7 Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1
Chandrayaan-1 (; from Sanskrit: Chandra, "Moon"

Chandrayaan-1
and yāna, "craft, vehicle")[6] was the first Indian lunar
probe under the Chandrayaan programme. It was
launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) in October 2008, and operated until August
2009. The mission included an orbiter and an impactor.
India launched the spacecraft using a PSLV-XL rocket
on 22 October 2008 at 00:52 UTC from Satish
Dhawan Space Centre, at Sriharikota, Andhra
Pradesh.[7] The mission was a major boost to India's
space program, as India researched and developed
indigenous technology to explore the Moon.[8] The Mission type Lunar orbiter and
vehicle was inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November Impactor
2008.
Operator ISRO
On 14 November 2008, the Moon Impact Probe COSPAR ID 2008-052A
separated from the Chandrayaan orbiter at 14:36 UTC SATCAT no. 33405
and struck the south pole in a controlled manner. The
Website www.isro.gov.in
probe hit near the crater Shackleton at /Spacecraft/chandrayaan-
15:01 UTC.[9][10][11][12] The location of impact was 1 (http://www.isro.gov.in/S
named Jawahar Point.[13] With this mission, ISRO pacecraft/chandrayaan-1)
became the fifth national space agency to reach the
Mission duration Planned: 2 years
lunar surface. Other nations whose national space
Final: 10 months, 6 days
agencies have done so prior were the former Soviet
Union in 1959,[14] the United States in 1962,[15] Japan Spacecraft properties
in 1993,[16] and ESA member states in 2006.[17][18][19] Manufacturer ISRO
With an estimated cost for the project was ₹386 crore Launch mass 1,380 kg (3,040 lb)[1]
(US$88.73 million), it was intended to survey the lunar Dry mass 560 kg (1,230 lb)[2]
surface over two years, to produce a complete map of Payload mass 105 kg (231 lb)[2]
the chemical composition at the surface and three-
Start of mission
dimensional topography. The polar regions are of
special interest as they might contain water ice.[20][21] Launch date 22 October 2008,
Among its many achievements was the discovery of the 00:52 UTC
widespread presence of water molecules in lunar Rocket PSLV-XL C11[3][4]
soil.[22] Launch site Satish Dhawan Space
Centre
After almost a year, the orbiter started experiencing
several technical issues including failure of the star Contractor ISRO
tracker and poor thermal shielding; Chandrayaan-1 End of mission
stopped communicating at about 20:00 UTC on 28
August 2009, shortly after which the ISRO officially Last contact 28 August 2009,
declared that the mission was over. Chandrayaan-1 20:00 UTC
operated for 312 days as opposed to the intended two
Orbital parameters
years; however, the mission achieved most of its
scientific objectives, including detecting the presence of Reference system Selenocentric
Lunar water.[5][23][24][25] Semi-major axis 1,758 kilometers
(1,092 mi)
On 2 July 2016, NASA used ground-based radar
Eccentricity 0.0
systems to relocate Chandrayaan-1 in its lunar orbit,
Periselene 200 km (120 mi)
almost seven years after it shut down.[26][27] Repeated
altitude
observations over the next three months allowed a
precise determination of its orbit which varies between Aposelene 200 km (120 mi)
150 and 270 km (93 and 168 mi) in altitude every two altitude
years.[28] Epoch 19 May 2009
Lunar orbiter
History Orbital insertion 8 November 2008
Former Prime Minister of India, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Orbits 3,400 at EOM[5]
announced the Chandrayaan 1 project [29] The mission
Chandrayaan programme
was a major boost to India's space program.[30] The
idea of an Indian scientific mission to the Moon was
first raised in 1999 during a meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences. The Astronautical Society of India
(ASI) began planning the implementation of such an idea in 2000. Soon after, the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) set up the National Lunar Mission Task Force. The Task Force concluded that ISRO
had the technical expertise to carry out an Indian mission to the Moon. In April 2003, over 100 Indian
scientists spanning fields from planetary and space sciences, Earth sciences, physics, chemistry, astronomy,
astrophysics, engineering, and communication sciences discussed and approved the Task Force
recommendation to launch an Indian probe to the Moon. Six months later, in November, the Vajpayee
government formally approved the mission.[22][31]
Objectives
The mission had the following stated objectives:[32]
to design, develop, launch, and orbit a spacecraft around the Moon using an Indian-made
launch vehicle
to conduct scientific experiments using instruments on the spacecraft which would yield
data:
for the preparation of a three-dimensional atlas (with high spatial and altitude resolution
of 5–10 m or 16–33 ft) of both the near and far sides of the Moon
for chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface at a high spatial
resolution, mapping particularly the chemical elements magnesium, aluminum, silicon,
calcium, iron, titanium, radon, uranium, and thorium
to increase scientific knowledge
to test the impact of a sub-satellite (Moon Impact Probe – MIP) on the surface of the Moon as
a fore-runner for future soft-landing missions
Goals
To reach its objective, the mission defined these goals:
High-resolution mineralogical and chemical imaging of the permanently shadowed north-

