INDEX

CONSTITUTION AND ITS MAKING............................................................................................................... 7

Constitution................................................................................................................................................ 7
Overview of Indian constitution.................................................................................................................. 8
Features of Indian constitution................................................................................................................. 10
Timeline of constituent assembly............................................................................................................. 10
Important committees...............................................................................................................................11
Facts about Constituent assembly........................................................................................................... 12

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HISTORICAL UNDERPINNING.................................................................................................................... 14
THE PREAMBLE.......................................................................................................................................... 17

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UNION AND ITS TERRITORY...................................................................................................................... 19
Evolution of States and Union Territories................................................................................................. 19
CITIZENSHIP................................................................................................................................................ 21
This Act Provides 5 Ways For Citizenship............................................................................................... 21

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The Citizenship Act (1955) prescribes three ways of losing citizenship.................................................. 22
Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) 2019................................................................................................. 22
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS............................................................................................................................. 24
d
FEATURES OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS.............................................................................................. 24
Definition of State (Article 12).................................................................................................................. 26
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Article 13.................................................................................................................................................. 26
Article 14.................................................................................................................................................. 26
Exception to article 14............................................................................................................................. 27
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ARTICLE 15............................................................................................................................................. 27
ARTICLE 16............................................................................................................................................. 28
ARTICLE 17 [CSE 2020]......................................................................................................................... 28
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ARTICLE 18............................................................................................................................................. 29
ARTICLE 19............................................................................................................................................. 29
nd

Protection in Respect of Conviction for Offences (Article 20).................................................................. 30

ARTICLE 21............................................................................................................................................. 31
Right to Education (Article 21A)............................................................................................................... 32
Article 22 – Protest against arrest and detention -- provides safeguards for persons who are arrested or
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detained................................................................................................................................................... 32
Prohibition of Trafficking in Human Beings and Forced Labour (Article 23)............................................ 33
Prohibition of Employment of Children in Factories, etc. (Article 24)....................................................... 33
Article 25 Right to Religion...................................................................................................................... 33
Article 26 Freedom to manage religious affair......................................................................................... 34
Article 27 (Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion)............................. 34
Article 28 (Freedom as to attendance of religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational
institutions)............................................................................................................................................... 34
Article 29 – Protection of Interests of Minorities...................................................................................... 34
Article 30 – Right of Minorities to Establish and Administer Educational Institutions.............................. 35
Article 32 Right To Constitutional Remedies............................................................................................ 35
Article 33.................................................................................................................................................. 36
Article 34.................................................................................................................................................. 37
Article 35.................................................................................................................................................. 37

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 EXCEPTION TO FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT.............................................................................................. 37
PYQ MASALA.......................................................................................................................................... 39
Home Guards.......................................................................................................................................... 40
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY............................................................................................ 41
Classification of Directive Principles of State Policy................................................................................ 41
Distinction between DPSP and FR.......................................................................................................... 43
DPSPs Added through Constitutional Amendments................................................................................ 43
Important cases related to Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).................................................. 43
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES............................................................................................................................. 45

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Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 45
List of Fundamental Duties...................................................................................................................... 45

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PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM......................................................................................................................... 46
Key features of India’s Parliamentary System......................................................................................... 46
Comparison between Parliamentary and Presidential System................................................................ 46
AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION..................................................................................................... 48

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Process for the amendment of Constitution............................................................................................. 48
Types of Constitutional amendments....................................................................................................... 48
BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE CONSTITUTION.......................................................................................... 50
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Basic Structure Timeline.......................................................................................................................... 50
Key components of the Basic Structure................................................................................................... 50
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Significant Supreme Court cases related to the Basic Structure doctrine............................................... 51
EMERGENCY PROVISIONS........................................................................................................................ 52
National Emergency................................................................................................................................ 52
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This type of Emergency has been proclaimed three times so far– in...................................................... 54
President’s Rule....................................................................................................................................... 54
Consequences of President’s Rule.......................................................................................................... 55
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Financial Emergency............................................................................................................................... 56
UNION EXECUTIVE...................................................................................................................................... 57
Union executive = President + PM + Council of ministers + Attorney general........................................ 57
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Vice President.......................................................................................................................................... 60
Council of Ministers................................................................................................................................. 60
CABINET COMMITTEES.............................................................................................................................. 63
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PARLIAMENT............................................................................................................................................... 65
(Part V Articles 79 to 122)........................................................................................................................ 65
Details on various aspects of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.................................................................... 65
Ways in which seats can be vacated in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.............................................. 66
Double Membership................................................................................................................................. 67
Ineligibility................................................................................................................................................ 67
Presiding Officer of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha....................................................................................67
Deputy Speaker (Lok Sabha) and Deputy Chairman (Rajya Sabha)...................................................... 68
Sessions of Parliament............................................................................................................................ 69
Key Parliamentary Terms......................................................................................................................... 69
Motions in Parliament.............................................................................................................................. 71
Motion of Thanks..................................................................................................................................... 72
Adjournment Motion................................................................................................................................. 72
Other Devices of Parliamentary Proceedings.......................................................................................... 72

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 Legislative Procedure in Indian Parliament (For Ordinary Bills).............................................................. 74
Bill in the Second House.......................................................................................................................... 74
Financial Bills........................................................................................................................................... 75
Types of Financial Bills............................................................................................................................ 75
Key Points of Distinction.......................................................................................................................... 76
Joint Sitting of Parliament........................................................................................................................ 76
Comparison between powers of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha............................................................... 77
Budget..................................................................................................................................................... 78
Constitutional Provisions regarding the Budget....................................................................................... 79

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Consolidated Fund of India (Article 266)................................................................................................. 79
Public Account of India (Article 266)........................................................................................................ 80

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Contingency Fund of India (Article 267).................................................................................................. 80
Expenditure Charged and Expenditure Made on the Consolidated Fund of India................................... 81
Special powers of the Rajya Sabha......................................................................................................... 81
Parliamentary Privileges.......................................................................................................................... 82

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Individual Privileges of Members............................................................................................................. 82
PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEES............................................................................................................... 83
Definition and Importance........................................................................................................................ 83
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Types of Parliamentary Committees........................................................................................................ 83
Classification of Committees with Formation Details............................................................................... 83
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PARLIAMENTARY GROUP.......................................................................................................................... 86
STATE LEGISLATURE................................................................................................................................. 87
(Article 168 to Article 212)....................................................................................................................... 87
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Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha)..................................................................................................... 87

Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad)..................................................................................................... 87
Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and the Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad)............................88
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Vacation of Seats..................................................................................................................................... 88
Presiding Officers.....................................................................................................................................89
Legislative procedure in State Legislature............................................................................................... 89
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Sessions of Legislative assembly............................................................................................................ 91

Key Terms................................................................................................................................................ 91
Comparison of Legislative Procedures.................................................................................................... 92
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Position of the Legislative Council........................................................................................................... 93

