of
crystals, plays an important role nearly in all branches of science and technology.
After studying about crystals, their symmetry and crystal systems in Block-1, you shall learn
about minerals in the next block. Minerals are the building blocks of rocks, which are studied to
unravel Earth’s geological history. Also, study of minerals occurring in a particular geological
environment is of significance as it helps geologists to locate potential mineral deposits. Block
2: Mineralogy introduces you to the mineralogy, the science of minerals. In this block, you will
learn about minerals, physical properties useful in their identification, their chemical and
structural classification schemes, major rock-forming mineral groups, and physical properties
of common rock-forming mineral groups.
After studying this volume, you should be able to:
• define crystal and discuss crystal properties,;

• discuss elements of symmetry and crystal systems;
• describe mineral classification schemes;
• list and elaborate on the physical properties of minerals used in their identification, and
physical properties of common rock-forming minerals.
After studying this volume, you will be equipped with the basic knowledge of crystallography,
mineralogy and megascopic study of common rock-forming minerals. In the next volume, you
would learn about the microscopic properties of common rock-forming minerals and also about
the basics of economic mineralogy, process of formation of ore deposits, minerals of economic
significance, and their distribution in India.
We wish you success in this endeavour!
6
BGYCT – 133
Indira Gandhi National Open University
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,
School of Sciences MINERALOGY AND
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Block
1
BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
UNIT 1
Crystal Properties 11
UNIT 2
Crystal Symmetry 31
UNIT 3
Crystal Systems 49
Glossary 75
7
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, J & K Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University M.S. University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy (Retd.) Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University Faculty of Geology Discipline
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP School of Sciences, IGNOU
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar Prof. Meenal Mishra
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Kurukshetra University Manipur University
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. M. Prashanth
Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology Dr. Omkar Verma
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha
Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors Content and Language Editor
Dr. S. D. Shukla (Retd.) (Units 1 & 2) Prof. Meenal Mishra (Unit 3) Prof. Pankaj Srivastava
Department of Geology School of Sciences Department of Geology
SGRR (PG) College, Dehradun IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu University, Jammu
Transformation: Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Course Coordinators: Prof. Meenal Mishra and Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Audio Visual Materials
Dr. Amitosh Dubey Prof. Meenal Mishra and Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Producer, EMPC, IGNOU Content Coordinators
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for assistance in preparation of CRC and some of the figures.
December, 2019
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-89969-67-2
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office at
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.
Printed by : Chandra Prabhu Offset Printing Works Pvt. Ltd., C-40, Sector-8, Noida-201301 (U.P.)
8
BGYCT-133: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, MINERALOGY AND
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Block 2 Mineralogy
Unit 4 Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks
Unit 5 Classification of Minerals
Unit 6 Rock-Forming Minerals-I
Unit 7 Rock-Forming Minerals-II
Block 3 Optical Mineralogy

Unit 8 Polarising Microscope
Unit 9 Optical Properties of Minerals
Unit 10 Optical Properties of Rock-Forming Minerals
Block 4 Economic Geology

Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
Unit 12 Processes of Ore Formation
Unit 13 Metallic Minerals
Unit 14 Non-Metallic Minerals
Unit 15 Coal and Petroleum
9
BLOCK 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Crystallography plays an important role nearly in all branches of science and technology. Man
has been inquisitive to explore the beautiful morphological features of natural crystals which
has helped in understanding the internal symmetry of crystals. Under favourable conditions,
minerals crystallise in regular geometric forms assuming well defined plane surfaces that are
known as crystals. The branch of mineralogy dealing with the study of crystals is called
crystallography. The crystals have distinct internal atomic structure and hence their
characteristics are important to identify different types of minerals.
This block consists of three units that will introduce you to the crystallography, as a branch of
mineralogy dealing with crystals, their properties, laws of crystallography, crystal symmetry and
crystal systems.
Unit 1 Crystal Properties introduces you to crystals and the crystallography. It largely focuses
on the basic concepts pertaining to crystals. It discusses the definition of a crystal, its parts,
characteristics and forms, crystallographic axes, parameters and crystallographic notation.
Crystals exhibit observable regularity in their faces, edges and solid angles, which is referred to
as crystal symmetry. In Unit 2 Crystal Symmetry, you would get introduced to the basics
related to crystallographic laws and the elements of crystal symmetry.
As its title suggests, Unit 3 Crystal Systems deals with different crystal systems. It begins with
the basic concepts of crystal systems, their nomenclature and classification of crystals into
seven crystal systems. It also familiarises you with seven crystal systems namely, cubic,
tetragonal, hexagonal, trigonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic systems, and their
characteristics.

After studying this block, you should be able to:
• get acquainted with crystals, its parts, forms and representation of crystal face;
• describe laws of crystallography and elements of symmetry, and
• discuss nomenclature of seven crystal systems and their characteristics.
The knowledge of the basic concepts of crystallography you would attain through this block
would help you to identify crystals, their properties, symmetry elements and crystal systems. In
the next block, you would be introduced to the branch of geology called mineralogy in which
you would learn about physical properties of the minerals.
We wish you all success!
10
10
Block 1 Basic Concept of Crystallography
UNIT 1
CRYSTAL PROPERTIES
Structure________________________________
Structure___________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_____________________
__________
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Representation of Crystal Face
Expected Learning Outcomes Crystal Parameter
1.2 Elementary Idea of Crystal
Parameter System of Weiss
Definition
How do we study Crystallography?
Index System of Miller
Conventions in Notation
1.3 Parts of a Crystal
How to Index a Face?
Faces
Edges 1.6 Crystal Forms
Solid Angle Closed and Open Forms
Zone and Zone Axis Naming of Crystal Forms
1.4 Interfacial Angles and their Common Forms
Measurements 1.7 Summary
Contact Goniometer 1.8 Activity
Reflecting Goniometer
1.9 Terminal Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Further/Suggested Readings
1.12 Answers
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The delicately faceted surfaces of crystals that occur in nature have always been a source of
fascination and delight to human beings. The ancient Greeks in about 400 B.C. observed that in the
Alps Mountain, quartz (rock crystal) occurred in a characteristic shape bounded by flat surfaces. They
mistook that quartz had resulted from freezing of water under intense cold and named it as krustallos
meaning ‘clear ice’. Gradually, other minerals which showed flat surfaces (faces), including those with
metallic luster were also designated as crystals. As the studies advanced, scientists started accepting
that crystals consisted of set arrangement of atoms and the internal structure.
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Therefore, their characteristics are important criteria for the identification of
thousands of minerals present on the Earth. Crystallography is the branch
of Mineralogy that involves the study of crystals. The term crystallography is
derived from Greek words crystallon meaning ‘frozen drop’ and graphein
means ‘to write’.
In this unit, we will study about the basic concepts pertaining to crystals.
Expected Learning
Learning Outcomes
Outcomes____________________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
define crystal;
identify parts of a crystal;
list the forms present in the crystal;
differentiate between crystallographic axes and axial ratio; and
discuss the crystal parameters and crystallographic notation.
1.2 ELEMENTARY IDEA OF CRYSTAL

Let us understand the terms ‘crystal’, ‘habit’ and ‘form’ before reading about
the crystal. These terms are used to describe the occurrence of crystals.
Crystal habit can be defined as the general aspect or shape that a crystal
possesses which is produced by relative development of different forms. Habit
is used to denote the general shapes of crystal such as cubic, octahedral or
prismatic. These shapes are controlled by the environment of crystallisation,
which may vary. At one place habit may be equant and at other it may be
tabular or fibrous. Therefore, it is possible that a mineral may occur in more
than one habit.
Crystal form is the assemblage of crystal faces related to each other by the
symmetry that the crystal possesses. We use Miller Index or Miller-Bravais
Index to denote crystal form. In this unit we will use Miller Index.
Crystals may be formed either by solidification from gaseous or liquid state or
by precipitation from solutions by the process of crystallisation. Crystals are
solid geometric figures bounded by well developed more or less plane
surfaces called ‘faces’ (Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1: Crystallised quartz crystal with well developed faces.

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Let us now learn the definition of crystal.
1.2.1 Definition
We have learnt that regular internal arrangement of atoms defines whether or
not a substance is crystalline. When conditions are favorable these solid
bodies become bounded by smooth surfaces. In this way, they assume regular
geometric forms known as crystals.
“Crystals can be defined as a homogenous solid bounded by naturally
formed plane surfaces termed faces which can be related to a regular
arrangement of atoms” (Gribble, 1991).
Crystals exhibit following characteristics:
• Crystal is regular polyhedral form characterised by flat surfaces known as
faces.
• They possess a typical internal atomic structure.
• Their regular geometry is developed only under suitable physicochemical
conditions. Well developed crystals result due to slow cooling.
• A crystal which possesses both external form as well as internal atomic
structure is said to be perfect crystal. But if only the internal atomic
structure is present without development of corresponding external form,
it is said to be crystalline. If neither internal atomic structure nor external
form is present it is referred as an amorphous substance.
Thus, a naturally occurring crystal must include a regular geometric form and a
characteristic internal atomic structure. If a model of a crystal is constructed
out of glass, plastic or wood (Fig. 1.2), it cannot be considered as a crystal as
the required atomic structure will not be present there. It is only a crystal
model displaying outer faces.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2: a) Plastic; and b) wooden models of galena crystal.
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Let us take example of a diamond.
You might have seen imitations of diamond, which despite their complete
resemblance to the original, lack optical and physical properties, and internal
atomic structure unique to diamonds. Therefore, imitation diamonds cannot
be considered as naturally occurring crystals.
1.2.2 How Do We Study Crystallography?

The external shape, internal structure and the laws which govern crystal
growth form the subject matter of Crystallography. It includes the
description of crystals, their classification into different systems and classes.
In addition, the mathematical relationships that exist between different faces
of a crystal are also studied. The domain of crystallography also includes the
imperfections of crystal growth and crystalline aggregates. Crystallography
helps in qualitative and quantitative identification of minerals.
Crystallography is the study of crystals and the person studying
crystallography is known as Crystallographer.
As you know that rocks (i.e. the aggregates of minerals) represent the basic
unit of the Earth’s crust. The minerals whether amorphous or crystalline are
natural compounds of elements. Diffraction of X-rays by crystals helps in
studying their internal characteristics. In 1913 the first structural analysis of
crystals of sodium chloride was done by Sir W.H. Bragg and Sir W.L. Bragg,
two English physicists. The Braggs were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1915 for their work in determining crystal structures of NaCl, ZnS and
diamond. X-rays have very short wavelengths, which are comparable with
the actual distance between atoms in the crystal lattice. A lattice in
crystallography is an abstract representation of a crystal structure. In other
words, this is an imaginary three-dimensional framework that can be
referenced to a network of regularly spaced points, each of which represents
the position of a motif. When a beam of X-ray falls on the crystal, it ‘scatters’
by the phenomenon of diffraction in certain directions. The individual
scattered wavelets may recombine in phase to produce a diffracted beam.
They indicate the crystals appear to reflect X-ray beams at certain angles of
incidence (theta, θ).
This phenomenon may be expressed as:
n λ = 2dsinθ (1)
where,
n is an integer
λ (lambda) wavelength of the incident X-ray beam
d is the distance between atomic layers in a crystal
This is known as Bragg’s Law.
Now portable X- ray diffractometers along with user friendly software for
mineral identification are available. This helps in easy and accurate
identification of the peaks shown by different minerals (Fig. 1.3).
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Fig. 1.3: Diffractogram showing peaks of different minerals. For example in a

sandstone Q-denotes peak for quartz, M-is the peak for muscovite and
K-represents peak of K-feldspar.
You have read about the definition of crystal and why and how do we study
crystals. Now let us discuss about the parts of a crystal.
1.3 PARTS OF A CRYSTAL

Now let us recapitulate some terms, we referred above and learn some
additional terminology to appreciate parts of a crystal.
1.3.1 Faces
The flat surfaces by which the crystals are bounded are called faces. The
faces are parallel to the net planes in the crystal structure. In most of the
cases, the faces are flat but sometimes they are curved, e.g. siderite,
dolomite, diamond, etc. If all the faces of a crystal are similar, the crystal is
said to have ‘like faces,’ e.g. galena. On the other hand, if the crystal has
faces of different types, then it is said to have ‘unlike faces,’ e.g. zircon (Fig.
1.4). This difference is merely a difference of their physical properties. You
should remember that variation in the size of like faces-commonly seen in
natural crystals does not mean that the crystal faces are unlike. All the six
faces of a cube for example galena are like faces and all the faces possess
similar properties. If only like faces are present in the crystal it is known as
single form. When both like and unlike faces are present it is called
combination form (Fig. 1.4).
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4: Faces, Forms, Edges and Solid angles in: a) Cube showing single form;
and b) Zircon showing combination form.
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1.3.2 Edges
The edges are formed by intersection of two adjacent faces. The edge is
naturally straight and its position on a crystal is exclusively a matter of the
position of the adjacent faces (Fig. 1.4).
1.3.3 Solid Angle