and south-polar regions
To search for surface or sub-surface lunar water ice, especially at the lunar poles
Identification of chemicals in lunar highland rocks
Chemical stratigraphy of the lunar crust by remote sensing of the central uplands of large
lunar craters, and of the South Pole Aitken Region (SPAR), an expected site of interior
material
Mapping the height variation of features of the lunar surface
Observation of X-ray spectrum greater than 10 keV and stereographic coverage of most of
the Moon's surface with 5 m (16 ft) resolution
Providing new insights in understanding the Moon's origin and evolution
Specifications
Mass
1,380 kg (3,042 lb) at launch, 675 kg (1,488 lb) at lunar
orbit,[33] and 523 kg (1,153 lb) after releasing the
impactor.
Dimensions
Cuboid in shape of approximately 1.5 m (4.9 ft)
Communications
X band, 0.7 m (2.3 ft) diameter dual gimballed
parabolic antenna for payload data transmission. The
Telemetry, Tracking & Command (TTC) communication Diagram of the Chandrayaan-1
operates in S band frequency. spacecraft
Power
The spacecraft was mainly powered by its solar array,
which included one solar panel covering a total area of 2.15 × 1.8 m (7.1 × 5.9 ft)
generating 750 W of peak power, which was stored in a 36 A·h lithium-ion battery for use
during eclipses.[34]
Propulsion
The spacecraft used a bipropellant integrated propulsion system to reach lunar orbit as
well as orbit and altitude maintenance while orbiting the Moon. The power plant consisted
of one 440 N engine and eight 22 N thrusters. Fuel and oxidizer were stored in two tanks
of 390 liters (100 U.S. gal) each.[33][34]
Navigation and control
The craft was 3-axis stabilized with two star sensors, gyros, and four reaction wheels. The
craft carried dual redundant bus management units for attitude control, sensor processing,
antenna orientation, etc.[33][34]
Payload
The scientific payload had a mass of 90 kg (198 lb), contained five Indian instruments and six instruments
from other countries.
Indian instruments
TMC or the Terrain Mapping Camera is a CMOS camera with 5 m (16 ft) resolution and a
40 km (25 mi) swath in the panchromatic band and was used to produce a high-resolution
map of the Moon.[35] This instrument aimed to completely map the topography of the Moon.
The camera works in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum and captures black-
and-white stereo images. When used in conjunction with data from the Lunar Laser Ranging
Instrument (LLRI), it can help in a better understanding of the lunar gravitational field as well.
TMC was built by the ISRO's Space Applications Centre (SAC) at Ahmedabad.[36] The TMC
was tested on 29 October 2008 through a set of commands issued from ISTRAC.[37]
HySI or Hyper Spectral Imager is a CMOS camera, that performs mineralogical mapping in
the 400–900 nm band with a spectral resolution of 15 nm and a spatial resolution of 80 m
(260 ft).
LLRI or Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument determines the height of the surface topography
by sending pulses of infrared laser light toward the lunar surface and detecting the reflected
portion of that light. It operated continuously and collected 10 measurements per second on
both the day and night sides of the Moon. LLRI was developed by the Laboratory for Electro-
Optics Systems of ISRO, Bangalore.[38] It was tested on 16 November 2008.[38][39]
HEX is a High Energy aj/gamma x-ray spectrometer for 30–200 keV measurements with a
ground resolution of 40 km (25 mi), the HEX measured U, Th, 210Pb, 222Rn degassing, and
other radioactive elements.
MIP or the Moon Impact Probe developed by the ISRO is an impact probe that consists of a
C-band Radar altimeter for measurement of the altitude of the probe, a video imaging system
for acquiring images of the lunar surface, and a mass spectrometer for measuring the
constituents of the lunar atmosphere.[40] It was ejected at 14:30 UTC on 14 November 2008.
As planned, the Moon Impact Probe impacted the lunar south pole at 15:01 UTC on 14
November 2008. ISRO was the fifth national space agency to reach the surface of the Moon.
Other national space agencies to have done so prior were the former Soviet Union in
1959,[14] the United States in 1962,[15] Japan in 1993,[16] and ESA in 2006.[17][19][18]
Instruments from other countries