CENTRE-STATE RELATIONS [Part XI]....................................................................................................... 94
LEGISLATIVE RELATIONS [Article 245 – 255]....................................................................................... 94
Centre’s Control Over State Legislation...................................................................................................96
Administrative Relation: (Article-256 -263).............................................................................................. 96
FINANCIAL RELATIONS [article 268 –293]............................................................................................ 97
INTER-STATE RELATIONS........................................................................................................................ 101
INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES....................................................................................................... 101
INTER-STATE COUNCILS.................................................................................................................... 101
PUBLIC ACTS, RECORDS AND JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS [article 261].......................................... 102
INTER-STATE TRADE AND COMMERCE............................................................................................ 102
Zonal council.......................................................................................................................................... 103
North-Eastern Council........................................................................................................................... 103
JUDICIARY..................................................................................................................................................105

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 Judicial Review...................................................................................................................................... 108
Judicial Activism.....................................................................................................................................109
Tribunal (Part 14A)................................................................................................................................. 109
Subordinate Courts [Articles 233 to 237 in Part VI]................................................................................110
National Legal Service Authority............................................................................................................ 110
Lok Adalat.............................................................................................................................................. 111
Permanent Lok Adalat............................................................................................................................ 111
Family Court........................................................................................................................................... 111
Gram Nyayalayas................................................................................................................................... 111

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PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTIONS (PRIs)................................................................................................. 112
Part IX of Constitution............................................................................................................................ 112

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The salient features of the act are..........................................................................................................113
Structure of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)...................................................................................... 113
Election of Chairperson and Members of Panchayats........................................................................... 113
Duration of Panchayats.......................................................................................................................... 113

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Reservation............................................................................................................................................ 113
Reservation of Seats for Women........................................................................................................... 114
Reservation of Seats for Other Backward Classes (OBCs)................................................................... 114
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Disqualifications of Members of Panchayats......................................................................................... 114
Powers and Functions of Panchayats.................................................................................................... 114
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Finances of Panchayats......................................................................................................................... 114
State Election Commission.................................................................................................................... 115
Audit of Accounts................................................................................................................................... 115
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Application to Union Territories.............................................................................................................. 115

Exempted States and Areas.................................................................................................................. 115
State finance commission...................................................................................................................... 115
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PESA Act, 1996- Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996................. 116
Features of PESA Act, 1996.................................................................................................................. 117
MUNICIPALITIES........................................................................................................................................ 118
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EVOLUTION OF URBAN BODIES........................................................................................................ 118

74TH AMENDMENT ACT OF 1992....................................................................................................... 118
Salient Features..................................................................................................................................... 118
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Composition........................................................................................................................................... 118
Wards Committees................................................................................................................................. 119
Reservation of Seats.............................................................................................................................. 119
Duration of Municipalities....................................................................................................................... 119
State Election Commission -.................................................................................................................. 119
Powers and Functions............................................................................................................................119
Finances.................................................................................................................................................119
Finance Commission—same function as discussed in PRIs................................................................. 120
Audit of Accounts................................................................................................................................... 120
Application to Union Territories.............................................................................................................. 120
Exempted Area...................................................................................................................................... 120
District Planning Committee.................................................................................................................. 120
Metropolitan Planning Committee.......................................................................................................... 120
TYPES OF URBAN GOVERNMENTS.................................................................................................. 121

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UNION TERRITORIES................................................................................................................................ 123
UNION TERRITORY OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR................................................................................ 124
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR DELHI.................................................................................................... 124
SCHEDULED AND TRIBAL AREAS.......................................................................................................... 126
Fifth Schedule feature............................................................................................................................ 126
Sixth Schedule....................................................................................................................................... 126
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SOME STATES........................................................................................ 128
CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES...................................................................................................................... 129
Election Commission of India................................................................................................................ 129

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Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)........................................................................................... 130
State Public Service Commission (SPSC)............................................................................................. 131

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Finance Commission............................................................................................................................. 131
GST Council.......................................................................................................................................... 132
National Commissions for SCs, STs, and BCs...................................................................................... 132
General Features of These Commissions:............................................................................................ 133

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Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG)................................................................................... 134
Attorney General of India (AGI)............................................................................................................. 135
Advocate General (AG) of States.......................................................................................................... 135
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Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities.................................................................................................. 136
NON-CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES............................................................................................................. 137
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NITI Aayog: National Institution for Transforming India......................................................................... 137
Differences from Planning Commission................................................................................................. 138
National Development Council (NDC)................................................................................................... 138
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National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)....................................................................................... 138

State Human Rights Commission (SHRC)............................................................................................ 139
Central Information Commission (CIC).................................................................................................. 140
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State Information Commission (SIC)..................................................................................................... 140

Central Vigilance Commission (CVC).................................................................................................... 141
Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI).................................................................................................... 142
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Lokpal and Lokayuktas.......................................................................................................................... 142

National Investigation Agency (NIA)...................................................................................................... 143
Enforcement Directorate (ED)............................................................................................................... 143
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National Disaster Management Authority.............................................................................................. 144

National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission:.......................................................................... 144
POLITICAL PARTIES................................................................................................................................. 146
ELECTIONS................................................................................................................................................ 147
ELECTION MACHINERY...................................................................................................................... 147
Election Laws......................................................................................................................................... 148
REPRESENTATION OF THE PEOPLE ACT, 1951............................................................................... 149
Anti-Defection Law................................................................................................................................. 149
IMPORTANT AMENDMENTS TO CONSTITUTION..............................................................................151
NEW CRIMINAL LAWS.............................................................................................................................. 153
Bhartiya Naya Sanhita........................................................................................................................... 153
Bhartiya Nagrik Suraksha Sanhita......................................................................................................... 153
Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam................................................................................................................. 153
Bail......................................................................................................................................................... 153

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 Types of Bail.......................................................................................................................................... 153
Bar council of India................................................................................................................................ 154
Types of advocates................................................................................................................................ 154
Law commission.................................................................................................................................... 154
COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES....................................................................................................................... 155
[PartIXB Article 243ZH-243ZT].................................................................................................................. 155
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE...............................................................................................................................156
[PartXVII Article 343-351].......................................................................................................................... 156
Language of union................................................................................................................................. 156

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Official Languages Act -1963................................................................................................................. 156
Regional language................................................................................................................................. 156

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Language of the judiciary and texts of laws........................................................................................... 156
Special directive..................................................................................................................................... 156
Committee of parliament on official language........................................................................................ 157
Classical language status...................................................................................................................... 157

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Public Service[PartXIV Article 308-323]................................................................................................ 157
All India services [Article 312]................................................................................................................ 158
Special Provisions [PartXVI Article 330-342]......................................................................................... 158
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Special provision for SC ST................................................................................................................... 158
Special provision For Backward Classes............................................................................................... 159
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 CONSTITUTION AND ITS MAKING
Constitution
The Constitution is a compact document that comprises a number of articles about the state, specifying
how the state is to be constituted and what norms it should follow. It is the fundamental law of the land.