Solid angles are formed at the intersection of three or more than three faces
as shown in Fig. 1.4. Solid angle is also known as vertex. The relationship
between these elements in a crystal can be expressed by the formula,
f+c=e+2 (2)
where,
f number of faces
c number of solid angles
e number of edges
Let us apply this formula on a cube (Fig. 1.4a) to appreciate how these
crystal characteristics are mutually related.
Number of faces in cube = 6
Number of solid angles in cube = 8
Number of edges in cube = 12
Putting these values in the formula (2) we find 6 + 8 = 12 + 2
1.3.4 Zone and Zone Axis

The study of crystals shows that in many crystals, faces are arranged in a
manner that the edges formed by intersection of such faces are parallel to
one another. Each such set of edges belongs to a group of faces. Set of
faces whose mutual intersection gives rise to parallel edges defines a zone.
One imaginary line is chosen within a crystal to which the set of parallel
edges of a zone are all parallel. The line or axis to which these edges are
parallel is called as ‘zone axis’. In Fig. 1.5 of a quartz crystal shows a set of
faces and edges parallel to c-axis. These faces and edges form a zone and
they are parallel to c-axis which is the zone axis in the present case. There
may be many zones and zone axis in a crystal.
Fig. 1.5: Quartz crystal showing zone and zone axis.
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1.4 INTERFACIAL ANGLES AND THEIR
MEASUREMENTS
You have read about the parts of crystal in the previous section. Let us now
learn about the interfacial angles and their measurements.
It has been observed that two crystals in nature rarely look similar with regard
to their size and shape of crystal faces. Nicolas Steno, a Danish scientist gave
the first precise observations on a type of crystal in his 1669 book "De solido
intra solidum naturaliter contento". The principle in crystallography, known
as Steno's law of constant angles, is also called the first law of
crystallography. This law states that the angles between the corresponding
faces on crystals are same for different crystals of same mineral.
Steno examined the interfacial angles in a variety of quartz crystals from
perfect examples to some which were highly distorted. The prismatic crystals
of quartz were sliced at right angles to their length. He measured the angles
between adjoining faces and their shape was accurately traced on to a sheet
of paper. He found that whatever be the shape of the quartz crystal, the angle
between adjoining faces was always 120°. A similar results were obtained for
other interfacial angles between corresponding faces on quartz crystals with
different habits.
Interfacial angle may be defined as the angle between any two adjacent
faces of a crystal. In crystallography, the interfacial angle of a crystal is the
angle subtended between the normal drawn on the two adjacent faces. As
shown in Fig. 1.6, the interfacial angle is the angle between two faces a and b
has been denoted by ‘A’. It is complimentary to the angle ‘B’. The accurate
measurement of the interfacial angle is important in crystallographic studies of
minerals.
Fig. 1.6: Interfacial angle, i.e. A = 180 – B.
Interfacial angles are measured using goniometer. There are two types of
goniometers, you will learn about them in the next subsection.
1.4.1 Contact Goniometer

Contact Goniometer was invented in by Carangeot in 1780. It has a
graduated arc like protractor and one movable arm as shown in Fig. 1.7. The
arm and base of the arc are kept in close contact of the crystal face and the
reading is directly taken. As shown in Fig. 1.7, ‘A’ is the vertically opposite
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angle known as interfacial angle. As the interfacial angle is complimentary to
the angle ‘B’, it can be directly read on the arc of the goniometer.
Fig. 1.7: Contact goniometer used for measuring interfacial angle. It can be
directly measured as ‘B’ (as in fig. 1.6) which is complimentary to
interfacial angle.
1.4.2 Reflecting Goniometer

Reflecting Goniometer is also known as optical goniometer. It is useful for
measuring interfacial angles of smaller crystals. This type of instrument was
devised by Wollaston in 1809. It has undergone extensive modifications and
improvements since that time. Reflecting Goniometer is used for more
accurate work. The working principle is shown in Fig. 1.8. A crystal mounted
on this instrument can be rotated about a zone axis and will reflect light from
its faces into the telescope to the eye. The angle through which a crystal
must be turned in order to throw successive beams of light from two
adjacent faces into the telescope. This will determine the angle between the
faces. It has a rotating disc which is graduated. Source of light is present on
one side and telescope on other side. The crystal is kept on the rotating disc
and the source of light is present one side and telescope on other side.
Signal is sent through light source and the image is seen by the telescope. It
is being reflected by the face ‘PQ’. Reading ‘A´’ is taken. Rotation is given
and image disappears. When the face ‘PS’ comes in the same plane in
which ‘PQ’ was present, the image again appears. Now reading ‘B’ is taken.
The actual rotation (B-C) is complimentary to the angle ‘B’. Hence, it is the
actual interfacial angle.
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Fig.1.8: a) Reflecting goniometer; and b) Working principle of reflecting

0 0
goniometer (A + B = 180 , C + B = 180 , Hence A = C = rotation given =
Interfacial angle).
Let us spend five minutes here to check our progress.
SAQ 1
a) Define crystal.
b) What is a solid angle?
c) Define interfacial angle. How do we measure the interfacial angle?
d) Differentiate between like face and unlike face.
1.5 REPRESENTATION OF CRYSTAL FACE

We will learn about the crystallographic axes and axial ratio in Unit 2 of this
Block. Let us now read about the crystal parameter and indices.
1.5.1 Crystal Parameter

Crystal parameter is the relative distance that a face cuts on the
crystallographic axes of that face. In order words, crystal parameters are the
ratios of the intercepts, i.e. ratios of the distances on the faces from the centre
of the crystal.
Let us try to understand the parameters as shown in Fig. 1.9. Oa, Ob and Oc
are the crystallographic axes and O is the origin. The standard face ABC is the
crystal face making intercepts OA, OB and OC on the crystallographic axes.
The ratio of OA, OB and OC will be the parameters of the face ABC.
If intercepts of face ABC are taken as unit, it is convenient to represent any
other face. For example, let us take face DEF, where OD is same as OA
meaning (1/1), OE is twice of OB (2/1) and OF is half of OC (1/2). Hence the
parameters for face DEF will be 1/1, 2/1, 1/2 with reference to face ABC which
has been taken as standard in the present case.
Parameters of the face ABC are: OD/OA, OE/OB and OF/OC on a, b and c
axes, respectively.
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This is expressed as 1a, 2/1b and 1/2c [since OD=OA, OE=2OB and
OF=1/2OC]
This type of representation of parameters is said to be in accordance with
parameter system of Weiss, about which we will discuss later.
The symbols 1a, 2b and 1/2c DEF indicate that the face under consideration
which intersects the a-axis at unit distance, b-axis at twice of the unit
distance and c-axis at half of the unit distance. Gypsum is an example of a
face which cuts all three axes and has parameters of 0.374 (a):1 (b): 0.444.
The relationship between parameters and indices is simple; the reciprocals
of parameters are known as indices.
In another example, let us take any face which cuts a-axis at 2 units, b-axis
at unit and is parallel to c-axis with reference to unit form. It’s Weiss symbol
would be: 2a b ∞ c
Unit form is the face whose intercepts on the axes a, b, c determine their
assumed unit lengths. The intercepts that any face makes on the
crystallographic axes are either infinite or small rational multiples of
intercepts made by unit form.
Crystal faces are defined by indicating their intercepts on the
crystallographic axes. If we have to describe a face or position of a face in
space, it is necessary to determine the relation a given face has with respect
to the three crystal axes; whether it is intersecting all the three axes; or
parallel to two axes and cuts the third; or parallel to one axis and intersects
the other two. We must also determine the relative distance at which the
face intersects the different axes. Since a crystal is a three-dimensional
polyhedral form its crystal face can be expressed by parameters of Weiss
and Miller indices. It is the brief method of expressing the relationship of any
crystal face to the crystallographic axes. Now let us learn about the following
two methods are commonly used:
• Parameter system of Weiss
• Index system of Miller
Fig. 1.9: Notice the parameters of the face DEF with reference to standard face
ABC are 1/1, 2/1, 1/2. a, b and c are crystallographic axes and O is the
origin.
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1.5.2 Parameter System of Weiss
Weiss parameter was introduced by Christian Samuel Weiss in 1818. It
provides an approximate indication of a face orientation with respect to the
crystallographic axes, and was used as a symbol for the face.
We use notation parameters in this method. The axes are written in the order
of crystallographic axes. You have learnt in the previous section that
parameters are the ratios of the intercepts, i.e. the intercepts of the face in
consideration are compared with those of unit form. Intercepts are the distance
between the centre of the crystal (point of intersection of crystallographic axes)
and the points of intersection of the faces and axes. Parametral plane is any
plane, which cuts all three crystallographic axes. Parametral plane consists of
a series of numbers that express the relative intercepts of that plane upon the
crystallographic axes. The length of each axis is defined for a specific mineral
by selecting a face on the crystal which cuts all three axes, such face is called
as parametral face.
These are the ratios of the intercepts (lengths cut off) made by the crystal face
on the crystallographic axes (Fig. 1.9). The intercept, which a crystal face
makes on a-axis is written before ’a’. The intercept on b-axis is written before
’b’ and the intercept on c-axis is written before ‘c’. Recall that these intercepts
are measured with reference to the intercepts made by the unit form on these
axes.
Let us consider three simple faces (Fig. 1.10) separately in relationship to the
three axes. In Fig. 1.10a, the face is parallel to a-axis, parallel to b-axis and
cutting the c-axis. While in the Fig. 1.10b face is parallel to a-axis and c-axis
but cutting the b-axis. While in Fig. 1.10c, face is parallel to b-axis and c-axis
but cutting the a-axis. When a face is parallel to a particular axis it can be
considered as cutting that axis at infinity (∞). Thus, Weiss symbol for the faces
will be ∞∞c, ∞b∞ and a∞∞.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.10: Weiss symbol and Miller symbol (in bracket).
1.5.3 Index System of Miller

The Miller indices were introduced by W. Whewell in 1829 and later developed
by W.H. Miller. In this system of notation indices are used. Indices are the
reciprocals of parameters. The indices are written in their most simple form
(integer) in the order ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ after clearing all the fractions. The letters a, b
and c are not written.
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Again let us take an example of a face represented with respect to Weiss
symbol as:
2a b ∞c
The reciprocals of the parameters will be:
1/2 1/1 0
Now if we clear the fraction by multiplying with 2, the Miller symbol will be
indicated as follows:
1 2 0
Similarly a face, with Weiss symbol a ∞b ∞c, will have Miller symbol:
1 0 0
With reference to Fig. 1.10a, the symbols of two faces will be as given in
(Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Weiss and Miller symbol.
Face Weiss Symbol Reciprocals Miller Symbol
ABC (Unit) a b c 1/1 1/1 1/1 1 1 1
DEF a 2b 1/2 c 1/1 1/2 2/1 2 1 4
The law of Rational Indices states that the indices of any crystal face are
always rational numbers and are determined by dividing the intercepts of the
parametral plane and clearing fractions.
The Miller symbol of notation puts forth a few important considerations:

• The face parallel to any axis is expressed by a zero corresponding to the
place of that axis.
• As reciprocals are used in it, the larger the figure in the symbol, the
nearer will the face that cut the axis and vice-versa the smaller the figure
the farther will the face that cuts the axis. Ultimately, when it is 0 (zero)
the face is parallel to that axis and it is presumed to cut the related axis
at infinity.
1.5.4 Conventions in Notation

• The symbol is used to denote any crystal face, and it is written without
using any bracket, e.g. І00 means the front face of the cube.
• If it is used to denote the form, it is enclosed within the bracket, e.g. (І00)
denotes the form ‘cube’.
• In the symbol to represent the negative end of the axis, ‘bar’ (-) is placed
over the figure representing that axis, e.g. ІŌІ.
• To show the general relationship the letters h,k,l are used for three axes
and h,i,k,l are used for four axes.
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1.5.5 How to Index a Face?
You must be wondering what do symbols like 00І, І0І and ІІІ mean? The
crystal faces have symbols just as each chemical element has its own
symbol. These symbols are called index. You might have read about the
names like cube (4 faces), octahedron (8 faces), dodecahedron (2+10
faces), trapezohedron (it refers to the shape trapezium), prism, pyramid
and dome. Before knowing about indexing a face let us read about
crystallographic axes.
Crystallographic axes are imaginary reference lines and are generally
taken parallel to the intersection edges of major crystal faces. The crystal
axes originate from the centre of a crystal and emerge both in vertical and
horizontal directions. The crystals mostly have three axes namely a, b and
c or a1, a2 and a3. We will discuss in detail about the crystallographic axes
in Unit 2 Crystal Symmetry. The crystals are oriented by placing the
positive (+) end of a-axis at the front and negative (-) end at the back (Fig.
1.11). The positive (+) side of b-axis is to the right and negative (-) to left.
The positive (+) side of c axis is at the top and negative (-) at the bottom.
Let us discuss how the symbols of different faces of cube get their
names?
The face of the cuboid, which is parallel to a and b but intercepts positive
side of c-axis has 00І symbol (Fig. 1.11).
00Ī symbol is given to the exactly opposite face which intercepts negative
side of c-axis. The symbols for other four faces are 0Ī0, 0І0, І00 and Ī00.
These actually describe the relationship of a particular shape to the three
axes. The negative sign (-) is called bar which means that we are talking
of the negative ends of the axis. For example symbol 00Ī is known as
‘zero zero bar one’ which indicates that the face cuts b-axis at negative
end but is parallel to a and c-axes.
Fig. 1.11: Crystallographic axes of cuboid and their face symbols.
1.6 CRYSTAL FORMS