C1XS or X-ray fluorescence spectrometer covering 1–
10 keV, mapped the abundance of Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Ti, and
Fe at the surface with a ground resolution of 25 km
(16 mi), and monitored solar flux.[41] This payload results
from the collaboration between Rutherford Appleton
Laboratory, U.K, ESA and ISRO. It was activated on 23
November 2008.[42]
SARA, the Sub-keV Atom Reflecting Analyser from the
ESA mapped mineral composition using low energy Moon Mineralogy Mapper (left)
neutral atoms emitted from the surface.[43][44]
M3, the Moon Mineralogy Mapper from Brown
University and JPL (funded by NASA) is an imaging spectrometer designed to map the
surface mineral composition. It was activated on 17 December 2008.[45]
SIR-2, a near-infrared spectrometer from ESA, built at the Max Planck Institute for Solar
System Research, Polish Academy of Science, and University of Bergen, also mapped the
mineral composition using an infrared grating
spectrometer. The instrument is similar to that of the
Smart-1 SIR.[46][47] It was activated on 19 November
2008 and scientific observations were started on 20
November 2008.[42]
Mini-SAR, designed, built, and tested for NASA by a
large team that includes the Naval Air Warfare Center,
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory,
Sandia National Laboratories, Raytheon, and Northrop
Grumman, with outer support from ISRO. Mini-SAR is the
active Synthetic Aperture Radar system to search for
lunar polar ice and water ice. The instrument transmitted
right polarised radiation with a frequency of 2.5 GHz and
SIR-2 Logo
monitored scattered left and right polarised radiation. The
Fresnel reflectivity and the circular polarisation ratio
(CPR) are the key parameters deduced from these
measurements. Ice shows the Coherent Backscatter Opposition Effect, which results in an
enhancement of reflections and CPR so that the water content of the Moon's polar regions
can be estimated.[48][49][50]
RADOM-7, Radiation Dose Monitor Experiment from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
mapped the radiation environment around the Moon.[51] It was tested on 16 November
2008.[38][39]
Mission timeline
During the tenure of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, the
Chandrayaan project got a boost and finally Chandrayaan-1 was
launched on 22 October 2008 at 00:52 UTC from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre using the ISRO's 44.4-metre (146 ft) tall, four-stage
PSLV C11 launch vehicle.[52] Chandrayaan-1 was sent to the
Moon in a series of orbit-increasing manoeuvres around the Earth
over a period of 21 days as opposed to launching the craft on a
direct trajectory to the Moon.[53] At launch the spacecraft was
inserted into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) with an apogee of
22,860 km (14,200 mi) and a perigee of 255 km (158 mi). The
apogee was increased with a series of five orbit burns conducted
over a period of 13 days after launch.[53]
For the duration of the mission, ISRO's telemetry, tracking and

command network (ISTRAC) at Peenya in Bangalore, tracked and
controlled Chandrayaan-1.[54] Scientists from India, Europe, and
the U.S. conducted a high-level review of Chandrayaan-1 on 29 PSLV C11 carrying Chandrayaan-1
January 2009 after the spacecraft completed its first 100 days in
space.[55]
Earth orbit burns
First orbit burn