Functions
● To provide a set of basic rules that allow for minimal coordination amongst members of a society.
● To specify who has the power to make decisions in a society. It decides how the government will

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be constituted.
● To set some limits on what a government can impose on its citizens. The government may
never trespass these limits. [CSE 2023]

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● To enable the government to fulfill the aspirations of a society and create conditions for a just
society.
● The Constitution expresses the fundamental identity of a people.

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Constitutionalism and constitutional morality
Constitutionalism refers to a system of governance where a constitution limits government power and
ensures the rule of law, preventing arbitrary authority and protecting individual rights. This approach
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requires democratic governance, where power is distributed evenly and no single individual or institution
holds absolute control. [CSE 2021]
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Constitutional morality means adherence to the core principles of the constitution in a democracy i.e.,
a moral obligation of an individual to uphold the constitutional values with utmost dignity without any
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compromise and being faithful towards it.

State
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State in political science has four features

1. A fixed territory
2. Sovereignty [no external control]
nd

3. Population
4. Government
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State is similar to the word country whereas the word state is used for constituent units such as Uttar
Pradesh ,Bihar etc.

A nation is a large group of people who inhabit a specific territory and are connected by history,
culture, or any other commonality.

A nation-state is a State[having above mentioned 4 features] where people are connected to each other
by history, culture, language etc. [British have raised the question on India being a nation because of
divided loyalties and lacking common identity. However, extremists like Aurbindo have established India as
a nation through cultural nationalism. Even today some scholars believe that India is a nation in making.]

7
Overview of Indian constitution
Schedules
Subject Part and article Subject Part and article
The Union and its territory Part I States in the Part-B of thePart VII
Article 1-4 First schedule Repealed by
7th CAA1956
Citizenship Part II The Union Territories Part VIII
Article 5-11 Article 238-242
Fundamental rights Part III The Panchayats Part IX

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Article 12-35 Article 243- 243O
Dpsp Part IV The municipalities Part IXA
Article 36-51 Article 243P-243ZG

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Fundamental duty Part IV-A Co-operative Societies Part IXB
Article 51-A Article 243H-243ZT
Union Part V (52-151) The Scheduled and Tribal Part X
Areas Article 244- 244A

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Chapter I - The Executive Article 52-78

ChapterII - Parliament d Article 79-122

Chapter III - Article 123

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Legislative Powers of
President
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ChapterIV-TheUnion Article 124- 147

Judiciary
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Chapter V - CAG Article 148-151

The States Part VI (152-237) Relations between the Part XI
Union and the States Article 245-263
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Chapter I – General Article 152

Chapter I - Legislative Article 245-255
Chapter II - The Executive Article 153-167 Relations
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Chapter III - The State Article 168 -212 Chapter II - Administrative Article 256-263
Legislature Relations

Chapter IV - Legislative Article 213

Powers of Governor

Chapter V - The High Courts Article 214-232

Chapter VI - Subordinate Article 233-237

Courts
Finance, Property, Part XII Official Language Part XVII
Contracts and Suits Article 264-301 [Article 343-351]
Chapter I - Finance Article 264-291 Chapter I - Language of Article 343-344
the Union
Chapter II - Borrowing Article 292-293 Chapter II - Regional Article 345-347
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 Languages
Chapter III - Property, Article 294-300 Chapter III-Language of Article 348-349
Contracts, Rights, the Supreme Court, High
Liabilities, Obligations and Courts, and so on
Suits

Chapter IV - Right to Article 300A Chapter IV-Special Article 350-351

Property Directives
Trade, Commerce, and Part XIII Emergency Provisions Part XVIII
Intercourse within the Article 301- 307 Article 352-360

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Territory of India
Services under the Union Part XIV Miscellaneous Part XIX

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and the States Article 308-323 Article 361-367
Tribunals Part XIVA Amendment of the Part XX
Article 323A Constitution Article 368
Elections Part XV Temporary, Transitional Part XXI

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Article 324-329 and Special Provisions Article 369-392
Special provisions relation Part XVI Short title, commencement, Part XXII
to certain classes Article 330-342 authoritative text in Hindi Article 393-395
and repeals
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Schedule Features
1 Names of States and Union Territories and their Territorial Jurisdiction
2 Allowances, privileges, and emoluments of -
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1. President of India 2. Governors of Indian States 3. Speaker of Lok Sabha &

Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha 4. Chairman of Rajya Sabha & Deputy Chairman of
Rajya Sabha 5. Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Legislative Assemblies of Indian
er

States 6. Chairman and Deputy Chairman of Legislative Councils of the Indian

States 7. Supreme Court Judges 8. High Court Judges 9. CAG
3 Oath or affirmation for
nd

1. Parliament Election Candidates 2. MPs 3. Union Ministers of India 4. State

Legislature Elections’ Candidates 5. MLAs 6. State Ministers 7. Supreme Court
Judges 8. High Court Judges 9. CAG
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4 Allocation of seats for States and UT in the Rajya Sabha

5 Administration and control of scheduled areas and scheduled tribes
6 Administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
7 Lists: Union, State and Concurrent
8 Contains 22 official languages recognized by the Constitution of India[refer below
table]
9 Provisions as to validation of certain Acts and Regulation
[added by Parliament can place any law in this schedule [CSE 2018]. Earlier mostly land
1st CAA 1951] reform acts were placed in this schedule to prevent them from being challenged in
SC on grounds of violation of Fundamental right to property. But later other acts
were also placed to prevent judicial scrutiny; however, SC in IR Coelho case held
that any law in this schedule can be judicially reviewed on the ground of violation
of basic structure. [CSE 2018]
[introduced during prime ministership of Jawahar lal Nehru] [CSE 2019]
10 Anti- Defection Law provisions.

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 [added by
52nd CAA 1985]
11 Powers, authority, and responsibilities of Panchayats [29 matter]
[added by
73rd CAA 1992]
12 Powers, authority, and responsibilities of Municipalities [18 matter]
[added by
74th CAA 1992]

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14 LANGUAGES IN ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION Added by 21st CAA 1967
1. Assamese 15. Sindhi

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2. Bengali
3. Gujarati Added by 71st CAA 1992[CSE 2024]
4. Hindi 16. Konkani
5. Kashmiri 17. Manipuri

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6. Tamil 18. Nepali
7. Telugu
8. Malayalam Added by 92nd CAA 2003
9. Kannada 19. Bodo
10. Marathi
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11. Odia 21. Mathilli
12. Punjabi 22. Santhali
13. Sanskrit 96th CAA 2011
14. Urdu Oriya changed to Odia
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Features of Indian constitution

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1. Lengthiest written constitution

○ Presently about 465 Articles divided into 25 Parts and 12 Schedules. [originally 395 articles
nd

22 parts and 8 schedules].