You have learnt about the parts of a crystal and the measurement of
interfacial angles in previous sections. In crystallography, a form is a
collection of similar faces which partially or completely constitute of the
exterior of crystals. A form is made up of all those faces, which are required
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by the symmetry elements. Each face of the form has not only the same size
and shape but also similar orientation with respect to the crystallographic
axes, a, b and c. In a zircon crystal, there are two sets of faces labeled A
and B (Fig. 1.12). Each such set is called a form in crystallographic terms.
Each of the four faces labeled A are parallel to the c-axis and they are of the
same size and shape. The distribution around c-axis of the four faces makes
it as a tetrad symmetry axis characteristic of tetragonal system. Another
form made of four pyramidal faces labelled as ‘B’ is distributed around the c-
axis. All these faces are of the same size and shape and intersect the c-axis
at both its positive and negative ends.
Fig. 1.12: Zircon showing Prism A (100) and Pyramid, B (111) forms.
1.6.1 Closed and Open Forms

• Closed form: It is an assemblage of faces, which can enclose a volume
of space, e.g. cube (001) has 6 faces or rhombdodecahedron (110) to
form a solid.
• Open form: A crystal form is called open if its faces are two few to
enclose its space completely. In these forms, the faces cannot enclose
space all by themselves, as they do not have adequate number of faces
to do so and as a result they occur only in combination such as in zircon
there are pyramid and prism forms.
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Unit 1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......…… Crystal Properties
In combination form, a crystal is made up of two or more simple forms, such
as zircon has 8 triangular faces and 4 square faces. The open forms obviously
cannot exist by itself on a real crystal, because it does not enclose space.
1.6.2 Naming of Crystal Forms

There are 48 different forms found in crystals. Some of these forms are unique
to one particular system, while others are found in several systems. We will be
discussing some of the crystal forms in Unit 3 Crystal Systems but let us get
acquainted with some basic forms. Crystallographic forms are given common
names according to the following:
• Number of faces, e.g. tetrahedron (4 faces)
• Shape of faces, e.g. pentagon (geometric form)
• Arrangement of faces, e.g. pyramid
• Specific names indicating systems in which they occur, e.g. ditetragonal
prism. This form consists of an eight faced prism in some classes of the
tetragonal system.
1.6.3 Common Forms

Let us study some common forms present in the crystals.
• Pedion (Monohedran) consists of single form represented by one face. It
is a form situated on a crystal that it is not repeated by any of the
elements of symmetry as shown in Fig. 1.13a.
• Pinacoid (two parallel faces; pina in Greek meaning board face) is a
face cutting one crystallographic axis and remaining parallel to the other
two axes as shown in Fig. 1.13b. It cuts one of the axes ‘a’ or ‘b’ or ‘c’
and is known as front pinacoid, side pinacoid and basal pinacoid,
respectively.
• Prism is a face cutting horizontal axes but remaining parallel to the
vertical axis (c-axis) as shown in Fig. 1.13c. It is an open form consisting
of four faces; each face is parallel to vertical axes and cuts one or more
horizontal axes. Prisms may be composed of 3, 4, 6, 8 or 12 faces.
• Pyramid is a face cutting all the three crystallographic axes as shown in
Fig. 1.13d.
(a) (b) (c)
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(d) (e)
(f) (g)
Fig. 1.13: Common forms in crystals: a) Pedion; b) Pinacoid; c) Hexagonal
Prism; d) Hexagonal Pyramid; e) Dome; f) Sphenoid; and g)
Rhombohedron.
• Dome is a face cutting one of the horizontal axes and the vertical axis
and remaining parallel to the other horizontal axis/axes. It is an open
form, which is intermediate between the prism and pyramid. The faces
are parallel to a- or b- crystallographic axis as shown in Fig. 1.13e. It
resembles gabled roof of a house.
• Sphenoid is a wedge like form which is obtained by repetition of a face
around a diad axis as shown in Fig. 1.13f. Diad axis is the axis of two
fold (times) symmetry where same face occupies the same position once
in every 180° on rotation axes. Thus, in one complete rotation through
360° the same position of the face occurs twice.
• Rhombohedron is a closed form of 6 rhomb-shaped faces as shown in
fig. 1.13g.
Let us spend five minutes to check your progress.
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SAQ 2
a) Define prism.
b) What is crystal parameter?
c) Differentiate between open form and closed form.
d) Define unit form.
1.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about basic concepts of crystallography. Now let
us summarise what you have learnt:
• Crystals can be defined as a homogenous solid bounded by naturally
formed plane surfaces termed faces which can be related to a regular
arrangement of atom.
• Crystallography includes the description of crystals, their external shape,
internal structure, classification into different systems, in addition to the
laws which govern their growth and the mathematical relationships that
exist between different faces.
• The flat surfaces by which the crystals are bounded are called as faces.
The edges are formed by intersection of two adjacent faces. Solid Angles
are formed at the intersection of three or more than three faces.
• Interfacial angle may be defined as the angle between any two adjacent
faces of a crystal. It is measured with the help of goniometer.
• Crystallographic axes are imaginary reference lines and are generally
taken parallel to the intersection edges of major crystal faces. Axial angle
is the angle between the positive ends of the axes and are conventionally
designated by Greek letters α, β, γ. Axial ratio can be defined as the ratio
of the length of the crystallographic axes of a crystal which is expressed in
terms of one of horizontal axes.
• The crystals are oriented by placing the a-axis (+) to back (-), the b-axis
right (+) to left (-) and c-axis up (+) and down (-).
• Crystal parameter is the relative distance that a face cuts on the
crystallographic axes. Indices are reciprocals of parameters. They are
used in crystallographic notation. Crystal face can be expressed by
parameters of Weiss and Miller indices.
• Closed form is assemblage of faces, which can enclose a volume of
space, whereas in open forms the faces cannot enclose space all by
themselves. Some common forms present in crystals are pedion, pinacoid,
prism, pyramid, rhombohedron, sphenoid and dome.
1.8 ACTIVITY
1. Visit a shop in your town. Find out natural ‘Rock Salt’ and buy some of
it. It may be white or pink in colour. Break and observe fresh surface of
large crystals. What is the shape of the crystals? Rock salt is mineral
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‘Halite’. Cube crystals of cubic system are clearly visible. Try to make
out faces, edges and solid angles. Sketch, label and write your
observations.
1.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Mention the characteristics of a crystal.
2. What is crystal parameter and its representative?
3. Explain five common forms present in the crystal. Give neat well labeled
diagrams.
4. Discuss the Index system of Miller and Parameter system of Weiss
giving examples.
1.10 REFERENCES
th
• Gribble, C.D. (1991) Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy, 27 Edition. CBS
Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.
• Singh, P. (2013) Engineering and General Geology, S.K. Kataria & Sons,
Delhi.
• www.matter.org.uk/diffraction/x-ray/default.html
(Websites accessed between 26th and 31st December 2016)
1.11 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

• Dana, E.S. and Ford, W.E. (1962) A Text book of Mineralogy, Asia
Publishing House, New Delhi.
th
• Gribble, C.D. (1991) Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy, 27 Edition. CBS
• Sharma, R.S. and Sharma, A. (2013) Crystallography and Mineralogy -

Concepts and Methods, Editors: A.K. Jain and Sandeep Singh,
Geological Society of India, Banglore.
1.12 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 a) Crystals can be defined ‘as a homogenous solid bounded by
naturally formed plane surfaces termed faces which can be related to
a regular arrangement of atom.
b) The intersection of two faces is an edge and the intersection of three
or more faces constitutes the solid angle. They depend on internal
atomic structure.
c) Interfacial angle may be defined as the angle between any two
adjacent faces of a crystal. Interfacial angle of a crystal is the angle
subtended between the normal drawn on the two concerned faces.
Goniometer are used for measuring interfacial angles.
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Unit 1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......…… Crystal Properties
d) The faces of a crystal are similar, the crystal is said to have ‘like faces,’
e.g. cube. If the crystal has faces of different types, then it is said to
have ‘unlike faces,’ e.g. zircon.
2 a) Prism is a face cutting horizontal axes but remaining parallel to the

vertical axis (c-axis) whereas pyramid is a face cutting all the there
b) Crystal parameter is the relative distance that a face cuts on the
crystallographic axes of that face. The parameters are the ratios of the
intercepts, i.e. ratios of the distances on the faces from the centre of
the crystal.
c) Open form means that it cannot form solid on its own. It can occur only
in combination. ‘Closed form’ indicates that complete solid can be
formed out of it only, although it can be found in combination.
d) The unit form is the face from whose intercepts on the axes x ,y ,z
determine their assumed unit lengths.
Terminal Questions
1. Your response should include following points: (1) regular polyhedral form
characterised by flat surfaces known as faces, (2) possess a typical internal
atomic structure, (3) Regular geometry is developed only under suitable
physicochemical conditions, (4) possess both external form as well as
internal atomic structure is said to be perfect crystal.
2. Your response should include definition of crystal parameter as given in
subsection 1.5.1, and discuss its representation.
3. You can discuss any 5 common forms present in crystals as mentioned in
subsection 1.6.3 such as Pedion as shown in Fig. 1.13a, Pinacoid as
shown in Fig. 1.13b, Prism as shown in Fig. 1.13c, Pyramid as shown in
Fig. 1.13d and Dome as shown in Fig. 1.13e.
4. Your response should include Index system of Miller and Parameter
system of Weiss is given in sections 1.5.3 and 1.5.4. Discuss this giving
example of a cube.
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UNIT 2
CRYSTAL SYMMETRY
Structure__________
Structure________________________________________
______________________________________________
__________________________________________
____________
2.1 Introduction Plane of Symmetry
Expected Learning Outcomes Axis of Symmetry
2.2 Laws of Crystallography Centre of Symmetry
Law of Constancy of Interfacial Angles2.6 Summary
Law of Rational Indices 2.7 Activity
Law of Axial Ratio 2.8 Terminal Questions
2.3 Crystallographic and Geometric Symmetry 2.9 References
2.4 Crystallographic Axes and Axial Ratios 2.10 Further/Suggested Readings
Crystallographic Axes 2.11 Answers
Axial Length and Axial Ratios
Axial Angles
2.5 Elements of Symmetry
2.1 INTRODUCTION
We have learnt about crystals and their properties in the previous unit. Let us recall that the
crystals are a homogenous solid bounded by naturally formed plane surfaces termed faces which
are related to a regular arrangement of atoms. The development of a crystal cannot be haphazard
as there appears to be a good degree of regularity in a crystal. This observable regularity in their
faces, edges and solid angles is referred as symmetry. Mineralogists have observed from the
earlier times that the minerals displayed flat surfaces which at times looked very beautiful and
called them as “flowers of the mineral kingdom”.
In this unit, we will learn about the basics pertaining to crystallographic laws, crystallographic axes
and angles, elements of symmetry, crystallographic and geometric symmetry.