The first orbit-raising manoeuvre of the Chandrayaan-1 Earth orbit burns
spacecraft was performed at 03:30&nbsp UTC on 23 October Burn time Resulting
Date (UTC)
2008 when the spacecraft's 440 Newton liquid engine was (minutes) apogee
fired for about 18 minutes by commanding the spacecraft from 22 October 18.2
22,860 km
Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC) at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking Launch in four stages
and Command Network (ISTRAC) at Peenya, Bangalore. 23 October 18 37,900 km
With this Chandrayaan-1's apogee was raised to 37,900 km
25 October 16 74,715 km
(23,500 mi), and its perigee to 305 km (190 mi). In this orbit,
26 October 9.5 164,600 km
the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft took about 11 hours to go
around the Earth once.[56] 29 October 3 267,000 km
4 November 2.5 380,000 km
Second orbit burn
The second orbit-raising manoeuvre of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was carried out on 25 October 2008 at
00:18 UTC when the spacecraft's engine was fired for about 16 minutes, raising its apogee to 74,715 km
(46,426 mi), and its perigee to 336 km (209 mi), thus completing 20 percent of its journey. In this orbit,
Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft took about twenty-five and a half hours to go round the Earth once. This was the
first time an Indian spacecraft went beyond the 36,000 km (22,000 mi) high geostationary orbit and reached
an altitude more than twice that height.[57]
Third orbit burn
The third orbit raising manoeuvre was initiated on 26 October 2008 at 01:38 UTC when the spacecraft's
engine was fired for about nine and a half minutes. With this its apogee was raised to 164,600 km
(102,300 mi), and the perigee to 348 km (216 mi). In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 took about 73 hours to go
around the Earth once.[58]
Fourth orbit burn
The fourth orbit-raising maneuver took place on 29 October 2008 at 02:08 UTC when the spacecraft's
engine was fired for about three minutes, raising its apogee to 267,000 km (166,000 mi) and the perigee to
465 km (289 mi). This extended its orbit to a distance more than half the way to the Moon. In this orbit, the
spacecraft took about six days to go around the Earth once.[59]
Final orbit burn
The fifth and final orbit raising manoeuvre was carried out on 3 November 2008 at 23:26 UTC when the
spacecraft's engine was fired for about two and a half minutes resulting in Chandrayaan-1 entering the
Lunar Transfer Trajectory with an apogee of about 380,000 km (240,000 mi).[60]
Lunar orbit insertion

Chandrayaan-1 completed the lunar orbit insertion operation on 8 November 2008 at 11:21 UTC. This
manoeuvre involved firing of the liquid engine for 817 seconds (about thirteen and half minutes) when the
spacecraft passed within 500 km (310 mi) from the Moon. The satellite was placed in an elliptical orbit that
passed over the polar regions of the Moon, with 7,502 km (4,662 mi) aposelene and 504 km (313 mi)
periselene. The orbital period was estimated to be around 11 hours. With the successful completion of this
operation, India became the fifth nation to put a vehicle in lunar orbit.[61]
First orbit reduction

First Lunar Orbit Reduction Manoeuvre of Lunar orbit insertion
Chandrayaan-1 was carried out on 9 November Burn time Resulting Resulting
2008 at 14:33 UTC. During this, the engine of the Date (UTC) (seconds) periselene aposelene
spacecraft was fired for about 57 seconds. This 8 November 817 504 km 7,502 km
reduced the periselene to 200 km (124 mi) while
9 November 57 200 km 7,502 km
aposelene remained unchanged at 7,502 km. In this
elliptical orbit, Chandrayaan-1 took about ten and a 10 November 866 187 km 255 km
half hours to circle the Moon once.[62] 11 November 31 101 km 255 km
12 November
Second orbit reduction Final orbit
100 km 100 km
This manoeuvre was carried out on 10 November

2008 at 16:28 UTC, resulting in a steep decrease in Chandrayaan-1's aposelene to 255 km (158 mi) and its
periselene to 187 km (116 mi), During this manoeuvre, the engine was fired for about 866 seconds (about
fourteen and a half minutes). Chandrayaan-1 took two hours and 16 minutes to go around the Moon once in
this orbit.[63]
Third orbit reduction
Third Lunar Orbit Reduction was carried out by firing the onboard engine for 31 seconds on 11 November
2008 at 13:00 UTC. This reduced the periselene to 101 km (63 mi), while the aposelene remained constant
at 255 km. In this orbit Chandrayaan-1 took two hours and 9 minutes to go around the Moon once.[64]
Final orbit
Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was placed into a mission-specific lunar polar orbit of 100 km (62 mi) above the
lunar surface on 12 November 2008.[65][66] In the final orbit reduction manoeuvre, Chandrayaan-1's
aposelene and periselene were both reduced to 100 km.[66] In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 takes about two
hours to go around the Moon once. Two of the 11 payloads—the Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC) and the
Radiation Dose Monitor (RADOM)—were switched on. The TMC acquired images of both the Earth and
the Moon.[66]
Impact of the MIP on the lunar surface