2. Parliamentary Form of Government
○ Presence of nominal and real executives.
○ Majority party rule.
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○ Collective responsibility of the executive to the legislature.[CSE 2020]

○ Double membership of ministers.
○ Leadership of the prime minister.
○ Dissolution of the lower House (Lok Sabha or Assembly).
3. Integrated and Independent Judiciary.
4. Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty and Judicial Supremacy.
○ Synthesis between the British parliamentary sovereignty and the American judicial
supremacy.
○ Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility [living document].
5. Federal feature with unitary bias.
6. No strict separation of power but checks and balances are present.

Timeline of constituent assembly

● 1934 – Idea by MN Roy

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 ● 1935 – First demand of Constituent Assembly by congress.
● 1940 – In principle acceptance by August offer.
● 1942 – Draft proposal by cripps mission.
● 1946 – Election of constituent assembly based on Cabinet mission.
○ The Constituent Assembly was partly elected and partly nominated. The members were
indirectly elected by the members of the provincial assemblies, who themselves were
elected on a limited franchise.[CSE 2013]
○ Originally 389 seats and 296 for provinces[congress won209] and 93 for princely
states.Later after independence of India Act the seats reduced to 299 and for provinces it
became 229 and for princely states 70.Seats in each Province were distributed among the

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three main communities, Muslims, Sikhs and general.[Not Hindu]
● 9 Dec 1946 – 1st meeting [Muslim league boycotted], Sachchidananda Sinha as provisional

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president.
● 11 Dec 1946 – Rajendra Prasad elected as President of assembly and H.C. Mukherjee and
[congress won209] was elected as the [congress won209]
● 13 dec 1946 – Objective resolution moved

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● 22 Jan 1947 – Objective resolution accepted
● 3 June, 1947- Mountbatten Plan
● Indian Independence Act of 1947-Assembly was made a fully sovereign body; Assembly also
became a legislative body. It became the first Parliament of free India (Dominion
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Legislature).GV Mavalankar became the speaker.
● Constituent Assembly had 11 sessions over 2 years, 11 months and 18 days.[12 session including
an
session on 24 January1950 ]
● 26 November 1949[signed by 284 members] – Constitution was adopted [constitution day 26
November] [CSE 2023]
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● Constituent assembly also performed -

○ 22 July 1947 – Adopted national flag
○ May 1949 – Ratified commonwealth membership of India
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○ 24 Jan 1950- Adopted National Anthem and National Song [both have equal
status]
○ 24 Jan 1950 – Elected Rajendra Prasad as President
nd

● Provisions related to citizenship, elections, provisional parliament, temporary and transitional

provisions, and short title contained in Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388,391,
392 and 393 came into force on 26 November 1949.
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Important committees

Rajendra Prasad Steering Committee, Rules of Procedure

Committee, Provincial Constitution Committee,
Finance and staff committee, Ad-hoc Committee
on the National Flag

Jawaharlal Nehru Union Powers Committee, States committee,

Union Constitution Committee, Special Committee
to Examine the Draft Constitution

Sardar patel Advisory committee on fundamental rights,

minorities, Tribal Areas, and Excluded Areas,
Provincial Constitution Committee

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 Pattabhi Sitaramayya House Committee, Committee on Chief
Commissioners’ Provinces

Dr. K.M. Munshi Order of Business Committee

Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar Credentials committee

G.V. Mavalankar Committee on the Functions of the Constituent

Assembly

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S. Varadachari (Not an Assembly Member) Ad-hoc Committee on the Supreme Court

S.K. Dar (Not an Assembly Member) Linguistic Provinces Commission

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Drafting Committee - set up on August 29, 1947[CSE 2023] + 7 members
1. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Chairman)
2. N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar

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3. Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar
4. Dr. K.M. Munshi
5. Syed Mohammad Saadullahd
6. N. Madhava Rau (He replaced B.L. Mitter who resigned due to ill-health)
7. T.T. Krishnamachari (He replaced D.P. Khaitan who died in 1948)
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Facts about Constituent assembly
● Universal adult franchise was only provision adopted without debate
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● Seal – Elephant
● Constitutional advisor- BN Rau
● Secretary- HVR Iyengar
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● Chief draftsman – SN Mukherjee

● Calligrapher - Prem Behari Narain Raizada
● Decorator- Nand Lal Bose and Beohar Rammanohar Sinha.
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Source Borrowed feature

British Constitution Parliamentary government, Rule of Law, Legislative procedure,
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Single citizenship, Cabinet System, Prerogative Writs, Parliamentary Privileges

and Bicameralism.
Government of India Federal Scheme, Office of governor, Judiciary, Public Service Commissions,
Act of 1935 Emergency provisions and administrative details.
US Constitution Fundamental rights, Independence of Judiciary,Judicial Review, Impeachment
of the president, Removal of Supreme Court and High Court Judges and post
of vice president.
Australian Constitution Concurrent List, Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Inter-course, and Joint
sitting of the two Houses of Parliament.
Canadian Constitution Federation with a strong Centre, Vesting of residuary powers in the Centre,
Appointment of State Governors by the Centre, Advisory Jurisdiction of the
Supreme Court.
Irish Constitution Directive Principles of State Policy, Nomination of members to Rajya Sabha
and method of election of President

12
Weimar Constitution Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency.
of Germany
Soviet Constitution Fundamental duties and the Ideal of Justice (social, economic and political) in
the Preamble.
Japanese Constitution Procedure established by Law

French Constitution Republic and the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity in the Preamble.

South African Constitution Procedure for amendment of the Constitution and election of
Constitution members of Rajya Sabha

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 HISTORICAL UNDERPINNING
Regulating Act of 1773 Amending Act of 1781
● First act to regulate affairs of east India ● To rectify defects of 1773 act.
company. ● Official acts of Governor General, Council
● In England proprietors would elect 24 and servants of company exempted from
directors for 4 years. jurisdiction of Supreme court.
● Governor of Bengal changed to governor ● Supreme Court jurisdiction extended to all

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general of Bengal [first- Warren residents of Calcutta. Also in SC in matters
Hastings]. of personal law there are separate laws for
● 4-member executive council to assist the Hindus and Muslims. Hindu law applied to

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governor general. Hindus and Muslim law [shariyat] applied to
● Madras and Bombay presidency Muslims.
subordinated to Bengal. ● Appeals from provincial court to governor
● Establishment of supreme court at general council and not supreme court.

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Calcutta with 1 chief justice [Elijah
Imphey] and 3 judges.
● Servants prohibited from taking bribes.

Pitt’s India Act 1784

●
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New body in England named the Board of
Charter Act of 1793
● Extended monopoly of the company for
an
Control with 6 members for political next 20 years.
affairs. ● Salaries of board of control to be paid from
● Court of directors to manage Indian revenues.
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commercial affairs. ● Gave veto power to Governor General of

● Strength of Executive council of governor Bengal.
general reduced from 4 to 3. ● Governor General of Bengal can appoint
er

● Governor of Bombay, Madras Justice of Peace in presidency towns.

subordinated to Governor General of ● Senior officials cannot leave India without
Bengal in matters of war, diplomacy, permission.
nd

revenue. ● Company had to pay 5 lakh pounds

● Company territories were called British annually to the British government.
possession. ● Company can give license for individual
trade known as privilege trade or country
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trade.
● Revenue administration and judicial
function separated leading to
disappearance of Maal Adalat.