Outcomes _____________________________
______________________________
_____________
After reading this unit, you would be able to:
differentiate between crystallographic and geometric symmetry;
describe the basic laws of crystallography;
identify crystallographic axes, axial ratios and axial angles; and
discuss the elements of crystal symmetry.
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2.2 LAWS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Crystallographers were initially attracted by the beautiful shapes and sizes of
the naturally occurring crystals. Thus, the crystals were investigated mostly
from geometrical point of view, i.e. with respect to their shape, size, and
regularity of bounding surfaces. These studies gave rise to three basic laws of
crystallography which laid the foundation of crystallography. These concepts
essentially remained a subject of geometrical crystallography until beginning of
19th century.
Let us get acquainted with the fundamental laws of crystallography in this
section.
2.2.1 Law of Constancy of Interfacial Angles

In nature, rarely we find two similar looking crystals with regard to their size and
crystal faces. The law of constancy of interfacial angles was enunciated by
Nicholas Steno, a Danish physician and natural scientist in 1669. Steno
showed that the bounding surfaces of crystals are not by chance; rather the
similar faces on different crystals of the same mineral species have constant
angles. He discovered by cutting the sections of differently looking quartz
crystals and examining them that when measured at the same temperature, the
angles between similar crystal faces remain constant, regardless of the size or
the shape of the crystal. So whether the crystal grew under ideal conditions or
not and if you compare the angles between corresponding faces on various
crystals of the same mineral, the angles remain the same. Most often crystals
grow more easily in one direction as compared to the other because of supply
of solution from one side or space availability and so called distorted or
malformed crystals may develop. Distortion may be produced because of
either more supply of material from one direction or crystallisation under
pressure from one direction in limited space. But in all these cases the
corresponding interfacial angles will remain the same (Fig. 2.1a and 2.1b). The
term symmetry refers to the property of being balanced or well-proportioned in
common English usage.
Steno's law is called the Constancy of interfacial angles. However, he could

not put forth any explanation.
The advent of X-rays proved that the atomic structure of any mineral remains
within a close set of given geometric relationships. It was observed that the
interfacial angles of crystals of a particular mineral always remain constant,
since the atomic structure of the crystal of particular mineral is fixed. Law of
constancy of interfacial angle states that measured at same temperature,
similar angles on crystals of the particular mineral remain constant,
regardless the size and shape of crystals. The angles between
corresponding faces of the crystal are not only constant but also characteristics
of the particular mineral. Therefore, the angles between faces may serve for
identification of crystals.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1: a) Interfacial angles of a regular hexagon. The angles a, b, c, d, e and f
are all of 60°; and b) Interfacial angles of a distorted hexagon. Here the
angles remain constant and are all of 60°.
2.2.2 Law of Rational Indices

The law of rational indices was proposed by Abbe Rene Just Hüvy. Prior to
understanding the law, let us first get acquainted with the terms that would be
used. Intercepts are the distance between the centre of the crystal (point of
intersection of crystallographic axes) and the points of intersection of the faces
and axes. Parametral plane is any plane, which cuts all three crystallographic
axes. Unit form is the face from whose intercepts on the axes x, y, z determine
their assumed unit lengths. The intercepts that any face makes on the
crystallographic axes are either infinite or small rational multiples of intercepts
made by unit form. Lattice is a regular repeated three-dimensional
arrangement of ions, atoms or molecules in a metal or other crystalline solid.
Crystals are constituted of three dimensional patterns consisting of atoms or
groups of atoms in symmetrical and ordered arrangements which are repeated
at regular intervals. Crystal lattice is obtained by replacing each group of atoms
by a representative point.
The Hüvy’s law of rational indices states that the indices of any crystal
face are always rational numbers and are determined by dividing the
intercepts of the parametral plane and clearing fractions. The intercept
made by every crystal face on the crystallographic axes is either infinite or small
rational multiples of the intercepts made by the unit form. This is logical
because the position of one face on a crystal can always be referred to that of
another face on the same crystal by ratios which may be expressed in small
whole numbers. The positions of the points in the lattice determine the position
of the crystal faces. The points in a lattice represent an orderly periodic
arrangement. Crystal faces correspond to lattice planes, edges correspond to
rows of nodes and solid angles to nodes. Only those planes will be manifested
outwardly into crystal faces that are thickly covered with nodes. The position of
any crystal face in space can be designated by three whole numbers if the
directions of three rows are used as reference axes, i.e. OX, OY and OZ (Fig.
2.2).
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Fig. 2.2: Intercepts and Miller indices of some faces on the crystallographic axes
OX, OY, OZ.
Let us consider two faces, i.e. a1, b1, c1 and a1, m, c3. Their intercepts contain
segments on the reference axes (i.e. OX, OY and OZ). The first face, i.e. a1,
b1, c1 intercepts segments on Oa1, Ob1 and Oc1, whereas the second face, i.e.
a1, m, c3 intercepts segments on Oa1, Om, Oc3. These segments are the linear
parameters of the two faces. The length of the unit segments is not
necessarily equal in all crystals.
If we assume that the first face (a1, b1, c1) intercepts one-spacing in each row,
i.e. one-spacing on X, Y and Z axes, respectively (Fig. 2.2). We call the first
face a unit face because it makes one intercepts on each axis. It gives three
values related to each other as 1a:1b:1c. The second face (a1, m, c3) will
intercept one-spacing on X axes, one and a half spacing on Y axes and three
spacing on Z axes, respectively. The second face gives 1a:3/2b:3c. These
numbers 2, 3, 6 are numerical parameters of a face by clearing fractions must
always be whole numbers.
We find that indices of all crystal faces will be small integers or zero. This is
known as the law of rational indices. It is of fundamental importance to
crystallography.
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2.2.3 Law of Axial Ratio
Now let us discuss about the third fundamental law of crystallography.
The length of each axis is distinct for a specific mineral. This can be determined by
selecting a parametral face on the crystal. You have read that the face which cuts
all three axes is called parametral face whereas the plane which cuts all three
axes is called as parametral plane.
Axial ratio can be defined as the ratio of the length of the crystallographic axes
expressed in terms of one of horizontal axes, usually ‘b’ axes as unity. Law of
axial ratio states that the ratio between the lengths of axes of the crystal of
mineral is constant.
In cubic system where all the three axes are identical 1:1:1.
We will discuss in detail about axial ratio in Section 2.4.
Now you are well equipped to learn and appreciate the crystallographic and
geometric symmetry.
2.3 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AND GEOMETRIC SYMMETRY

We have discussed about the distorted crystals in previous section. In nature,
rarely do we find ideal crystals with well developed similar faces showing same
size. We find that in nature majority of the crystals occur in distorted forms in which
like faces are not of the same size and some faces may be entirely missing (Fig.
2.3). The fluctuating physicochemical conditions provide hindrance in the growth of
the crystal. Real crystals are very much different from ideal crystals. Ideal crystals
serve only as museum specimens or as decorative pieces.
Fig. 2.3: Beautiful congregation of pyrite (Iron sulphide-FeS2) mineral, yellow to

bronze in color, showing perfect crystals as pyritohedron (extreme
right, shown by white arrow) and striated cube (top and left
center). Pyritohedron is a common from in mineral pyrite and is an
irregular dodecahedron comprised of identical irregular pentagons.
(Photo courtesy: Nishit Shukla)
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Now with this background let us get acquainted with the difference between the
crystallographic symmetry and geometric symmetry. The definition of crystal
states that it a homogenous solid bounded by naturally formed plane surfaces
termed faces which can be related to internal arrangement of atom.
Crystallographic symmetry depends on the internal atomic structure and the
interfacial angles are most important in this regard. Try to recollect in the
previous section we have read about the Law of constancy of interfacial angle
which states that regardless of the size and shape of crystals, the interfacial
angles are constant. The interfacial angles in the distorted forms are exactly
same as in the regular form (Fig. 2.1).
Crystallographic symmetry is quite different from the geometric symmetry.

You have read that most of the crystals occurring in distorted forms are devoid
of geometrical symmetry. The regular crystal possess all the symmetry
elements (plane, axes and centre of symmetry) which are absent in a distorted
crystal. Thus, regular crystals possess both geometric and crystallographic
symmetry whereas, distorted octahedron exhibit crystallographic symmetry but
no geometric symmetry.
Let us study this with the help of an example of a regular and distorted
octahedron (Fig. 2.4a and b).
(a) (b)
Fig.2.4: a) Regular Octahedron shows both geometrical and crystallographic
symmetry; and b) Distorted Octahedron possess only crystallographic
and is devoid of geometrical symmetry.
In case of a regular octahedron, we will find all the symmetry elements (plane of
symmetry, axes of symmetry and centre of symmetry); we will discuss it in next
section, which are absent in a distorted octahedron. However, the distorted
octahedron will have a regular arrangement of atomic structure, i.e.
crystallographic symmetry. You can see real crystal of regular and distorted
garnet in Figs. 2.5a and b.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 2.5: a) Regular crystal and b) distorted crystal of garnet.
In the distorted crystals, the like faces can exhibit similar properties such as
etch marks, physical, thermal and electrical properties. For example, if we
closely observe distorted quartz crystal shown in Fig. 2.5c, we find similar etch
marks on like faces. Etch marks are developed when crystal faces are attacked
by certain reagents and they develop regular shaped pits.
Fig. 2.5c: Quartz crystal showing similar etch marks on like faces. (source:
Gribble, 1991)
We have read about the crystallographic and geometric symmetry in this

section. Before discussing about crystallographic axes and axial ratio let us
spend 5 minutes to check our progress.
SAQ 1
a) State the law of constancy of interfacial angles.
b) What is law of rational ratio?
c) Define axial ratio.
d) Distinguish between a regular and distorted octahedron.
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2.4 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES AND AXIAL

RATIOS
You have learnt about the fundamental laws of crystallography in previous
section. Let us read about the crystallographic axes in a crystal.
2.4.1 Crystallographic Axes

You have read in Section 2.2.2 about the reference axes, i.e. OX, OY and OZ
as shown in Fig. 2.2. Crystallographic axes are imaginary reference lines and
are generally taken parallel to the intersection edges of major crystal faces.
They are fundamental in examining the morphology of the crystal. The position
of a plane in space is given by the intercepts that the plane makes on three
given lines called crystallographic axes as shown in Fig. 2.6a. The crystal axes
originate from centre of the crystal and emerge both in vertical and horizontal
directions. The crystals mostly have three axes namely, a, b and c,
corresponding to front-back (a-axis), right-left (b-axis), top-bottom (c-axis), with
the exception to those belonging to the hexagonal and trigonal system (Fig.
2.6c). The three axes intersect at the origin. The axial lengths depend on the
crystal system to which the crystal belongs. The crystallographic axes can be of
different lengths in different crystal systems as shown in Fig. 2.6. They are
named and indicated as follows:
• a1, a2 and a3 = three equal axes
• a1, a2 and c = two equal and third ‘c’ is unequal axis
• a, b and c = three unequal axes
• a1, a2, a3 and c = three equal and fourth unequal axis
(a)
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(b)
(c)
Fig. 2.6: Crystallographic axes originating from the center of a crystal. Each axis
is divided into two parts, positive and negative side, as illustrated.
Notice the angles α, β and γ: a) crystallographic axes corresponding to
geometric axes; b) three axes can be named a1, a2 and a3 or a1, a2 and c or
a, b and c; and c) four axes namely a1, a2, a3 and c.
The end of each axes are designated plus (+) or minus (-); the front end of ‘a-
axis’, right end of ‘b-axis’ and top end of ‘c-axis’ are positive and opposite ends
are negative. Crystals are oriented by placing the a-axis front (+) to back (-); the
b-axis right (+) to left (-); and c-axis up (+) and down (-). Positive and negative
ends are marked in Fig. 2.6b.
The crystals of hexagonal and trigonal systems (Fig. 2.6c) have four
crystallographic axes where a1, a2 and a3 are horizontal with a3 running from
back to front and c is vertical. In such crystals, the vertical axis (3 or 6 fold) is
always chosen as c-axis. The a2 runs from left (-) to right (+) end. The positive
end a1 is at 120o toward left from +a2 and the a3 axis is located between a1 and
a2. The positive and negative ends alternate and hence a3 has negative end at
60o towards right of the +a1. We will discuss in detail about crystallographic
axes of different crystal systems in Unit 3 Crystal Systems.
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2.4.2 Axial Length and Axial Ratios
We have discussed about the crystallographic axes. Now let us read about
axial length and axial ratios. We have been introduced to axial ratios while
reading about the law of axial ratio.
Axial ratio can be defined as the ratio of the length of the crystallographic axes
of a crystal which is expressed in terms of one of horizontal axes. It is the ratio
of the intercepts of the parametral plane on the crystallographic axes,
conventionally expressed in terms of b axis as unity. Each mineral possess a
unique axial ratio.
Axial plane is the plane that divides the crystal into two equal halves along the
crystallographic axes or in other words, axial plane is a plane which contains
two crystallographic axes. Diagonal plane is the plane that divides the crystal
into two equal halves along the diagonal surface.
Let us consider some examples of axial ratios.
In cubic system, you find that all the crystallographic three axes (a1, a2 and a3)
are identical the axial ratio is 1:1:1. However, this is not the case in other
systems.
In orthorhombic system, for example, all the three axes (a, b, c) are unequal.
The crystallographic axes-b will be considered as unit and the lengths of a-
axes and c-axes will be with reference to b. For example, sulphur belonging to
orthorhombic system, has following axial ratio:
a:b:c= 0.8131:1:1.9034
Olivine also belongs to orthorhombic system, which has all three unequal axes,
has following axial ratio:
a:b:c= 0.4648:1:0.5857
Augite belongs to monoclinic system, which has all three unequal axes, has
following axial ratio:
a:b:c=1.0921:1:0.5885
Beryl is a mineral of hexagonal system with axial ratios of a:c 1:0.99751. All the
horizontal axes (a1, a2, a3) in hexagonal system are of same length.
Modern crystallographers can accurately measure axial ratios with the
application of x-rays in angstrom units (Å).
You will read in detail about the axial length in different crystal systems in Unit
3 Crystal Systems.
2.4.3 Axial Angles
You have learnt about axial ratio, now let us read about axial angle.
Axial angle is the angle between the positive ends of the axes and are
conventionally designated by Greek letters α, β, γ (Fig. 2.6b and c). The angles
between the axes are denoted as follows:
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• α (alpha) angle - positive b axis and positive c axis
• β (beta) angle - positive c axis and positive a axis
• γ (gamma) angle - positive a axis and positive b axis
Similarly, in the cube, α, β and γ are between the a2 axis and a3 axis, a1
axis and a3 axis, and a1 axis and a2 axis, respectively.
You will read in detail about the axial angles in different crystal systems in
Unit 3 Crystal Systems.
2.5 ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRY
You have read about the crystallographic and geometric symmetry,

crystallographic axes, axial length, ratios and angles.
Now let us discuss and define the three elements of symmetry.