The Moon Impact Probe (MIP) crash-landed on the lunar surface on 14 November 2008, 15:01 UTC near
the crater Shackleton at the south pole.[65] The MIP was one of eleven scientific instruments (payloads) on
board Chandrayaan-1.[67]
The MIP separated from Chandrayaan at 100 km from lunar surface and began its nosedive at 14:36 UTC.
going into free fall for thirty minutes.[65] As it fell, it kept sending information back to the mother satellite
which, in turn, beamed the information back to Earth. The altimeter then also began recording
measurements to prepare for a rover to land on the lunar surface during a second Moon mission.[68]
Following the deployment of the MIP, the other scientific instruments were turned on, starting the next
phase of the mission.[67]
After scientific analyses of the received data from the MIP, the Indian Space Research Organisation
confirmed the presence of water in the lunar soil and published the finding in a press conference addressed
by its then Chairman G. Madhavan Nair.
Rise of spacecraft's temperature

ISRO had reported on 25 November 2008 that Chandrayaan-1's temperature had risen above normal to
50 °C (122 °F),[69] Scientists said that it was caused by higher than expected temperatures in lunar orbit.[69]
The temperature was brought down by about 10 °C (18 °F) by rotating the spacecraft about 20 degrees and
switching off some of the instruments.[69] Subsequently, ISRO reported on 27 November 2008 that the
spacecraft was operating under normal temperature conditions.[70] In subsequent reports ISRO says, since
the spacecraft was still recording higher than normal temperatures, it would be running only one instrument
at a time until January 2009 when lunar orbital temperature conditions are said to stabilize.[71] It was
initially thought that the spacecraft was experiencing high temperature because of radiation from the Sun
and infrared radiation reflected by the Moon.[72] However the rise in spacecraft temperature was later
attributed to a batch of DC-DC converters with poor thermal regulation.[73][74]
Mapping of minerals
The mineral content on the lunar surface was mapped with the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3 ), a NASA
instrument on board the orbiter. The presence of iron was reiterated and changes in rock and mineral
composition have been identified. The Oriental Basin region of the Moon was mapped, and it indicates
abundance of iron-bearing minerals such as pyroxene.[75]
In 2018 it was announced that M3 infrared data had been re-analyzed to confirm the existence of water
across wide expanses of the Moon's polar regions.[76]
Mapping of Apollo landing sites

ISRO announced in January 2009 the completion of the mapping of the Apollo Moon missions landing
sites by the orbiter, using multiple payloads. Six of the sites have been mapped, including the landing sites
of Apollo 15 and Apollo 17.[77]
Image acquisition
The craft completed 3,000 orbits acquiring 70,000 images of the lunar surface,[78][79][80] which is quite a
record compared to the lunar flights of other nations. ISRO officials estimated that if more than 40,000
images have been transmitted by Chandrayaan's cameras in 75 days, it worked out to nearly 535 images
being sent daily. They were first transmitted to Indian Deep Space Network at Byalalu near Bangalore,
from where they were flashed to ISRO's Telemetry Tracking And Command Network (ISTRAC) at
Bangalore.
Some of these images have a resolution of down to 5 metres (16 ft), providing a sharp and clear picture of
the Moon's surface, while many images sent by some of the other missions had only a 100-metre
resolution.[81] For comparison, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera has a 0.5 meter resolution.[82]
On 26 November, the indigenous Terrain Mapping Camera, which was first activated on 29 October 2008,
acquired images of peaks and craters. This came as a surprise to ISRO officials because the Moon consists
mostly of craters.[83]
Detection of X-Ray signals

The X-ray signatures of aluminium, magnesium and silicon were picked up by the C1XS X-ray camera.
The signals were picked up during a solar flare that caused an X-ray fluorescence phenomenon. The flare
that caused the fluorescence was within the lowest C1XS sensitivity range.[84][85][86]
Full Earth image

On 25 March 2009 Chandrayaan beamed back its first images of
the Earth in its entirety. These images were taken with the TMC.
Previous imaging was done on only one part of the Earth. The new
images show Asia, parts of Africa and Australia with India being in
the centre.[87][88]
Orbit raised to 200 km