Charter Act of 1813 Charter Act of 1833

● Ended the monopoly except trade with ● Monopoly ended in China trade and
China and trade in tea. exceptions were abolished.
● Company should spend 1 lakh rupee for ● Administration was centralised.
promoting education annually [CSE 2018] ● Governor General of Bengal became the
● Allowed Christian missionaries. Governor General of India [first William
● Authorised local govt to impose taxes on Bentick]
persons. ● Governors of Bombay and Madras were
deprived of their legislative powers.
● Earlier laws were known as regulations but

14
 from now onwards known as acts.
● Introduced law member [first Macaulay]
in Governor General’s Council.
● Law commission was to be constituted for
consolidation and codification of Indian
laws.
● Services under company govt were
opened for all Indians.[ but this was not
implemented].
● All restrictions on European immigration

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and acquisition of property were lifted.
● Company should take steps for improving

PS
the conditions of slaves. [Act V of 1843
abolished slavery]

Charter Act of 1853 Government of India act 1858

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● Reduce the strength of the Court of ● Also known as the Act for the Good
Director from 24 to 18. Government of India.
● Introduced open competition for civil ● Governor-General of India changed to
services [first Indian Satyendra Nath
d Viceroy of India
Tagore in 1963-64]. ● Abolished board of control and court of
● Separated executive and legislative director [ended double govt].
an
function of Governor general of India. ● Secretary of state for India [member of
● For legislative function the Governor British parliament was given control and
General executive council will consult 6 authority of Indian administration.
St

additional members. [Governor General + ● Established a 15-member Council of India

Executive council (4) +Commander in to assist the Secretary of State for India.
Chief + 6 member=Indian central ● Secretary of state can be sued in India and
er

legislative council]. in England.

● The Governor General has power to veto
any proposal.
nd

Indian Council Act 1861 Indian Council Act 1892

● Indians as non-official members of viceroy ● Council got the power to discuss the
expanded council [ Raja of Banaras, The budget and ask questions to the Executive
U

Maharaja of Patiala, and Sir Dinkar Rao.] [demand of congress].

● Started the process of decentralisation ● Number of additional (non-official)
by restoring legislative power to Bombay members in the Central and provincial
and madras. legislative councils was increased but
● Viceroy can issue ordinances during official majority was maintained.
Emergency ● Some non-official members of Central
● New legislative councils for NWFP, Legislative Council to be nominated by
Bengal, Punjab. the Viceroy on the recommendation of the
● Statutory recognition to portfolio system provincial legislative councils and the
[introduced by Canning] Bengal Chamber of Commerce, and of the
provincial legislative councils by the
Governors on the recommendation of the
district boards, municipalities, universities,
trade associations, zamindars and
chambers.

15
Indian Council Act of 1909 [Morley-Minto Government of India Act, 1919 [Montague -
Reforms] Chelmsford Reforms]
● Introduced separate electorate for ● Separate electorate extended to Sikhs,
Muslims [father of communal electorate]. christian, Anglo-Indian.
● Size of legislative councils both at central ● The Secretary of State for India will
and province enlarged. receive salary from British revenue.
● Introduced elections(indirect) and in ● Dyarchy in provinces i.e., division of
provincial legislative councils non official provincial subjects in transferred and
members can be in majority. reserved categories. [CSE 2017] Reserved
● Allowed association of Indians with the subjects [eg. Police, Land revenue,

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Executive Councils of the Viceroy and Administration of justice, Irrigation]
Governors. [first Satyendra Prasad [CSE 2022] were under complete control of

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Sinha]. the governor.
● Supplementary questions were allowed. ● Bicameral legislature at centre.
● It provided for the separate representation ● Some powers of secretary of state were
of chambers of commerce, presidency assigned to the High Commissioner of

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corporations, universities and zamindars. India in London.
● Clearly defines jurisdiction of central and
d provincial governments by separating
central and provincial subjects. [CSE2015]
● ICS exam to be held in India [first1920 in
an
Allahabad]
● Women got right to vote.[not all]

Government of India act 1935 Indian Independence Act, 1947

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● Provision of All India federation including ● India as an independent and sovereign

princely states and provinces [ never came state from 15 August1947.
into existence]. ● Two independent dominions of India and
er

● Abolished dyarchy in the provinces and Pakistan were created.

introduced ‘provincial autonomy.[CSE ● Constituent assemblies of 2 dominions can
2000]. frame and adopt any constitution.
nd

● Bicameralism in 6 of 11 provinces. ● Lapse of British paramountcy over the

● Abolished council of India Indian princely state and they can join any
● Residuary powers with viceroy dominion.
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[CSE 2018] ● Until a new constitution is formed,

● Reservation for depressed classes dominions to be governed by government
(scheduled castes) women and labour of India act 1935.
(workers) [CSE 2021] ● Abolished viceroy and provided for
● Establish RBI and Federal Public governor general.
Service commission and Provincial Public ● Abolished office of secretary of state.
Service commission
● Separated Burma from India
● Created 2 new provinces of Orissa and
Sindh
● Provided for Auditor General and Federal
Railway Authority
● Extended franchise [around 14%
population got the voting rights]

16
 THE PREAMBLE
● American Constitution - First to begin with a Preamble.
● Reflects the mind of makers of constitution [CSE 2017].
● Reflect the principles of UDHR[universal declaration on human rights] 1948 along with fundamental
rights, DPSP and fundamental duties [CSE 2020].
● Based on Objective Resolution.

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PS
Identity card: Said by N A Palkhivala.

U
d
Horoscope: Said by K M Munshi.
an
Elements
1. Source of authority of the Constitution: People of India.
2. Nature of the Indian State: Socialist, Secular Democratic and Republican polity.
St

3. Objectives of the Constitution: Justice, liberty, equality and fraternity [CSE 2017]
4. Date of adoption of the Constitution: November 26, 1949.
er

Keywords
● Sovereign: The term means that India has its independent authority and is not a dominion of any
other external power, and it is free to conduct its own affairs.
nd

● Socialist: The term means the achievement of socialist ends through democratic means. It
promotes 'democratic socialism', which holds faith in a mixed economy where both private and
public sectors co-exist side by side.
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● Secular: The term means that all the religions in India get equal respect, protection, and support
from the state.

Western Secularism India Secularism

Complete separation Principled distance
No role in religious reform Role of state
No intervention State promoting religion
Negative concept of secularism Positive concept [sarv dharma sambhav]
No state support to any educational institution A state can aid educational institutions run by
run by religious minorities. minorities.