While reading about crystallographic and geometric symmetry you have learnt
that symmetry depends on the internal atomic structure and space lattice. Now
you know that the internal atomic symmetry in crystal manifest in the external
crystal form, which may consist of a set of naturally, formed plane faces. A
crystal also shows certain regularity of position of faces, edges, corners, solid-
angles, etc. The geometric locus about which a group of repeating operations
act is known as symmetry elements. Crystals belonging to different crystal
systems exhibit different symmetry elements. We can differentiate one crystal
from the other with the help of symmetry elements. The symmetry of the
crystals is explained with the help of following three elements:
• Plane of Symmetry
• Axis of Symmetry
• Centre of Symmetry
If the repetition is with respect to a line, it is called as “axis of symmetry” and if

the repetition is with respect to plane, it is said to have a “plane of symmetry”. If
the repetition is with respect to a point, in which case it is referred as “centre of
symmetry”. The act of reflection along a plane by a mirror (plane of symmetry),
act of rotation about an axis (axis of symmetry), and act of inversion about a
central point (centre of symmetry) are collectively referred to as symmetry
elements.
Crystals belonging to cubic or isometric system exhibit the highest symmetry
elements. On the other hand, crystals of the triclinic system have lowest
symmetry elements. Let us consider another example.
Galena type belonging to the normal class of cubic system exhibits highest
symmetry elements whereas tetrahedrite type of the same system exhibits the
lowest symmetry elements.
Thus, the symmetry elements of a crystal within a system may also differ. The
crystals of minerals of the same system have been further divided into classes.
Now let us understand the three elements of symmetry.
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2.5.1 Plane of Symmetry
Plane of Symmetry is the imaginary plane which divides the crystal into two
similar halves or similarly placed halves such that one half is the mirror image
of the other half (Fig. 2.7). Cube has 9 planes of symmetry. You can identify
them as indicated on the faces of the cube as shown in Fig. 2.8. Their dissected
planes clearly specify the position of the other part with respect to the first one
as shown in Fig. 2.9. Cubic system has 9 planes of symmetry, of which 3 are
axial and 6 are diagonal planes. The diagonal planes of symmetry may be
horizontal as well as vertical.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.7: a) Mirror plane; and b) Mirror images indicating planes of symmetry.
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Fig. 2.8: Planes of symmetry in a cube are marked with dashed lines which are
elaborately shown in Fig. 2.9.
Fig. 2.9: Dissected planes of symmetry in the cube showing 9 planes of symmetry
(3 planes are axial which follow crystallographic axis and 6 (2+2+2) are
diagonal).
2.5.2 Axis of Symmetry

We have discussed and can recognise the plane of symmetry now let us know
about the axis of symmetry.
If a crystal on being rotated occupies the same position more than once in one
complete rotation through 360°(n#1) then the axis along which rotation is being
given is known as Axis of Symmetry. There are four kinds of axis of symmetry:
• Diad axis of two fold symmetry where n=2: i.e. same view occupies the
same position once in every 180° on rotation axes. Thus, in one complete
rotation through 360° the same position occurs twice.
• Triad axis of three fold symmetry where n=3: i.e. same view occupies the
rotation through 360° the same position occurs thrice.
• Tetrad axis of four fold symmetry where n=4: i.e. same view occupies the
rotation through 360° the same position occurs four times.
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• Hexad axis of six fold symmetry where n=6: i.e. same view occupies the
rotation through 360° the same position occurs six times.
Five fold of symmetry does not exist in nature.
You have read that symmetry elements have a particular relationship with the
internal atomic structure of the crystals. Accordingly, they form the basis for the
classification of crystal systems into thirty two classes of symmetry. You will
study that the normal classes of the system which exhibits a maximum number
of symmetry elements in Unit 3 Crystal Systems.
You had read the example of cube while recognising the planes of symmetry.
Now to be acquainted with the axes of symmetry, let us again consider the
example of a cube.
Cube has 13 axes of symmetry as shown in Fig. 2.10, out of which 3 are four
fold (tetrad), 4 are three fold (triad) and 6 are two fold (diad) axes of symmetry.
They are written in the following manner:
Cube
3iv (also written as 3A4) crystallographic axes
Axes 13 4iii (also written as 4A3) joining opposite
6ii (also written as 6A2) joining mid points of opposite edges
Fig. 2.10: Thirteen axes of symmetry in a cube: a) Four fold; b) Three fold; and c)
Two fold.
2.5.3 Centre of Symmetry

You have read about plane and axis of symmetry. Now let us familiarise
ourselves with the third element of symmetry, i.e. centre of symmetry. Centre of
symmetry is in fact the symmetry with respect to a point. A crystal is said to
have a centre of symmetry when like faces, edges are arranged in
corresponding positions on opposite sides of a central point. If through this
central point a line is drawn, the points of similar character are equidistantly
present on the both sides of this point as shown in Fig. 2.11. When similar
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faces occur in parallel pairs, on opposite sides of a crystal then the crystal is
said to possess a Centre of symmetry. All faces of crystal must occur in
parallel pairs for a crystal to possess a centre. For an example, a regular cube
possesses a centre of symmetry. If we remove one corner of a cube then no
centre of symmetry exists. Similarly, centre of symmetry is not present in
tetrahedron (Fig. 2.12).
Fig. 2.11: Centre of symmetry present in zircon. Line a-b passes through the
centre of the crystal, ‘0’. Points a and a’ are equidistant from o and are
in equivalent positions.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.12: Centre of symmetry absent in: a) defaced cube; and b) tetrahedron.
SAQ 2
a) What is axial angle?
b) Explain the crystallographic axis of hexagonal and trigonal systems.
c) What is axial ratio?
d) What is crystallographic axis?
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2.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about laws of crystallography, crystallographic
axes, axial length, ratio and angles and elements of symmetry. Now let us
summarise what you have learnt:
• Law of constancy of interfacial angle states that regardless of size and
shape, similar angles on crystals of particular mineral remains constant.
The law of rational indices states that the indices of any crystal face are
always rational numbers and are determined by dividing the intercepts of
the parametral plane and clearing fractions. Law of axial ratio states that
ratio between the lengths of axes of the crystal of mineral is constant.
• The regular crystal possess all the symmetry elements (plane, axes and
centre of symmetry) which are absent in a distorted crystal. Thus, regular
crystals possess both geometric and crystallographic symmetry. Whereas,
distorted octahedron exhibit crystallographic symmetry but no geometric
symmetry.
• Crystallographic axes are imaginary reference lines and are generally taken
parallel to the intersection edges of major crystal faces. These axes are
three or four intersecting on their origin. The axial lengths depend on the
crystal system to which the crystal belongs.
• The crystals mostly have three axes namely a, b and c, corresponding to
front-back (a-axis), right-left (b-axis), top-bottom (c-axis), with the exception
to those belonging to the hexagonal and trigonal system.
• The crystals of hexagonal and trigonal systems have four crystallographic
axes where a1, a2 and a3 are horizontal with a3 running from back to front
and c is vertical.
• Axial ratio can be defined as the ratio of the length of the crystallographic
axes of a crystal which is expressed in terms of one of horizontal axes
which is normally ‘b’ axis.
• Axial angle is the angle between the positive ends of the axes and is
conventionally designated by Greek letters α, β, γ.
• Symmetry of the crystals refers to regularity present in it with respect to
Plane, Axes and Centre of Symmetry. Crystals belonging to different crystal
systems exhibit different symmetry elements.
• Plane of Symmetry is the plane which divides the crystal into two similar
halves. If a crystal on being rotated occupies the same position more than
once in one complete rotation through 360°(n#1) and the axis along which
rotation is being given is known as Axis of Symmetry. When similar faces
occur in parallel pairs, on opposite sides of a crystal then the crystal is said
to possess a Centre of symmetry.
2.7 ACTIVITY
1. It would be interesting to construct few crystals from modelling or simple
clay. Construct and hold it with proper orientation. Observe the symmetry
elements and write your observations.
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1. Discuss crystallographic axes and axial ratio.
2. Explain elaborately the elements of symmetry.
3. What is meant by three fold symmetry? Give example of a cube.
4. Describe briefly the three laws of crystallography.
2.9 REFERENCES
• www.useogalileo.it/images/cat/biografie_944/8855_3082_2527-012_944.jpg
(Website accessed on 31st December 2016)
2.10 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Dana, E.S. and Ford, W.E. (1962) A Text book of Mineralogy, Asia
• Gribble, C.D. (1991) Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy, 27th Edition. CBS
• Singh, P. (2013) Engineering and General Geology, S.K. Kataria & Sons,
Delhi.
• Sharma, R.S. and Sharma, A. (2013) Crystallography and Mineralogy -
Concepts and Methods, Editors: A.K. Jain and Sandeep Singh, Geological
Society of India, Banglore.
2. 11 ANSWERS
1 a) Law of constancy of interfacial angle states that ‘measured at same
temperature, similar angles on crystals of the particular mineral remain
constant, regardless the size and shape of crystals’.
b) Law of rational indices states that the indices of any crystal face are
always rational numbers and are determined by dividing the intercepts
of the parametral plane and clearing fractions.
c) Axial ratio can be defined as the ratio of the length of the
crystallographic axes expressed in terms of one of horizontal axes,
usually ‘b’ –axes as unity.
d) The regular crystal possess all the symmetry elements (plane, axes and
centre of symmetry) which are absent in a distorted crystal. Thus regular
crystals possess both geometric and crystallographic symmetry.
Whereas, distorted octahedron exhibit crystallographic symmetry but no
geometric symmetry. Please refer to Fig. 2.4. In case of a regular
octahedron we will find all the symmetry elements which are absent in a
distorted octahedron. The distorted octahedron possesses
crystallographic symmetry, i.e. it has regular arrangement of atomic
structure.
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2 a) Crystallographic axes are imaginary reference lines and are generally
taken parallel to the intersection edges of major crystal faces.
b) In hexagonal and trigonal systems there are four crystallographic axes
where a1, a2 and a3 are horizontal with a3 running from back to front
and c is vertical. In such crystals the vertical axis (3 or 6 fold) is always
chosen as c axis. The a2 runs left (-) to right (+) end. The positive end
a1 is at 60o toward left from +a2 and the a3 axis locate between a1 and
a2. The positive and negative ends alternate and hence a3 has negative
end at 60o towards right of the +a2.
c) Axial ratio can be defined as the ratio of the length of the
crystallographic axes of a crystal which is expressed in terms of one of
horizontal axes.
d) Axial angle is the angle between the positive ends of the axes and are
conventionally designated by Greek letters α, β, γ. Please refer Fig. 2.6b
and c. The angles between the axes are denoted as follows: α (alpha)
angle -positive b and positive c; β (beta) angle -positive c and positive a;
γ (gamma) angle -positive a and positive b.
Terminal Questions
1. Your response should include their definitions. While discussing
crystallographic axes negative and positive ends of crystals with three and
four axes as given in subsection 2.4.1. Give examples of axial ratio as
mentioned in subsection 2.4.2.
2. Symmetry elements in a crystal are the regularity shown by the crystal. They
are measured with the help of three elements. They are: Plane, Axes and
Centre of symmetry. Elaborate the three elements. Please refer to section
2.5.
3. Three fold symmetry is axis of symmetry which means that on being rotated
along that axis the crystal occupies same position three times in one rotation
of 360o. Please refer to section 2.5.2 and Fig. 2.9.
4. Please refer to section 2.2. Three laws have been discussed. Law of
constancy of interfacial angle states that measured at same temperature,
similar angles on crystals of the particular mineral remain constant,
regardless the size and shape of crystal. The law of rational indices states
that the indices of any crystal face are always rational numbers and are
determined by dividing the intercepts of the parametral plane and clearing
fractions. Law of axial ratio states that ratio between the lengths of axes of
the crystal of mineral are constant.
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UNIT 3
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
Structure__________________________________________
Structure_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_____________
3.1 Introduction 3.7 Orthorhombic System

Expected Learning Outcomes Crystallographic Axes
Symmetry Elements
3.2 Basics Concepts of Crystal Systems
Forms
Classification of Crystal Systems
3.8 Monoclinic System
3.3 Cubic/ Isometric System
Crystallographic Axes
Symmetry Elements
Symmetry Elements
Forms
Forms
3.9 Triclinic System
3.4 Tetragonal System
Symmetry Elements
Symmetry Elements
Forms
Forms
3.10 Summary
3.5 Hexagonal System
Crystallographic Axes 3.11 Activity
Symmetry Elements
3.12 Terminal Questions
Forms
3.13 References
3.6 Trigonal System
Crystallographic Axes 3.14 Further/Suggested Readings
Symmetry Elements 3.15 Answers
Forms
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1 Crystal Properties of this course, you have been introduced to the parts of crystal, crystal
forms and representation of crystal face. Further in Unit 2 Crystal Symmetry, you have learnt about
laws of crystallography, elements of symmetry and crystallographic axes and axial ratios. We have
discussed the basic concepts of crystallography which form the basis of classification of crystals
into seven crystal systems. In this unit, we will discuss about the basic concepts of nomenclature of
crystal systems and characteristics of seven crystal systems.
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Expected Learning Outcomes______________________

Outcomes______________________
After reading this unit, you would be able to:
discuss the basic concepts of crystal systems;
classify crystal systems;
elaborate the normal class of cubic system;
describe the normal class of tetragonal system;
explain with the normal class of hexagonal system;
discuss the normal class of trigonal system;
explain the normal class of orthorhombic system;
examine the normal class of monoclinic system; and
discuss the normal class of triclinic system.
3.2 BASICS CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

Let us first discuss the basics concepts of nomenclature of crystals into seven
systems.
The formation of minerals takes place by precipitation from a solution,
solidification of a magma or sublimation from vapour which may or may not
involve the process of crystallisation. During this process the atoms assume a
definite orderly three dimensional (3d) arrangement. Bravais in 1848 had put
forth that there are only 14 three dimensional patterns in which these units
might be arranged. These 14 patterns are called as Space lattice or Bravais
lattice. A space lattice is a regular repetition of points in space (3D network)
at constant intervals in a given direction. The unit cell is the smallest complete
unit of the pattern. This three dimensional pattern is repeated many times and
the unit of the pattern is called as Unit cell. The whole crystal is made up of
the same units joined together.
Let us comprehend this with an example.
This is like the repeating patterns on a tiled floor (Fig. 3.1) or on a fabric or
wallpaper which extends indefinitely to fill the entire area.
Fig. 3.1: Repeating patterns on a tiled floor.