After the completion of all the major mission objectives, the orbit of
Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft, which had been at a height of 100 km
(62 mi) from the lunar surface since November 2008, was raised to
200 km (124 mi). The orbit-raising manoeuvres were carried out An image of the Earth taken by
Chandrayaan-1
between 03:30 and 04:30&nbsp UTC on 19 May 2009. The
spacecraft at this higher altitude enabled further studies on orbit
perturbations and gravitational field variation of the Moon and also enabled imaging of the lunar surface
with a wider swath.[89] It was later revealed that the true reason for the orbit change was that it was an
attempt to keep the temperature of the probe down.[90] It was "...assumed that the temperature [of the
spacecraft subsystems] at 100 km above the Moon's surface would be around 75 degrees Celsius. However,
it was more than 75 degrees and problems started to surface. We had to raise the orbit to 200 km."[91]
Attitude sensor failure

The star tracker, a device used for pointing attitude determination (orientation), failed in orbit after nine
months of operation. Afterward, the orientation of Chandrayaan was determined using a back-up procedure
using a two-axis Sun sensor and taking a bearing from an Earth station. This was used to update three axis
gyroscopes which enabled spacecraft operations.[78][79][80] The second failure, detected on 16 May, was
attributed to excessive radiation from the Sun.[92]
Radar scans
On 21 August 2009 Chandrayaan-1 along with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter attempted to perform a
bistatic radar experiment using their Mini-SAR radars to detect the presence of water ice on the lunar
surface.[93][94] The attempt was a failure; it turned out the Chandrayaan-1 radar was not pointed at the
Moon during the experiment.[95]
The Mini-SAR has imaged many of the permanently shadowed regions that exist at both poles of the
Moon.[96] In March 2010, it was reported that the Mini-SAR on board the Chandrayaan-1 had discovered
more than 40 permanently darkened craters near the Moon's north pole which are hypothesized to contain
an estimated 600 million metric tonnes of water-ice.[96][97] The radar's high CPR is not uniquely diagnostic
of either roughness or ice; the science team must take into account the environment of the occurrences of
high CPR signal to interpret its cause. The ice must be relatively pure and at least a couple of meters thick to
give this signature.[96] The estimated amount of water ice potentially present is comparable to the quantity
estimated from the previous mission of Lunar Prospector's neutron data.[96]
Although the results are consistent with recent findings of other NASA instruments onboard Chandrayaan-1
(the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (MP3) discovered water molecules in the Moon's polar regions, while water
vapour was detected by NASA's Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite, or LCROSS[96]) this
observation is not consistent with the presence of thick deposits of nearly pure water ice within a few meters
of the lunar surface, but it does not rule out the presence of small (<~10 cm), discrete pieces of ice mixed in
with the regolith.[98]
End of the mission

The mission was launched on 22 October 2008 and expected to operate for two years. However, around
20:00 UTC on 28 August 2009 communication with the spacecraft was suddenly lost. The probe had
operated for 312 days. The craft had been expected to remain in orbit for approximately another 1000 days
and to crash into the lunar surface in late 2012,[99] although in 2016 it was found to still be in orbit.[27]
A member of the science advisory board of Chandrayaan-1 said that it is difficult to ascertain reasons for the
loss of contact.[100] ISRO Chairman Madhavan Nair said that due to very high radiation, power-supply
units controlling both the computer systems on board failed, snapping the communication connectivity.[101]
However, information released later showed that the power supply supplied by MDI failed due to
overheating.[90][91][102]
Although the mission was less than 10 months in duration, and less than half the intended two years in
length,[30][101][103] a review by scientists termed the mission successful, as it had completed 95% of its
primary objectives.
Results
Chandrayaan's NASA Instrument Moon Mineralogy Mapper has confirmed the magma ocean hypothesis,
meaning that the Moon was once completely molten.[104]
The terrain mapping camera on board Chandrayaan-1, besides producing more than 70,000 three
dimensional images, has recorded images of the landing site of U.S. spacecraft Apollo 15.[105][106]
TMC and HySI payloads of ISRO have covered about 70% of the lunar surface, while M3 covered more
than 95% of the same and SIR-2 has provided high-resolution spectral data on the mineralogy of the Moon.
Indian Space Research Organisation said interesting data on lunar polar areas was provided by Lunar Laser
Ranging Instrument (LLRI) and High Energy X-ray Spectrometer (HEX) of ISRO as well as Miniature
Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini-SAR) of the US.
LLRI covered both the lunar poles and additional lunar regions of interest, HEX made about 200 orbits
over the lunar poles and Mini-SAR provided complete coverage of both North and South Polar Regions of
the Moon.
Another ESA payload – Chandrayaan-1 imaging X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS) – detected more than two
dozen weak solar flares during the mission duration. The Bulgarian payload called Radiation Dose Monitor
(RADOM) was activated on the day of the launch itself and worked until the mission's end.
ISRO said scientists from India and participating agencies expressed satisfaction on the performance of
Chandrayaan-1 mission as well as the high quality of data sent by the spacecraft.
They have started formulating science plans based on the data sets obtained from the mission. It is expected
that in the next few months, interesting results about lunar topography, mineral and chemical contents of the
Moon and related aspects are expected to be published.[107]
The Chandrayaan-1 payload has enabled scientists to study the interaction between the solar wind and a
planetary body like the Moon without a magnetic field.[108]
In its 10-month orbit around the Moon, Chandrayaan-1's X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS) detected titanium,
confirmed the presence of calcium, and gathered the most accurate measurements yet of magnesium,
aluminium and iron on the lunar surface.[109]
Lunar water discovery