● Democratic: Refers to the Constitution that gets its authority from the will of the people expressed
in an election. Democracy is not limited to political aspect but also social and economic. India is a
representative democracy rather than a direct democracy like Switzerland.Also John Locke called
it a system of government by consent.[CDS 2021]

17
 ● Republic: Indicate the head of the state is elected by the people. Eg. elected president in India. It
also denotes absence of privileged class i.e. public offices are open to everyone.
● Liberty: It means the absence of restraints[but not in absolute sense] on the activities of
individuals and at the same time, providing opportunities for the development of individual
personalities [CSE 2019]. However, liberty is not absolute but limited fulfilling the maxim of no law
no liberty. [ CSE 2018]
● Equality: It means the absence of special privileges to any section of society and the provision of
adequate opportunities for all individuals without any discrimination.
● Fraternity: It means a sense of brotherhood.

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Is the Preamble a part of the Constitution or Can the Preamble be Amended under Article
not? 368?

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● Berubari Union Case (1960) - Not part of ● Kesavananda Bharati Case, 1973- Yes can
constitution. be amended subject to basic structure.

● Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) – Yes ● 42nd CAA 1976 added ‘Socialist’, ‘Secular’,

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part of constitution. and ‘Integrity’

● LIC of India Case (1995)- Yes integral part

d
● Overall part of constitution and can be
used in interpretation of const. but is non
an
justiciable in nature and independently
neither a source of power to legislature nor
a prohibition upon the powers of
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legislature. [CSE 2023]

er
nd
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18
 UNION AND ITS TERRITORY
Article 1 India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
Name and territory of the Union Although word union is being used in place of
federation yet from various judgements it is clear that
the Indian constitution is federal in nature and
federalism is basic structure.
Indian federation is not the result of an agreement

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among the states [coming together model] like the
American Federation and the states have no right to
secede [holding together model] from the federation.

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[CSE 2017]
Territory of India can be classified as-
1.Territories of the states 2. Union territories 3.
Territories that may be acquired

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Article 2 Parliament may by law admit into the Union, or
Admission or establishment of New States establish, new States on such terms and conditions as
it thinks fit.

Article 3
d Parliament may by law— (a) form a new State by
an
separation of territory from any State or by uniting two
Formation of New States and alteration of or more States or parts of States or by uniting any
areas, boundaries or names of existing territory to a part of any State; (b) increase the area of
St

States any State; (c) diminish the area of any State; (d) alter
the boundaries of any State; (e) alter the name of any
State [CDS 2019]
er

For above changes bill needs prior recommendation of

president
nd

Also, the president should refer the bill to the

concerned state legislature for their views in the
specified time period. But the views of state are not
binding
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Further bills can be passed by parliament through

simple majority.

Article 4 Any law referred to in article 2 or article 3 shall contain

such provisions for the amendment of the First
Schedule and the Fourth Schedule shall not be
deemed as amendment under article 368.

Evolution of States and Union Territories

● Integration of around 550 princely states after independence.
● Integration led to four-fold classification with 29 states.
● Demands of linguistic reorganisation led to-
1. Dhar commission – June 1948, Chairman SK Dhar + Report in December, 1948, and
recommended the reorganisation of states on the basis of administrative convenience rather
than linguistic factor.
19
 2. JVP committee – December 1948, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel, Pattabhi
Sitaramaiya [no chairman] + For reorganisation rejected language as basis.
3. [1953 first linguistic state of Andhra was created from madras state]
4. Fazl Ali commission (state reorganisation commission)- December 1953, Chairman
Fazl Ali, members K.M. Panikkar and H.N. Kunzru + submitted report in 1955 and rejected
one language one state but broadly accepted language as basis + recommended
abolition of four- fold classification of states

By the States Reorganisation Act (1956) and the 7th Constitutional Amendment Act (1956)
rearrangements were done resulting in 14 states and 6 union territories.

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● Kerala= Travancore + Cochin + South Canara
● Andhra Pradesh= Andhra + Hyderabad

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● Madhya Pradesh= Madhya Bharat + Vindhya + Bhopal
● New UT= Laccadive; Minicoy; Amindivi Islands from the territory detached from the Madras state

New states

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1960 Maharashtra and Gujarat 1974 Sikkim (36th CAA1975. Sikkim
Bifurcated d full-fledged State) [referendum
held in Sikkim]

1961 Dadra and Nagar Haveli (10th 1987 Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh,
an
CAA) Goa

1962 Goa,Daman,Diu (12th CAA) 2000 Chhattisgarh,Uttarakhand,

French handover Puducherry Jharkhand
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(14th CAA)

1963 Nagaland 2014 Telangana

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1967 Haryana 2019 Union territory of Ladakh,

Jammu and Kashmir
nd

J AND K Reorganisation Act,

2019, bifurcated the earlier
state of Jammu and Kashmir.
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1971 Himachal Pradesh

20
 CITIZENSHIP
Citizenship has been defined as full and equal membership of political community in which an individual is
entitled for certain rights [NCERT].
1. The Constitution deals with the citizenship from Articles 5 to 11 under Part II but detailed provision
regarding it is absent. It does not deal with the problem of acquisition or loss of citizenship
subsequent to its commencement.
2. It empowers the Parliament to enact a law to provide for such matters and any other matter relating
to citizenship. Accordingly, the Parliament has enacted the Citizenship Act (1955)

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3. Single Citizenship: Despite its federal structure, India does not provide dual citizenship, unlike the
U.S.A. There is only one citizenship and one domicile [CSE 2021] There is only single citizenship

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i.e. Indian citizenship. However, the Indian Constitution does not define citizenship.
4. According to constitution citizens are-

ARTICLE 5 Person who is domicile in India – born and any one of the parent is Indian,

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(descent) or resident in India for 5 years.

ARTICLE 6 People who came from Pakistan.

d
ARTICLE 7 People who went to Pakistan and returned back to India before commencement of
this constitution.
an
ARTICLE 8 Persons of Indian origin residing outside India (by registration).
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ARTICLE 9 Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens.

The Citizenship Act (1955) provides for acquisition and loss of citizenship after the commencement of the
er

Constitution.

This Act Provides 5 Ways For Citizenship

nd

Birth ● If a person is born in India and both the Parents are Indian or one of
the parents is Indian and the other one is not an illegal Immigrant.
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Descent ● Individuals born outside India, if both or either parent is an Indian

citizen and not an illegal migrant, are considered Indian citizens by
descent if their birth is registered at an Indian Mission/Post abroad
within one year.

Registration ● For individuals of Indian origin who have been resident in India for
seven years, resided in any country outside India, are married to a
citizen of India, and have been an OCI Cardholder for five years.

Naturalization ● The Central Government may, if satisfied that the applicant is

qualified for naturalisation under the provisions of the Third
Schedule, grant him a certificate.

Incorporation of ● If any territory becomes a part of India, the Central Government,

territory (Section 7) may by orders, specify the persons who shall be citizens of India by
reasons of their connection with that territory,

21
The Citizenship Act (1955) prescribes three ways of losing citizenship

Renunciation Any citizen can renounce citizenship by making a declaration when a person
renounces citizenship, every minor child of that person also loses citizenship, when
such a child attains the age of 18 he may resume citizenship.