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The seven types of unit cells are:
1. Cubic
2. Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic
4. Monoclinic
5. Hexagonal
6. Trigonal
7. Triclinic
The lengths of crystallographic axes and axial ratios, and angles of the above
mentioned unit cells are different from one another (Fig. 3.2). On the basis of
seven types of shapes of unit cells, seven crystal systems and 32 classes
have been recognised in crystallography. Hessel in 1930 predicted the
number of crystal classes to 32. Since then mathematically and graphically it
has been proved that his predictions are valid and all the crystalline
substances can be divided into 32 types of symmetry. The commonly
occurring minerals are from 15 classes out of the above mentioned 32
classes which are confined to 7 crystal systems. The seven crystal systems
have been established on the basis of number, position, relative axial length,
axial ratios, axial angles and elements of symmetry.
Now let us discuss the seven crystallographic systems with special reference
to the elements of symmetry of their normal class. The normal class is also
known as holosymmetric or holohedral in every crystal system. This class
exhibits the highest degree of symmetry or symmetry elements. Among the
seven crystal systems, highest degree of symmetry is shown by cubic or
isometric system and lowest degree of symmetry by triclinic system. It has
been observed that more than 50% minerals crystallise in monoclinic and
orthorhombic system.
Fig. 3.2: A unit cell. Notice the crystallographic axes a, b and c. α, β and γ
represent angles between the axes.
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3.2.1 Classification of Crystal Systems
Let us elaborate the basis of classification of the crystals into seven systems (as
shown Fig. 3.3). The basis of the classification are:
• number of crystallographic axes
• relative length or axial ratios of crystallographic axes
• linear and angular relationships of crystallographic axes
• elements of symmetry, i.e. plane, axis and centre
Now we will study that on the basis of above mentioned parameters, the crystals
can be grouped into following seven crystal systems:
• Cubic or Isometric system: The crystals belonging to this system have three
equal and mutually perpendicular axes which have been designated as a1, a2 and
a3 of equal length (Fig. 3.3a). Crystals possess four triad axes of symmetry (4iii) or
4A3. For example: galena, octahedron, fluorite, rock salt, garnet, crystals.
• Tetragonal system: Crystals of tetragonal system have three mutually
perpendicular axes, two horizontal axes of equal length and one vertical which can
be either longer or shorter (Fig. 3.3b). The axes are designated as a1, a2 and c.
Tetragonal system possess one tetrad axis of symmetry (1iv). For example: zircon,
rutile, scapolite, anatase, vesuvianite.
• Orthorhombic system: Crystals with three unequal and mutually perpendicular
axes designated as a, b and c belong to this system (Fig. 3.3c). Crystals of
orthorhombic system have three diad axes of symmetry (3ii). For example: baryte,
sulphur, olivine, topaz, staurolite.
• Monoclinic system: This system has crystals of three unequal axes; one is at
right angles to the other two. Whereas the other two axes are not at right angles to
each other (Fig. 3.3d). The axes are designated as a, b, c with a- and c-axes
inclined to each other and b-axes at right angles to the plane containing a- and c-
axes. The obtuse angle between positive ends of a- and c-axes is identified as β
(beta). The crystals of monoclinic system have 1 diad axis (1ii) and possess no
higher degree of axis of symmetry. For example: gypsum, orthoclase, augite,
hornblende, muscovite.
• Hexagonal system: Crystals belonging to this system have four axes; three of
these lie in a horizontal plane, intersect at 60o and 120o angles, and are equal in
length. Fourth axis is perpendicular to the plane containing the other three and is
either longer or shorter than the other three axes. These four axes have been
designated as a1, a2, a3 and c (Fig. 3.3e). Hexagonal system has one hexad axis
of symmetry (1vi). For example: beryl, kalsilite.
• Trigonal system: This system also has four axes are designated as a1, a2, a3 and
c, quite similar to Hexagonal system. Three of these axes lie in a horizontal plane.
They intersect at 60o and 120o angles and are equal in length; fourth axis is
perpendicular to the plane containing the other three and is either longer or
shorter than the other axes (Fig. 3.3f). Crystals belonging to trigonal system
exhibit one triad axis of symmetry (1iii). For example: calcite, hematite, corundum.
• Triclinic system: Crystals belonging to this system have three unequal axes.
However, none of the axes are at right angles to each other. The axes are
designated as a, b, c (Fig. 3.3g). The angle between the positive ends of b- and c-
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axes is called α (alpha); angle between positive ends of c- and a-axes is designated
as β (beta) and angle between positive ends of c- and b-axes is called γ (gamma).
Triclinic system has no axis of symmetry. For example: axinite, plagioclase, kyanite,
albite, rhodonite.
Fig. 3.3: Crystallographic axes with different linear and angular relationship in
the seven crystal systems.
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The summary of the crystallographic axes and axial angles of seven crystal
systems are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Crystallographic axes and axial angles of the seven crystal systems.
Crystallographic General appearance of Crystallogra- Axial

S.N. Classes
system crystal phic axes angles
Cubic or
Equidimensional, 0
1. Isometric System a=b=c α=β=γ =90 5
rounded
(Fig. 3.3a)
Tetragonal System Long crystals, squarish 0
2. a=b≠c α=β=γ=90 7
(Fig. 3.3b) cross section
Orthorhombic Matchbox or brick like
0
3. System appearance, stubby to a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90 3
(Fig. 3.3c) short prismatic
Stubby and blocky 0
Monoclinic System α=γ=90 ,
4. crystals, short or long a≠b≠c 0 3
(Fig. 3.3d) β≠90
prismatic
0
Hexagonal System Columnar: short or long α=β=90 ,
5. a1=a2=a3≠c 0 7
(Fig. 3.3e) prismatic γ=120
0
Trigonal System Columnar: short or long α=β=90 ,
6. a1=a2=a3≠c 0 5
(Fig. 3.3f) prismatic γ=120
Triclinic System Absence of right edges 0
7. a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90 2
(Fig. 3.3g) on faces and edges
You can distinguish the seven crystal systems on the basis of axes of symmetry
as following:
• Triclinic system has no axis of symmetry.
• Monoclinic system has diad axis (1ii) and no higher degree axis of
symmetry.
• Orthorhombic system has three diad axes of symmetry (3ii) or 3A2.
• Tetragonal system has one tetrad axis of symmetry (1iv) or 1A4.
• Cubic or isometric system has four triad axes of symmetry (4iii) or 4A3.
• Hexagonal system has one hexad axis of symmetry (1vi) or 1A6.
• Trigonal system has one triad axis of symmetry (1iii) or 1A3.

We will discuss the normal class of the seven crystal systems briefly in the
following sections.
3.3 CUBIC / ISOMETRIC SYSTEM

Cubic system is also known as isometric system. Crystals belonging to isometric
(iso means equal and metric means measuring) system possess three
crystallographic axes, which are equal in length and are at right angles to each
other as shown in Fig. 3.3a and Table 3.1.
There are five symmetry classes under this system. Normal class of cubic system is
known as galena type because galena is the common mineral of this type. Some of
the common minerals belonging to normal class are garnet octahedron, fluorite,
halite and magnetite.
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We have discussed in the earlier section that there are three
crystallographic axes designated by letter ‘a’ which are mutually
perpendicular and interchangeable. However, we therefore rename
the axes a1, a2, and a3 because they are of the same length (a
becomes a1, b becomes a2, and c becomes a3). All are equal and are
at right angles to each other.
a1=a2=a3 a1^a2^a3=90°; α=β=γ=90°
a1 – axis runs front to back
a2 – axis runs right to left
a3 – axis runs top to bottom
Fig. 3.4: Crystallographic axes of galena type of cubic system.
Axial ratio: a1:a2:a3 = 1:1:1

Type: Normal class or galena type
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.5: a) Plastic; and b) wooden models of galena crystal.
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3.3.2 Symmetry Elements
Cubic system exhibits highest degree of symmetry. Let us read about the
symmetry elements of normal class of cubic system.
• Planes 9 3 axial planes
6 diagonal planes
• Axes 13 3iv crystallographic axes
4iii opposite solid angles
6ii mid points- opposite edges
• Centre of Symmetry is present
The normal class of cubic system exhibits 9 planes of symmetry; 3 are axial
planes and 6 are diagonal planes (Fig. 3.6). There are 13 axes of symmetry;
3 axes show four- fold symmetry, 4 axes exhibit three fold symmetry and 6
axes demonstrate two fold symmetry. The centre of symmetry is present.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.6: Planes of symmetry of cubic system: a) 3 planes are parallel to the
axial planes; b) and c) shows diagonal planes.
You have read that a cube has 9 planes (3-axial and 6-diagonal planes) of
symmetry.
Let us perform a small exercise to find out the planes of symmetry in a cube.
Hold the cube along the axial planes to find out three planes parallel to the
three major axes of the crystal. Then hold the cube from the opposite edges
and find out six planes passing diagonally through the edges (Fig. 3.6).
Now let us do another exercise to find out the 13 axes of symmetry in a cube
namely six axes of two fold symmetry (6A2), four axis of three fold symmetry
(4A3) and three axes of four fold symmetry (3A4).
For example, you can rotate a cube 90° around an axis perpendicular to any
pair of its six faces at mid points of opposite edge. These are six axes of two
fold symmetry shown as C2 in Fig. 3.7. The two-fold (C2) axes that pass
diagonally through the centers of the six pairs of opposite edges. Now hold
diagonally placed solid angles and find out three mutually perpendicular four
axes of three fold symmetry, abbreviated C3 axes in Fig. 3.7. For finding out
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the three axes of four fold symmetry, hold the cube with the opposite faces
hold the cube along the three crystallographic axes (C4).
Fig. 3.7: Axes of symmetry of the cubic system.
3.3.3 Forms
We have discussed the crystallographic axes and symmetry elements of
cubic system. Let us now discuss about some of the forms of present in cubic
system.
(a) Cube: It is a solid bounded by six faces. Each face is a square. Each face
cuts one crystallographic axis and remains parallel to the other two axes
(Fig. 3.8).
Fig. 3.8: Cube with symbols of faces cutting the crystallographic axes.
(b) Rhombdodecahedron: It is a solid bounded by 12 faces. Each face is a

rhomb shaped and cuts two crystallographic axes at equal distance and
remains parallel to the third axis (Fig.3.9).
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(c) Octahedron: It is a solid bounded by eight faces. Each face is an equilateral
triangle. Each face cuts all the three axes at equal distance. It is unit form of
galena type (Fig. 3.10).
(d) Trapezohedron: It is a solid with 24 like faces. Each face is a trapezoid in

shape. It cuts two axes at equal distance and third at shorter distance (Fig.
3.11).
Fig. 3.9: Rhombdodecahedron with symbols of faces cutting the crystallographic axes.
Fig. 3.10: Octahedron with symbols of faces cutting the crystallographic axes.
Fig. 3.11: Trapezohedron with face symbols.