On 18 November 2008, the Moon Impact Probe was released from
Chandrayaan-1 at a height of 100 km (62 mi). During its 25-minute
descent, Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE)
recorded evidence of water in 650 mass spectra readings gathered
during this time.[110] On 24 September 2009 Science journal
reported that the NASA Instrument Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3 )
on Chandrayaan-1 had detected water ice on the Moon.[111] But,
on 25 September 2009, ISRO announced that the MIP, another
instrument on board Chandrayaan-1, had discovered water on the
Moon just before impact and had discovered it 3 months before Direct evidence of lunar water
NASA's M3 .[112] The announcement of this discovery was not through Chandrayaan-1 Chandra's
Altitudinal Composition (CHACE)
made until NASA confirmed it.[113][114]
output profile
M3 detected absorption features near 2.8–3.0 μm on the surface of

the Moon. For silicate bodies, such features are typically attributed to hydroxyl- and/or water-bearing
materials. On the Moon, the feature is seen as a widely distributed absorption that appears strongest at
cooler high latitudes and at several fresh feldspathic craters. The general lack of correlation of this feature in
sunlit M3 data with neutron spectrometer H abundance data suggests that the formation and retention of OH
and H2 O is an ongoing surficial process. OH/H2 O production processes may feed polar cold traps and
make the lunar regolith a candidate source of volatiles for human exploration.
The Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3 ), an imaging spectrometer, was one of the 11 instruments on board
Chandrayaan-I that came to a premature end on 28 August 2009.[115] M3 was aimed at providing the first
mineral map of the entire lunar surface. M3 data were reanalyzed years later and revealed "the most
definitive proof to date" of the presence of water in shaded regions
of craters near the Moon's north and south poles.[76]
Lunar scientists had discussed the possibility of water repositories

for decades. They are now increasingly "confident that the decades-
long debate is over" a report says. "The Moon, in fact, has water in
all sorts of places; not just locked up in minerals, but scattered
throughout the broken-up surface, and, potentially, in blocks or These images show a very young
sheets of ice at depth." The results from the Chandrayaan mission lunar crater on the side of the Moon
are also "offering a wide array of watery signals."[116][117] that faces away from Earth, as
viewed by Chandrayaan-1's NASA
Moon Mineralogy Mapper equipment
Lunar water production
According to European Space Agency (ESA) scientists, the lunar
regolith (a loose collection of irregular dust grains making up the Moon's surface) absorbs hydrogen nuclei
from solar winds. Interaction between the hydrogen nuclei and oxygen present in the dust grains is expected
to produce hydroxyl (HO−) and water (H2 O).[118]
The SARA (Sub keV Atom Reflecting Analyser) instrument developed by ESA and the Indian Space
Research Organisation was designed and used to study the Moon's surface composition and solar-
wind/surface interactions. SARA's results highlight a mystery: not every hydrogen nucleus is absorbed.
One out of every five rebounds into space, combining to form an atom of hydrogen. Hydrogen shoots off at
speeds of around 200 kilometres per second (120 mi/s) and escapes without being deflected by the Moon's
weak gravity. This knowledge provides timely advice for scientists who are readying ESA's BepiColombo
mission to Mercury, as that spacecraft will carry two instruments similar to SARA.
Lunar caves
Chandrayaan-1 imaged a lunar rille, formed by an ancient lunar lava flow, with an uncollapsed segment
indicating the presence of a lunar lava tube, a type of large cave below the lunar surface.[119] The tunnel,
which was discovered near the lunar equator, is an empty volcanic tube, measuring about 2 km (1.2 mi) in
length and 360 m (1,180 ft) in width. According to A. S. Arya, scientist SF of Ahmedabad-based Space
Application Centre (SAC), this could be a potential site for human settlement on the Moon. Earlier,
Japanese Lunar orbiter SELENE (Kaguya) also recorded evidence for other caves on the Moon.[120]
Tectonism
Data from the microwave sensor (Mini-SAR) of Chandrayaan-1 processed using the image analysis
software ENVI, has revealed a good amount of past tectonic activity on the lunar surface.[121] The
researchers think that the faults and fractures discovered could be features of past interior tectonic activity
coupled with meteorite impacts.[121]
Awards
The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) has selected ISRO's
Chandrayaan-1 mission as one of the recipients of its annual AIAA SPACE 2009 awards,
which recognises key contributions to space science and technology.[122]
The International Lunar Exploration Working Group awarded the Chandrayaan-1 team the
International Co-operation Award in 2008 for accommodation and tests of the most
international lunar payload ever (from 20 countries, including India, the European Space
Agency of 17 countries, US, and Bulgaria).[123]
US-based National Space Society awarded ISRO the 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the
science and engineering category, for the Chandrayaan-1 mission.[124][125]
Team
The scientists considered instrumental to the success of the Chandrayaan-1 project are:[126][127][128]
G. Madhavan Nair – chairman, Indian Space Research Organisation