Termination If an Indian citizen willingly acquires citizenship in another nation, his Indian
citizenship is terminated. This provision is not applicable during times of war.

Deprivation compulsory termination of citizenship in India by the central government

(a) if obtained the citizenship by fraud:

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(b) shown disloyalty to the Constitution of India;
(c) the citizen has unlawfully traded or communicated with the enemy during a war;
(d) the citizen has, within five years after registration or naturalisation, been

PS
imprisoned in any country for two years;
(e) the citizen has been ordinarily resident out of India for seven years continuously.
A foreigner once granted citizenship can be deprived of it. [CSE 2021]

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In India, both a citizen by birth as well as a naturalised citizen are eligible for the office of President.
While in USA, only a citizen by birth and not a naturalised citizen is eligible for the office of the
President.[CSE 2021]
d
Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) 2019
an
a. The legislation grants citizenship to six minorities (Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian)
fleeing religious persecution from Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh.
b. The citizenship will be granted to those who entered India from these countries on or before
St

December 31, 2014.

Relaxation of Naturalisation Process to acquire citizenship

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CAA 2019 amends the Citizenship Act of 1955. The amendment relaxes the residence requirement for
naturalisation of these migrants from eleven years to five.
nd

Exemption from Criminal cases and Deportation

CAA exempts the members of the six communities from any criminal case and deportation under the
Foreigners Act, 1946 and the Passport Act, 1920.
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Exceptions to the Act

The provisions on citizenship for illegal migrants will not apply to two categories-
a. States protected by the ‘Inner Line Permit
b. Areas covered under the sixth schedule of the constitution

Non-Resident Indian (NRI) Persons of Indian Origin Overseas citizens of India (OCI)
(PIO) Cardholder

● An Indian citizen who ● A person who or ● A Person registered as an

is ordinarily residing whose ancestors Overseas Citizen of India (OCI)
outside India and were of Indian Cardholder under the Citizenship
holds an Indian nationality and who is Act, 1955.
Passport. presently holding
another country’s

22
 citizenship/ nationality
i.e. he/she is holding
a foreign passport.

● All the benefits that ● No specific benefits. ● Multiple lifelong visas for visiting
are available to India for any purpose (requires
Indian citizens special permission to undertake
subject to research work in India).
notifications issued ● Exemption from registration with the

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by the Government Foreigners Regional Registration
from time to time. Officer (FRRO).
● Parity with NRIs in respect of all

PS
facilities available to them in
economic, financial, and
educational fields except in
matters relating to the acquisition of

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agricultural or plantation properties.
● Treated at par with NRIs in the
d matter of intercountry adoption of
Indian children.
● Treated at par with resident Indian
an
nationals in the matter of tariffs on
air fares in domestic sectors in
India.
St

● No Visa is required. ● Visa required. ● Can visit India without a Visa for life
long.
er

● Not required to Yes, if the period of stay is ● Not required to register with the
register with the local for more than 180 days. local police authorities in India.
police authorities in
nd

India.

● All Activities can be Activities as per the type of ● All activities except research work
undertaken. visa obtained. for which special permission is
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required from the Indian

Mission/Post/ FRRO concerned.

● He/she is an Indian citizenship act 1955 a ● As per the Citizenship Act, 1955, a
citizen. person has to be ordinarily person registered as an OCI
resident in India for 7 years cardholder for 5 years and who is
before making an application ordinarily resident in India for
for registration twelve months before making an
application for registration is eligible
for a grant of Indian

23
 FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
1. Fundamental Rights refer to a set of essential liberties and entitlements guaranteed to every
citizen by the constitution. For protecting citizens from arbitrary state actions and ensuring basic
human rights and freedoms.
2. Inspired by the Constitution of the USA (i.e., Bill of Rights] A bill of rights prohibits the government
from thus acting against the rights of the individuals and ensures a remedy in case there is violation
of these rights.
3. Fundamental rights are also described as the Magna Carta of India.

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4. Named so because they are guaranteed and protected by the Constitution.
5. Articles 12 to 35 in Part III of the Indian Constitution provide for six Fundamental Rights.

PS
● Right to Equality (Articles 14–18)
● Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22)
● Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24)

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● Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28)
● Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30)
● Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)
d
Originally, the Constitution provided for Seven Fundamental Rights, However, the 44th Amendment
an
Act removed the Right to Property from the list. It was, instead, made a legal right under Article 300-A
in Part XII of the Constitution.

FEATURES OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

St

● Some of these rights are available only to citizens, while others are available to all persons
whether citizens, foreigners, or legal persons like corporations, companies, etc.
er

● All these rights are available against the arbitrary action of the state. However, some of them are
also against the actions of private individuals. [CAPF]
● Some of these rights are negative in character as they place limitations on the authority of the
nd

State, while others are positive in nature as they confer certain privileges on individuals.
● These rights are protected and safeguarded by the Supreme Court. Hence, the aggrieved person
can directly proceed to the Supreme Court without necessarily appealing against the judgement of
the high courts.
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● These rights are not considered sacrosanct or permanent. They can be amended by the
Parliament through a constitutional amendment process, provided such amendments do not violate
the basic structure of the Constitution.
● During a state of national emergency, certain rights can be suspended by the President, except
those guaranteed under Articles 20 and 21
● The Parliament can restrict or abrogate the application of these rights on the members of the
armed forces, paramilitary forces, police forces, intelligence agencies, and analogous services
(Article 33).
● Most of them are directly enforceable, while others can be enforced based on a law specifically
made to give effect to them. Only Parliament can enact laws regarding these rights to ensure
uniformity across the nation (Article 35).
● Every right or duty involves legal obligation by which two or more persons are bound together.
For instance, you cannot enjoy Right to clean environment if others do not perform their duty of
protecting and conserving the environment. So rights are correlative with duty [CSE 2017].

24
Liberal democracy
1. Constitutional government based on formal, usually legal rules.
2. Guarantees of civil liberties and individual rights [CAPF].

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PS
U
d
an
St
er
nd
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25
ABOVE CHART HAS BEEN A SOURCE OF MANY QUESTIONS OF UPSC

Definition of State (Article 12)

Article 12 defines the term ‘State’ for Part III. Accordingly, the State Government and Parliament of India
and the Government and the Legislature of each of the States and all local or other authorities within
the territory of India or under the control of the Government of India.

Supreme Court even a private body or an agency working as an instrument of the State falls within the
meaning of the ‘State’ under Article 12.

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In Sukhdev vs Bhagatram case - LIC (Life Insurance Corporation of India), ONGC (Oil and Natural

PS
Gas Corporation) and IFC (International Finance Corporation) were held to be State as they perform
very similar functions which seem to be governmental or sovereign functions.