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Unique features of cubic or isometric system are as follows:
• The highest degree of symmetry is shown by isometric system. The axial ratios
are 1:1:1
• Each of its classes has 4 axis of III fold symmetry, i.e. 4iii or four fold of triad
symmetry.
• Every form occurring in the system is a closed form and can exist as a real
crystal.
• The forms occurring in this system are unique, as the forms like pedion and
pinocoid which occur in all other system do not occur in this cubic system.
SAQ 1
a) List the seven crystal systems.
b) Elaborate the basis of classification of seven crystal systems.
c) Tetragonal system has _______tetrad axis of symmetry.
d) Hexagonal system has ______ hexad axis of symmetry.
e) Normal class of cubic system has __________planes of symmetry.
3.4 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

We have discussed about cubic system now let us be familiar with the tetragonal
system. Please refer Fig. 3.3b and Table 3.1 to learn briefly about the
crystallographic axes and axial angles of tetragonal system. Minerals of the
tetragonal crystal system are referred to three mutually perpendicular axes. The two
horizontal axes are of equal length, while the vertical axis is of different length and
may be either sorter or longer than the other two. The normal class of tetragonal
system is known as zircon type. As the name suggests zircon mineral is common
mineral of this type. Other common minerals of tetragonal system are cassiterite,
vesuvianite, anatase and rutile.

There are three crystallographic axes at right angle or perpendicular to one another.
Two horizontal axes are equal and the third axis is vertical and unequal, which may
be shorter or longer. The axis a1 runs from front to back, a2 from right to left and c is
vertical (Fig. 3.12).
a1=a2 ≠c a1a2^c=90° a1=a2 b=a2 α=β=γ=90°
There are seven symmetry classes under this system. We will discuss the symmetry
elements of the normal class of tetragonal system.
Axial Ratio: Here it is being given in general and for zircon which forms the normal
class.
In general, it is: a1:a2:c = 1: 1:? (c axis can be shorter or longer)
For zircon, it is: a1:a2:c = 1:1:0.9054
Type: Normal class or zircon type
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Fig. 3.12: Crystallographic axes of zircon type of tetragonal system.

• Planes 5 3 axial plane
2 diagonal (1 horizontal, 2 vertical) and vertical plane
• Axes 5 3iv crystallographic axes
4ii on vertical face and edge
• Centre of Symmetry is present.

Now you will find out the planes of symmetry. They possess five mirror
planes. Let us hold the crystal along c-axis. You will find that along this axis
the crystal can be divisible into two equal halves which are mirror images of
each other. Try this exercise holding the crystal a1 and a2 axes. So these are
3 axial planes of symmetry. The two diagonal planes can be found by
holding the crystal diagonally.
Let us find the axes of symmetry in zircon crystal (Fig. 3.13). If we hold the
crystal along three axes simultaneously and rotate the crystal by 360o, you
will find 3 axes of four fold symmetry. Now on holding the crystal along the
vertical faces and edges you will find 4 axes of two-fold symmetry. This is
the important feature of this system.
Fig. 3.13: A wooden zircon crystal in its holding position.

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3.4.3 Forms
Let us discuss some of the forms of tetragonal system.
a) Basal Pinacoid: It is an open form of two rectangular faces. Each face
cuts vertical axis and remains parallel to the two horizontal
crystallographic axes. As it is open form, it occurs in combination with
other forms (Fig. 3.14).
b) Tetragonal Prism of second order: It is an open form of four rectangular
faces. Each face cuts one horizontal axis and remains parallel to the other
horizontal axis and also to vertical crystallographic axis (Fig. 3.14).
There are two types of prisms in the tetragonal system: a) Prism of First
order, which is bounded by four similar faces parallel to vertical axis, meeting
the horizontal axes at equal distances, with general symbol (110); and b)
Prism of Second order, which includes four faces parallel to vertical axis and
a horizontal axis, with general symbol (100). Similarly, these names are also
used in the hexagonal system.
Fig. 3.14: Tetragonal prism of second order (100) and basal pinacoid (001).
3.5 HEXAGONAL SYSTEM

Now let us discuss about the hexagonal system. Please see Table 3.1 and
Fig. 3.3e to learn about the axes and axial angles of hexagonal system. This
system consists of the highest number of symmetry classes, i.e. 12 classes.
We will talk about normal class of the hexagonal system. Beryl is an example
of normal class. So the normal class is also known as beryl type. Other
common minerals are kalsilite, pyrrhotite and apatite.

You have read in the earlier section that in hexagonal system there are four
crystallographic axes. Minerals of the hexagonal crystal system possess three
crystallographic axes which intersect at 120o with one another. The fourth ‘c’ axis
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is vertical and unequal and perpendicular to the other three. It is at right angles
to the plane containing the horizontal axes. Positive and negative ends are
marked in Fig. 3.15. In case of a2 front end is negative.
As a result of four axes, the symbols of hexagonal system will have four digits.
a1=a2=a3 ≠c α=β =900, γ=1200
Axial Ratio: a1:a2:a3:c = 1:1:1:?
For Beryl: a1:a2:a3:c = 1:1:1: 0.4989
Type: Normal class or beryl type (Fig. 3.16).
Fig. 3.15: Crystallographic axes of Hexagonal system.
Fig. 3.16: A wooden model of beryl crystal in its holding position.

You will find 7 planes of symmetry and 7 axes of symmetry as shown in Fig.
3.17.
• Planes 7 1 Horizontal
6 Vertical 3 Axial
3 Diagonal
• Axes 7 6A2 crystallographic axes
1A6 on vertical face and edge
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When you hold and rotate the crystal along ‘C’ axis you will find that the
rectangular face is repeated six times. So this is known as one axis of six fold
symmetry. All crystals of hexagonal system possess a single 6-fold axis of
rotation.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.17: Normal class of Beryl showing: a) 7 planes; b) 7 axes of
symmetry; and c) Beryl crystal as found in nature.
3.5.3 Forms
a) Basal Pinacoid: It is an open form of two faces. Its symbol is 0001. Each
face cuts vertical axis and remains parallel to three horizontal
crystallographic axes (Fig. 3.18). As it is open form it occurs in
combination with other forms.
b) Hexagonal Prism: It is open form of six faces. Each face is parallel to
vertical axis and cuts all the three horizontal axes, one at unit and other
two at twice the distance. The horizontal axes emerge at the centre of
vertical faces (Fig. 3.18).
Beryl is combination of hexagonal prism (10Ī 0) and basal pinacoid (0001).
Fig. 3.18: Hexagonal prism (IĪ20) and basal pinacoid (0001).

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3.6 TRIGONAL SYSTEM
We have discussed three crystal systems and their normal classes. Now you
read the trigonal system. Please see Table 3.1and Fig. 3.3g to learn about
the crystallographic axes, axial angles and symmetry elements of trigonal
system. It is important to note that the axes of trigonal system are similar to
hexagonal system. Calcite is an example of the normal class of trigonal
system. Normal class is known as calcite type. Other common minerals
belonging to this system are quartz, rhodochrosite, corundum and dolomite.

You have read in the earlier section that in trigonal system there are four
crystallographic axes like those in hexagonal system. Three are equal
horizontal, and make an angle of 120°to one another. The fourth, ‘c’ axis is
vertical unequal. It is at right angles to the plane containing the horizontal
axes. Positive and negative ends are marked in Fig. 3.19. In case of a2 front
end is negative. As a result of four axes, the symbols of trigonal system will
have four digits.
a1=a2=a3 ≠c α=β=90°, γ=120°
Type: Normal class / rhombohedral class / calcite type
Fig. 3.19: Crystallographic axes of Trigonal system.

All the crystals of the trigonal system are characterised by a vertical axis of 3
fold symmetry. This system includes five classes.
• Planes 3 vertical, diagonal plane
• Axes 4 1A3
3A2
• Centre of Symmetry is present

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3.6.3 Forms
The forms present in trigonal system are:
a) Pedion: A pedion is an open, one faced form
b) Trigonal prism: It is a three faced pyramid form with all three faces
parallel to a 3-fold rotation axis (Fig. 3.20a).
c) Hexagonal prism: It is 6-faced form with all faces parallel to a 6-fold
rotation axis. The 6 vertical faces in the drawing make up the hexagonal
prism (Fig. 3.20b).
d) Rhombohedron: This form consists of six rhomb-shaped faces wherein
3 faces on top are offset by the three identical upside down faces
towards the bottom. Rhombohedron can also result from a 3-fold axis
with perpendicular 2-fold axes (Fig. 3.20c).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.20: a) Trigonal prism; b) Hexagonal prism; and c) Rhombohedron.
3.7 ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM

We have become familiar with the cubic system and tetragonal system. Now
we will discuss orthorhombic system. Please refer Fig. 3.3c and Table 3.1 to
learn briefly about the crystallographic axes and axial angles of orthorhombic
system. You have learnt earlier that the orthorhombic crystal system has
three mutually perpendicular axes, each of which is of a different length than
the others. The normal class of orthorhombic system is known as baryte
type. As the name suggests baryte mineral is common mineral of this type.
Other common minerals of orthorhombic system are olivine, sillimanite,
sulphur, aragonite and bronzite.

We have already discussed about the crystallographic axes of orthorhombic
system earlier. There are three crystallographic axes. All are unequal and are
at right angles to one another. The a-axis is horizontal running from front to
back, ‘b’ runs from right to left and ‘c’ is vertical as shown in Fig. 3.3c.
It consists of mutually perpendicular three axes of unequal length.
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a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90°
It is customary to orient a crystal of this system in such a way that b-axis is
greater than a-axis. There is divergence of opinion regarding the relative
length of the c-axis, some crystallographers follow the convention c>a>b.
whereas other prefer c>b>a. But we choose the length of the ‘b’ axis as unity
(Fig. 3.21 and 3.22).
There are 3 symmetry classes in this system.
Fig. 3.21: Crystallographic axes of baryte type of orthorhombic system.
Axial Ratio: For Baryte - a:b:c = 1.63:1:1.31

Type: Normal class or baryte type

It has geometrical symmetry of a matchbox
• Planes 3 axial
• Axes 3A2 crystallographic axes
• Centre of symmetry is present
Crystals of this system uniformly possess three 2-fold axes of symmetry and
three mirror planes. This is unique characteristic of orthorhombic system.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.22: Baryte in its holding position: a) Plastic model and b) Wooden model.
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3.7.3 Forms
Some common forms of orthorhombic system are basal pinacoid; (a)
pinacoid, (b) pinacoid and rhombic prism (Fig. 3.23).
There are 3 types of forms in this class. The special forms are:
a) Pinacoid: It consists of two parallel faces that occur in three different
orientation such as:
• front or a-pinacoid (intersecting only a-axis)

• side or b-pinacoid (intersecting only b-axis)
• basal or c-pinacoid (parallel to a- and b-axes but intersecting c-axis).
b) Rhombic Prism: It consists of four faces that are parallel to one axis and
intersect the other two. As the face (0II) cuts the b and c axes and
parallel to a-axis, the symmetry requires three additional faces (0ĪI), (0ĪĪ)
and (0IĪ). This four-faced open form is called a first-order prism.
Fig. 3.23: Rhombic prism and pinacoid. The 4 shaded faces are rhombic prism
and unshaded faces are pinacoid. Notice side pinacoid and top and
bottom pinacoid.
3.8 MONOCLINIC SYSTEM

You have learnt about the cubic system, tetragonal and orthorhombic system.
Now we will discuss monoclinic system. Please refer Fig. 3.3d and Table 3.1
to learn briefly about the crystallographic axes and axial angles of the
monoclinic system. You have learnt in the earlier that this crystal system is
referred to three unequal axes. Two of these axes are inclined towards each
other at an oblique angle; these are depicted vertically. The third axis is
perpendicular to the other two. The two vertical axes therefore do not
intersect one another at right angles, although both are perpendicular to the
horizontal axis. The normal class of monoclinic system is known as gypsum
type. Other common minerals are orthoclase, augite, hornblende, azurite,
malachite and mica.
Now let us discuss about normal class of monoclinic system.
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You have read earlier that in the crystals of monoclinic all the three
crystallographic axes are unequal. Out of these ‘b’ and ‘c’ are at right angles
to one another. The first axis is not at right angle. The axis ‘a’ runs from front
to back and is inclined to the plane containing other two axes. Axis ‘a’ is also
called as clino axis, ‘b’ running from right to left is also known as ortho axis
and ‘c’ is the vertical crystallographic axis (Fig. 3.24 and 3.25). The ‘a’-axis
runs up and away from the observer is known as the ‘clino-axis’. The obtuse
angle ‘β’ between ‘+c’ and ‘+a’ is important and is fixed for every mineral.
Fig. 3.24: Crystallographic axes of gypsum type of monoclinic system.
Axial Ratio: a≠b≠c, α=γ=90o, β≠90o

For Gypsum- a:b:c = 0.372:1:0.412 β=113o 50’
Type: Normal class or gypsum type
Fig. 3.25: A wooden model showing gypsum crystal.

• Plane- 1 contain clino and vertical axes
• Axis- 1A2 ortho axis
• Centre of symmetry is present.
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3.8.3 Forms
There are only two types of forms in this class: pinacoids and prisms and both
are open forms.
a) Pinacoids: They are in pairs because of centre of symmetry. Therefore,
we have front or a-pinacoid, side or b-pinacoid and basal or c-pinacoid.
There are positive and negative second order pinacoids.
b) Prism: The four faced prism is the general form.
SAQ 2
a) Mention the crystallographic axes of tetragonal system.
b) What are the elements of symmetry of zircon?
c) Write the plane and axes of symmetry of barite type.
d) Write about the crystallographic axes of monoclinic system.
3.9 TRICLINIC SYSTEM

We have discussed about the normal class of cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic,
monoclinic and hexagonal systems. Now let us learn about triclinic system.
Please refer to the Table 3.1 and Fig. 3.3f to learn and understand the axes,
axial angles, symmetry elements and other characteristics of triclinic system.
The normal class of triclinic system is also known as axinite type. Other
common minerals are plagioclase feldspar, microcline.