T. K. Alex – Director, ISAC (ISRO Satellite Centre)
Mylswamy Annadurai – Project Director, Chandrayan-1
S. K. Shivkumar – Director – Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network
M. Pitchaimani – Operations Director, Chandrayaan-1
Leo Jackson John – Spacecraft Operations Manager, Chandrayaan-1
K. Radhakrishnan – Director, VSSC
George Koshy – Mission Director, PSLV-C11
Srinivasa Hegde – Mission Director, Chandrayaan-1
Jitendra Nath Goswami – Director of Physical Research Laboratory and Principal Scientific
Investigator of Chandrayaan-1
Madhavan Chandradathan – Head, Launch Authorization Board, Chandrayan-1[129]
Public release of data

Data gathered by Chandrayaan-I was made available to the public by the end of the year 2010. The data
was split into two seasons with the first season going public by the end of 2010 and the second going public
by the mid of 2011. The data contained pictures of the Moon and also data of chemical and mineral
mapping of the lunar surface.[130]
Follow-up missions
Chandrayaan-2 is a follow-up mission which was launched on 22 July 2019.[131] The mission includes a
lunar orbiter, a lander named Vikram and a robotic lunar rover named Pragyan.[132] While a last-minute
glitch in the landing guidance software resulted in the lander crashing, the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter is
operational as of September 2023.[133] A third mission, called Chandrayaan-3 was launched on 14 July
2023 and it successfully soft-landed on Moon on 23 August 2023[134]
Lunar outpost
Chandrayaan's imagery will be used to identify regions of interest that will be explored in detail by the
NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. The interest lies in identifying lunar water on the surface that can be
exploited in setting up a future lunar outpost. The Mini-SAR, one of the U.S. payloads on Chandrayaan,
was used to determine the presence of water ice.[135]
See also
Spaceflight portal
Solar System
portal
India portal
Exploration of the Moon

Gaganyaan, India's crewed orbital spacecraft
List of artificial objects on the Moon
List of current and future lunar missions
List of Indian satellites
List of ISRO missions
Lunar water
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Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1 (; from Sanskrit: Chandra, "Moon"

High-resolution mineralogical and chemical imaging of the permanently shadowed north-

Instruments from other countries

For the duration of the mission, ISRO's telemetry, tracking and

Earth orbit burns

First orbit burn

Third orbit burn

Fourth orbit burn

Final orbit burn

Lunar orbit insertion

First orbit reduction

half hours to circle the Moon once.[62] 11 November 31 101 km 255 km

This manoeuvre was carried out on 10 November

Third orbit reduction

Impact of the MIP on the lunar surface

Rise of spacecraft's temperature

Mapping of Apollo landing sites

Detection of X-Ray signals

Full Earth image

Orbit raised to 200 km

Attitude sensor failure

End of the mission

Lunar water discovery

M3 detected absorption features near 2.8–3.0 μm on the surface of

Lunar scientists had discussed the possibility of water repositories

G. Madhavan Nair – chairman, Indian Space Research Organisation

Public release of data

Exploration of the Moon

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chandrayaan-1&oldid=1230047196"

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