Article 13

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According to it if any law inconsistent with any fundamental right, then that law can be declared as void
Term law has broad meaning it can be
d
1. Parliamentary law or state law
2. Ordinances
an
3. Custom of society
4. Bye laws delegated legislation
5. Any notification
St

Word law do not apply for personal laws

er

Article 13 declares that a constitutional amendment is not a law and hence cannot be challenged. but
Supreme Court held in the Keshavananda Bharati case that an amendment can be challenged on the
ground that it violates a fundamental right
nd

Article 14
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State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the
territory of India. This provision confers rights on all persons whether citizens or foreigners. Moreover, the
word ‘person’ includes legal persons, viz, statutory corporations, companies, registered societies or
any other type of legal person

Equality before the law (Negative NO special privileges to any person. No person is
concept): above the law.
Equal treatment of all persons to the law.

Equal protection of the law (Positive Equality of treatment under equal circumstances
concept Similar application of same law to all people who are
similarly situated
Like should be treated alike without discrimination
Rule of law is a Part of Basic Structure

26
Exception to article 14
1. Article 361 which immunes the president and governor for criminal proceeding, answerability to
court and imprisonment.
2. International convention related immunity like Vienna convention for diplomatic officials etc.
3. Article 105 and 194 for MP and MLA privilege which is still uncodified.
4. Article 31 [b] [c] of directive principles of state policy which are there for affirmative action for
disadvantaged sections.

The Supreme Court of India has held in some judgments [Nagaraj case] that the reservation policies made
under Article 16(4) of the Constitution of India would be limited by Article 335 for maintenance of efficiency

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of administration. [CSE 2023]

PS
Article 335:
Claims of SC & STs to services and posts shall be taken into consideration, with the maintenance of
efficiency of administration in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the
affairs of the Union or of a State [however word efficiency is not defined]

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[REMEMBER MAD SERIES THAT ANY QUESTION OF POLITY WHICH SEEKS TO STATE THAT THIS
XYZ IS DEFINED IN CONSTITUTION IS GENERALLY WRONG UNLESS YOU ARE AWARE OF]

A legislation which confers on the executive or administrative authority an unguided and uncontrolled
d
discretionary power in the matter of the application of law violates Article14 of the Constitution of India
an
[CSE 2021]

Main feature of rule of law [CSE 2018]

1. Limitation of powers
St

2. Equality before law

3. Liberty and civil rights
er

ARTICLE 15
1. The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex,
nd

place of birth or any of them. IT MEANS THAT DISCRIMINATION ON OTHER GROUND CAN BE
ACCEPTED
2. No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them, be
subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to-
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● Access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or

● The use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly
out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.

EXCEPTION

Special provision for

1. Women and children like the policy of reservation.
2. Advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens [SEBC] or for the
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
3. Admission to educational institutions including private, whether aided or unaided by the state,
except the minority educational institutions to SEBC.
4. Advancement of any economically weaker section in education [10 percent quota is allowed] except
the minority educational institutions [103th CAA 2019].
27
ARTICLE 16
1. There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or
appointment to any office under the State.
2. No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or
any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office under
the State. [ ASPIRANT MUST NOTE THAT IN ARTICLE 15 WORD DESCENT & PLACE OF
RESIDENT NOT MENTIONED]

EXCEPTIONS

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● Parliament can prescribe residence as a condition for certain employment or appointment in a
state or union territory or local authority or other authority.

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● Reservation to SEBC by state.
● A law can provide that the incumbent of an office related to religious or denominational institution or
a member of its governing body should belong to the particular religion or denomination.
● Reservation to EWS by state.

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SOME RELATED CASE LAWS AND AMENDMENT
d
1. M. Nagaraj case Supreme court approved Parliament’s decision to extend reservations for SCs and
STs to include promotions.
an
2. Indira Sawhney Judgement 1992 – Total reservations shall not exceed 50%.

76th Amendment Act,1994 Tamil Nadu 69% reservation in 9th schedule to protect from judicial
St

review.

77th Amendment Act, 1995 Reservation in promotions in favor of SCs and STs if they are not
adequately represented
er

81st Amendment Act, 2000 It empowers the state to fill backlog vacancies even if they cross the
50% ceiling.
nd

85th Amendment Act, 2001 It provides consequential seniority for SCs, STs with retrospective effect
from June 1995.
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103rd Amendment Act Amends Article 15 and 16, Provides for 10% reservation in jobs and
2019 educational institutions for the EWS.

ARTICLE 17 [CSE 2020]

"Untouchability" is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability
arising out of "Untouchability" shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.

It refers to the social disabilities imposed on certain classes of persons by reason of their birth in certain
castes. Hence, it does not cover social boycott of a few individuals or their exclusion from religious
services,

Untouchability neither defined in Constitution nor in Protection of Civil Rights act 1955
28
ARTICLE 18
Abolition of titles
1. Prohibits state from conferring any title on anybody (Except military, academics)
2. Citizens can’t accept any Titles from foreign States.
3. A foreigner working for the Indian government can’t accept a title from foreign state without the
consent of the President.
4. No citizen or foreigner holding any office of profit shall not accept any present, emolument without
the consent of the President.
5. Bharat Ratna, Padma Awards are not titles. (Not to be used as suffixes or prefixes to the names of

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awardees) [CSE 2021]
6. Balaji Raghavan Case - Court held that National awards aren’t titles under Article 18.

PS
ARTICLE 19
1. The Right to Freedom is a fundamental human right that encompasses various dimensions of

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individual liberty and autonomy. It is recognized and protected by numerous international human
rights instruments, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
2. These 6 rights are protected only against state action and not private individual
3. Originally, Article 19 of the Indian Constitution contained seven rights. However, the right to acquire,
d
hold, and dispose of property was deleted by the 44th Amendment Act of 1978.
4. These rights are available only to the citizens and shareholders of a company. They are not
an
available to foreigners or legal entities like corporations, companies, etc.
5. Reasonable restrictions can be imposed by the state on these six rights only on the grounds
mentioned in Article 19 itself and not on any other grounds.
St

ARTICLE 19 REASONABLE RESTRICTION REMARKS

er

The right to express one’s ● Sovereignty and integrity Also includes the right to propagate
views, opinions, beliefs, of India one’s own as well as others’ views.
and convictions ● Security of the state
nd

Freely by word of mouth, ● Friendly relations with against the imposition of

writing, printing, picturing, foreign states pre-censorship on a newspaper.
or in any other manner. ● Public order, decency, or ● demonstration or picketing but
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morality not right to strike.

● Contempt of court ● Right against ‘bandh’ called by
● Defamation, and a political party or
● Incitement to an offence organisation.

Every citizen has the right ● Sovereignty and integrity This right does not include the right
to assemble peacefully of India, to strike.
(without arms), including ● Public order and morality. The right to obtain recognition of an
the right to hold public association formed is not a
meetings, demonstrations, fundamental right.
and take-out processions. As per Supreme Court, the trade
unions have no guaranteed right to
effective bargaining or right to strike
or right to declare a lock-out.

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