You have read in the earlier sections that all three crystallographic axes are
unequal and none is at right angle to the other.
The axis ‘a’ generally smaller, running up and away from the observer, is also
known as brachy axis. The axis ‘b’ running from right to left, is also called as
macro axis. Axis ‘c’ is vertical.
Angle between ‘+c’ and ‘+b ‘is α, between ‘+ a’ and ‘+c ‘ is β and between
‘+a’ and ‘+b’ is γ (Figs. 3.25 and 3.26)
Fig. 3.25: Crystallographic axes of axinite belonging to Triclinic system.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 3.26: Axinite crystal: a) wooden; and b) plastic model.
Axial Ratio: a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90o
For Axinite- a:b:c = 0.49:1:0.48

α = 82o 54’, β = 91o 52’, γ = 131o 32’.
Type: Normal class or axinite type
• Planes - None
• Axes - None
Crystals of the triclinic system may be said to possess only a 1-fold

symmetry axis, which is equivalent to possessing no symmetry at all.
Crystals of this system possess no mirror planes and demonstrates a centre
of symmetry.
3.9.3 Forms
Common forms present are basal pinacoid, front pinacoid, side pinacoid and
hemi-prisms.
3.10 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed seven crystal systems. Now let us summarise
what we have learnt in this unit. It is tabulated in Table 3.2.
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Table 3.2: Seven crystal systems and their characteristics.
Crystal Common Crystallographic Plane of Axes of Centre of Common forms
system minerals axes symmetry symmetry symmetry Present
and normal
class
Cubic System Galena, Three equal and Planes -9 Axes-13 Present Cube
iv iii ii
Normal class garnet, mutually (3 axial ( 3 , 4 ,6 ) Rhombdodeca-
or fluorite, perpendicular 6 diagonal) hedron
Galena Type halite, axes Octahedron
magnetite. Trapezohedron
Tetragonal Zircon, Two equal Planes- 5 Axes -5 Present Basal Pinacoid

ii iv
System sulphur, horizontal, third (3 axial, (4 , 1 ) Tetragonal
Normal Class cassiterite, vertical shorter or 2 diagonal) second order
or vesuvianite, larger. All at right Prism
Zircon Type anastase, angles.
rutile 3 axes at right
angles
Hexagonal Beryl, 4 Axes. Planes-7 Axes 7 Present Basal Pinacoid
ii vi
System kalisite, 3 horizontal, (4 axial (6 ,1 ) Hexagonal Prism
0
Normal Class pyrrhotite, a1:a2:a3 at 120 1 horizontal
or apatite Fourth vertical at 3 diagonal
0
Beryl Type 90 3 vertical)
Trigonal Calcite, 4 Axes, 3 equal Planes-3 Axes-4 Present Pedion,

0 iii ii
System quartz, Horizontal at 120 (vertical (1 ,3 ) Hexagonal
Normal Class rhodochrosit, Fourth vertical at diagonal) prism,
0
or corundum, 90 Rhombohedron
Calcite Type dolomite
ii
Ortho- Baryte, Three unequal Planes-3 Axes 3 Present Basal Pinacoid
rhombic sulphur, Axes a, b, c axial Front Pinacoid
System olivine, mutually Side Pinacoid
Normal Class sillimanite, perpendicular. Rhombic p,rism
or aragonite All unequal.
Baryte Type
II
Monoclinic Gypsum, Three unequal Plane1 Axes 1 Present Basal Pinacoid
System orthoclase, axes, a, b, c. (containing (the b axis) Clino Pinacoid
Normal Class hornblende, B is at right a and c Ortho Pinacoid
or augite, angles to c. axes) Prism
Gypsum Type hornblende, a is inclined.
malachite,
mica.
Triclinic Axinite, 3 unequal axes, Plane – Axes - Present Basal Pinacoid
System plagioclase a, b, c not at None None Front Pinacoid
Normal Class feldspar, right angles. Side Pinacoid
or kyanite,
Axinite Type microcline
71
71
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………..
3.11 ACTIVITY
1. It would be interesting to construct few crystals belonging to the normal
class of seven crystal systems from modeling or simple clay. Hold it
with proper orientation. Observe and write your observations.

1. Discuss briefly about the crystallographic axes, symmetry elements
and forms of cubic system.
2. Explain how you will distinguish between seven crystal systems on the
basis of axis of symmetry.
3. Discuss briefly about the crystallographic axes, symmetry elements
and forms of tetragonal system.
4. Describe the crystallographic axes, symmetry elements and forms of
monoclinic system.
5. Distinguish the seven crystal systems on the basis of their
crystallographic axes and symmetry elements.
3.13 REFERENCES
• Gribble, C.D. (1991) Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy, 27th Edition.
CBS Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.
• www.matter.org.uk/diffraction/x-ray/default.htm
(Website last accessed on 31st December 2016)
3.14 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Dana, E.S and Ford, W. E. (1962) A Text book of Mineralogy, Asia
• Gribble, C.D. (1991) Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy, 27th Edition.
CBS Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.
• Singh, P. (2013) Engineering and General Geology, S.K. Kataria &
Sons, Delhi.
• Sharma Ram S. and Sharma, A. (2013) Crystallography and
Mineralogy - Concepts and Methods, Editors: A.K. Jain and Sandeep
Singh, Geological Society of India, Banglore.
3.15 ANSWERS
1 a) Cubic or Isometric system, tetragonal system, orthorhombic system,
monoclinic system, hexagonal system, trigonal system, triclinic
system.
b) Number of crystallographic axes, relative length or axial ratios of
crystallographic axes, linear and angular relationships of
72
72
Unit 3
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Crystal Systems
crystallographic axes, elements of symmetry, i.e. plane, axis and
centre.
c) One.
d) One.
e) Nine
2 a) There are three crystallographic axes at right angle or perpendicular to
one another. Two horizontal axes are equal and the third axis is
vertical and unequal, which may be shorter or longer. The axis a1 runs
from front to back, a2 from right to left and c is vertical.
b) Five planes of symmetry, 5 axes of symmetry and a centre of
symmetry.
c) Three planes and three axes of symmetry.
d) In monoclinic system there are three crystallographic axes. All are
unequal. Axes ‘b’ and ‘c’ are at right angles but ‘a’ is inclined. It runs
up and away from the observer. Angle between +a and +c is β which
in this case is obtuse angle.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to section 3.3.
2. Triclinic system has no axis of symmetry. Monoclinic system has diad axis
(1ii) and no higher degree axis of symmetry. Orthorhombic system has
three diad axes of symmetry (3ii). Tetragonal system has one tetrad axis
of symmetry (1iv). Cubic or isometric system has four triad axes of
symmetry (4iii). Hexagonal system has one hexad axis of symmetry (1vi).
Trigonal system has one triad axis of symmetry (1iii).
5. Please refer to Table 3.2.
73
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74
74
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
GLOSSARY
Amorphous : This term is used for those rocks, minerals and

materials which have no form and definite crystal
structure.
Axial angle : Axial angleis the angle between the positive ends
of the axes and are conventionally designated by
Greek letters α, β, γ.
Axial plane : Axial plane is a plane which contains two
Axial ratio : Axial ratio can be defined as the ratio of the
length of the crystallographic axes expressed in
terms of one of horizontal axes, usually ‘b’ –axes
as unity.
Axis of : This is the axis along which on rotation at 360o
symmetry the crystal comes in the same position more than
once.
Basal plane : This refers to plane parallel to lateral or horizontal
axis of a crystal.
Centre of : When similar faces occur in parallel pairs, on
symmetry opposite sides of a crystal, the crystal is said to
possess a Centre of symmetry.
Crystal : Crystal symmetry refers to regularity present in it
symmetry with respect to Plane, Axes and Centre of
Symmetry. Crystals belonging to different crystal
systems exhibit different symmetry elements.
Crystallographic : Crystallographic axes are imaginary reference
axes lines and are generally taken parallel to the
intersection edges of major crystal faces.
Crystallography : Crystallography is the study of crystals and the
laws which govern their growth, external shape
and internal structure and form.
Diad axis : Diad axis is the axis showing of two times
symmetry- n=2 (at 180o) on every 360° on
rotation.
Distortion : Distortion may be produced because of more
supply of material from one direction or
crystallization under pressure from one direction
in limited space.
75
75
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………..
Diagonal plane : Diagonal plane is tha plane along which the
crystal can be divided into two equal halves.
Face : It is the flat and plane surface which demarcates
the boundary of a crystal.
Hexad axis : Hexad axis is the axis showing of five times
symmetry- n=2 (at 60o) on every 360° on rotation.
Micro-axis : b-axis of orthorhombic or triclinic system.
Normal class : Normal class is the class or type of maximum
symmetry of that system.
Octahedral : Comprising faces with eight plane, concerned
with eight faces or made with eight faces.
Pedion : Pedion consists of single form represented by
one face.
Plane of : Plane of Symmetry is the plane which divides the
symmetry crystal into two similar halves.
Prism : Prism is a face cutting horizontal axes but
remaining parallel to the vertical axis (c-axis). It is
an open form consisting of four faces; each face
is parallel to vertical axes and cuts one or more
horizontal axes.
Pyramid : Pyramid is a face cutting all the three
Subhedral : It is concerned with a form which is partially
comprises of its own crystal faces in
crystallography.
Symmetry : The term symmetry refers to the property of
being balanced or well-proportioned in common
English usage.
Tetrahedral : Concerned with those crystals having four faces
in crystallography.
Tetrad axis : Tetrad axis is the axis showing of three times
rotation.
Triad axis : Triad axis is the axis showing of three times
rotation.
76
76
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Twinning : Formation of twinned crystals.
Twinning law : It is the law governing the relation between

different parts of a plane. It is based on following
factors:
Axis of twinning or plane of twinning
Internal change of twinned plane
Nature of twinned plane
Few laws of twinning are: Albite law, Baveno law,
Carlsbad law etc.
Unit form : Unit form is the face from whose intercepts on

the axes a ,b ,c determine their assumed unit
lengths. The intercepts that any face makes on
the crystallographic axes are either infinite or
small rational multiples of intercepts made by
unit form.
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78
78

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BGYCT – 133

Indira Gandhi National Open University CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,

Volume Preparation Team

Content and Language Editors

Block 1 Basic Concepts of Crystallography

Block 3 Optical Mineralogy

Block 4 Economic Geology

3. Minerals and Their Uses

4. Microscopic Study of Basaltic Rocks

5. Introduction to Ore Deposits

6. Classifications of Ore Deposits

7. Early Magmatic Deposits

8. Late Magmatic Deposits

9. Contact Metasomatic and Contact Metamorphic Deposits

10. Hydrothermal Mineralisation

11. Textures related to zoning in Igneous rocks

Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials

Alternatively, you can visit eGyankosh website at

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this volume, you should be able to:

• define crystal and discuss crystal properties,;

We wish you success in this endeavour!

Block Preparation Team

Block 1 Basic Concepts of Crystallography

Block 3 Optical Mineralogy

Block 4 Economic Geology

Expected Learning Outcomes

1.2 ELEMENTARY IDEA OF CRYSTAL

Fig. 1.1: Crystallised quartz crystal with well developed faces.

1.2.2 How Do We Study Crystallography?

This is known as Bragg’s Law.

Fig. 1.3: Diffractogram showing peaks of different minerals. For example in a

1.3 PARTS OF A CRYSTAL

1.3.3 Solid Angle

1.3.4 Zone and Zone Axis

Fig. 1.5: Quartz crystal showing zone and zone axis.

Fig. 1.6: Interfacial angle, i.e. A = 180 – B.

1.4.1 Contact Goniometer

1.4.2 Reflecting Goniometer

Fig.1.8: a) Reflecting goniometer; and b) Working principle of reflecting

Let us spend five minutes here to check our progress.

1.5 REPRESENTATION OF CRYSTAL FACE

1.5.1 Crystal Parameter

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.10: Weiss symbol and Miller symbol (in bracket).

1.5.3 Index System of Miller

Face Weiss Symbol Reciprocals Miller Symbol

ABC (Unit) a b c 1/1 1/1 1/1 1 1 1

DEF a 2b 1/2 c 1/1 1/2 2/1 2 1 4

The Miller symbol of notation puts forth a few important considerations:

1.5.4 Conventions in Notation

Fig. 1.11: Crystallographic axes of cuboid and their face symbols.

1.6 CRYSTAL FORMS

1.6.1 Closed and Open Forms

1.6.2 Naming of Crystal Forms

1.6.3 Common Forms

(a) (b) (c)

Let us spend five minutes to check your progress.

1.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.11 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS