ANCIENT INDIA - HISTORY

CHAPTER 1: THE PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD

SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
 NUMISMATICS
o The study of coins is known as numismatics.
o Ancient coins were mostly made of gold, silver, copper or lead.
 INSCRIPTIONS
o They are a historical, religious, or other record cut, impressed, painted, or written on stone, brick,
metal, or other hard surface.
o The study of inscriptions is called epigraphy.
o The study of the writings on ancient inscriptions and records is called paleography.
 ARCHAEOLOGY
o The scientific study of the material remains of past human life and activities.
o Ancient ruins, remains and monuments recovered as a result of excavation and exploration are
archaeological sources of history.
 LITERARY SOURCES
 MANUSCRIPTS – written by hand on palm leaves or sheep leather or wooden tablet.
 Religious Literature – Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Buddhist literature. These provide
information about religious beliefs, social systems, people’s manners and customs, political
institutions, and conditions of culture.
 Secular Literature - They are literary sources not linked to any religion. Examples- law books
(Dharma sutras), Arthashastra (Kautilya); works of Kalidasa, Sangam literature.
 Foreign accounts – The Greek ambassador Megasthenes stayed in the court of Chandragupta Maurya
and wrote his famous work Indica which spoke Mauryan polity and society. The Chinese travelers
like Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang had left valuable accounts of events related to ancient India.

PREHISTORIC PERIOD
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STONE AGE
 The age when the prehistoric man began to
use stones for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age.
 The Stone Age is divided into three broad divisions —
 Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (from unknown till 8000 BC),
 Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age (8000 BC-4000 BC)
 Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age (4000 BC-2500 BC)

PALEOLITHIC AGE
 The human beings living in the Paleolithic Age were essentially food gatherers and depended on nature
for food.
 The art of hunting and stalking wild animals individually and later in groups led to these people making
stone weapons and tools.
 First, crudely carved out stones were used in hunting, but as the size of the groups began to increase and
there was need for more food, these people began to make “specialized tools” by flaking stones, which
were pointed on one end.
 No knowledge of cultivation & house building.
 Human beings had come to make and use fire.

Early/ Lower Palaeolithic  5 Lakh – 50000 BC

Age  Tools → Cleavers, Choppers, Axes

Middle Paleolithic Age  50000 – 40000 BC

 Flakes Tools → Blades, Pointers, Borers and
Scrapers
Upper Paleolithic Age  40000 – 10000 BC
 Climate became comparatively warm.
 Marked the appearance of new flint industries.
 Men of modern types (Homo-sapiens)

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PALEOLITHIC SITES
 The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.
 The Siwalik Hills on the north India.
 Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
 Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
 Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and
 Attirampakkam near Chennai
 Hunsgi
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters
 Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh, 45 km south of Bhopal at the
southern edge of the Vindhyachal hills.
 These served as shelters for Paleolithic age man for more than 1 lakh years.
 This is the most exclusive Paleolithic site in India which contains the rock carvings and paintings.
 These paintings belong to the Paleolithic, Mesolithic ages, Chalcolithic, early historic, and even medieval
times.
MESOLITHIC AGE (8000 BC – 4000 BC)
 It was the transitional phase between the Palaeolithic Age and Neolithic Age.
 In the Mesolithic Age, the stone tools began to be made more pointed and sharper.
 In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artifacts,
often not more than five centimetres in size, and therefore called microliths.
 Domestication of animals, horticulture, primitive cultivation.
 There was a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing.
 Use of bow and arrow began during this stage.
 Hunting-gathering pattern of life continued.
 Tendency to settle for a longer period of time.
 Rock Paintings from Paleolithic and Mesolithic age have been found at Bhimbetka caves (Painted birds,
animals, and humans)
MESOLITHIC SITES
 Langhanj in Gujarat,
 Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh
 Chotta Nagpur area of central India
 Areas south of the Krishna River.

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NEOLITHIC AGE ((4000 BC-2500 BC)
 The Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age was the last phase of the Stone Age.
 It is characterized by very finely flaked, small stone tools, also known as blades and burins.
 Polishing of stone tools
 Domestication of cattle, horses, and other farm animals which were used for dairy and meat products.
 An important invention of this time was the making of the wheel.
 Earliest farming communities →Characterized by cultivation of plants and domestication of animals.
 Earliest evident of Neolithic culture have been found at Mehrgarh on bank of river Bolan (Baluchistan)
7000 BC showing beginning of agriculture and domestication of animals.
 Dog burial with the master → Special feature of Burzahom
NEOLITHIC SITES
 Kashmir valley
 Chirand in Bihar
 Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh
 Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur Kodekal in Karnataka,
 Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu
 Utnur in Andhra Pradesh
LIMITATIONS OF STONE AGE
 They had to depend entirely on tools and weapons made of stone.
 They could not find settlement far away from Hilly areas.
 They could not produce more than what they needed for their bare subsistence.
CHALCOLITHIC AGE (1800 – 1000 BC) STONE COPPER AGE
 Marked by use of copper → 1st metal used in India.
 Transition between Neolithic and Bronze age
 Smelting metal ore, crafting metal artifacts.
 Use of Micro-lithic tools continued.
 Knowledge of Irrigation and Harvesting
 Excavation reveals structures like Granaries, Embankment and Fortification
 Mud houses made of mud in circular and rectangular pattern along with mud chulha.
 Culture was limited from Udaipur to Malwa and Maharashtra
 Famous Pottery of this age → Black on Red

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 They had to travel for a long distance to obtain metal ores which led to emergence network of Chalcolithic
cultures.
 It is not clear whether they were acquainted with the horse.

IMPORTANCE OF CHALCOLITHIC AGE

 Chalcolithic area expanded throughout the country except for alluvial region and thick forests. People
were settled mostly near hills and rivers.
 They used painted pottery for the first time.
 Chalcolithic community founded the first villages in India.
 Chalcolithic community produced far more cereals than Neolithic community.

LIMITATIONS
 People had no knowledge of mixing two metals so they could not use the stronger metal bronze nicely.
 Copper had its own limitations, and its supply was also less.
 People were not aware of the art of writing.
 Burial of large number of children- cause unidentified.
 Chalcolithic social and economic pattern did not promote longevity.

IRON AGE
 The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age.
 Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas.
 The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic Burials.
 Megalith means Large Stone. The burial pits were covered with these stones.
 Such graves are extensively found in South India.
 Black and red pottery, iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were
found in the burial pits.

MEGALITHIC SITES
 Hallur and Maski in Karnataka,
 Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh
 Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu.

CHAPTER 2: INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2500 BC – 1500 BC)

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 By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culture had developed at settlements spread across nearly
500,000 square miles, including parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Baluchistan, Sindh and the
Makran coast.
 It was a highly developed civilization and derived its name from the main river of that region— Indus.
 The cities were far more advanced than their counterparts in prehistoric Egypt, Mesopotamia or anywhere
else in Western Asia.
 Indus valley civilization is older than chalcolithic culture marked the beginning of Bronze age
civilization.
 The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjo-Daro
in Sind. Both places are now in Pakistan.
 The findings in these two cities brought to light to a civilization. It was first called the ‘The Indus Valley
Civilization’.
 But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus Civilization’ due to the discovery of more and more
sites far away from the Indus valley.
 Also, it has come to be called the ‘Harappan Civilization’ after the name of its first discovered site
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
The archaeological findings excavated for the last eight decades reveal the gradual development of the
Harappan culture. There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they are
named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and late Harappan.

PHASES OF EVOLUTION FEATURES SITE

Pre- Harapan stage Nomadic………> Settled MEHRGARH

agriculture

Early- Harapan Stage Gradual development of towns Amri

Transition from rural to urban Kot-diji

Mature Harappan Stage Great cities Kalibangan

(Elaborate town planning
and urban features)

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Late Harappan Stage Decline of the Indus Culture Lothal -surrounded by a
massive brick wall as flood
protection.
Emporium of trade between the
Harappan civilization and
the remaining part of India
as well as Mesopotamia

Important Discoveries

Year Site Discovered by

I927 Sutkagendor R. L. Staine
I93I Chanhudaro N. G. Majumdar
1953 Rangpur M. Vats
I953 Kalibangan A. Ghosh
1955-56 Ropar Y. D. Sharma
I957 Lothal S. R. Rao
1972-75 Surkotada Joshi
1973-74 Banawali R. S. Bisht

MAJOR SITES OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

MAJOR SITES DISCOVERY FEATURES

192I- Dayaram Sahni  Harappan Seals
HARAPPA  Red sandstone naked male
( WEST PUNJAB) torso
 First site to be discovered.
 Workmen quarters.
 Evidence of coffin burial.
MOHENJO- DARO  1922- R.D. Banerjee  Mound of the dead
 Second largest
(SIND)  In Sindhi language, the
 Great Bath
word Mohenjo-Daro
 Multi-pillared assembly
means mound of the
hall
dead’.
 big rectangular building
 Houses built of kiln-fired

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 brick.
 piece of woven cloth
 Great Granary
 Bronze dancing girl
 Mother Goddess Seal
 Pasupathi Mahadev Seal

KALIBANGAN  I953 A. Ghosh  Mud-brick fortification

 Kalibangan literally  Ploughed field.
(Rajasthan- Saraswati means 'black  Two platforms with fire
River) bangles'. altars
 Pieces of terracotta
bangles excavated
here.
 Pre-Harappan as well
as Harappan cultural
phases.
CHANHUDARO I931-N. G. Majumdar  Only Indus city without a
citadel.
(Sind, Pakistan)  Pre-Harappan as well as
Harappan cultural phase
 Small ink pot.
 shell-ornament makers’
and bead-makers’ shops
BANAWALI 1973-74 R. S. Bisht  Statue of mother Goddess
 Clay bangles
(Haryana)  Terracotta plough

SURKOTADA J.R Joshi -1972  Only Indus site where the

remains of a horse have
(Kutch (Bhuj) district actually been round
of Gujarat)

KOT DIJI  Pre Harapan and post

Harapan phase.
(sindh River, Pakistan)  Five figurines of Mother
Goddess

DHOLAVIRA  It was excavated in  Divided in to three.

1990s by a team led  Existence of middle town.
(Rann of Kutch, by R S Bisht.  each part surrounded with
Gujarat)  massive stone walls.
 signboard with Indus
Script.
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  Water reservoirs
LOTHAL I957 S. R. Rao  Only Indus site with an
artificial brick dockyard.
(Sabarmati, Gulf of  main seaport of the Indus
Khambat) people
 massive brick wall,
probably as flood
protection.
 Fire altars
 Entry to the houses were on
Main Street.
 rice husk {rice husk has
been found only at Lothal
and Rangpur},
 bead making factory etc.
 Iranian seal- direct sea link
with Mesopotamia.
Rakhigarhi  Amarendra Nath of  The largest Harappan site
ASI.  Burnt brick houses.
 The ceramic industry
 An elaborate drainage
system.

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE HARAPPAN CULTURE

1. Town Planning
 The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning on the lines of the grid system –
that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several
rectangular blocks.
 Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick.
 Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the
common people.
 The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings
are the important characteristics of the Harappan culture.
 Another remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street
drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
Great Bath
 Important public space- Mohenjo-Daro.
 Large rectangular tank in a courtyard
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 Surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
 There are side rooms for changing clothes.
 The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks.
 Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to
a drain.
 It must have served as a ritual bathing site.
HOUSES
 Generally, houses were either one or two storeys high, with rooms built around a courtyard.
 Most houses had a separate bathing area, and some had wells to supply water.
 Many of these cities had covered drains. Very often, drains in houses were connected to those on the
streets and smaller one led into bigger ones.
 As the drains were covered, inspection holes were provided at intervals to cover them.
2. ECONOMIC LIFE
 Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard, and cotton.
Surplus grain is stored in granaries.
 Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established.
 A number of other animals were hunted for food including deer.
 Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders,
and terracotta manufacturers.
 Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding examples of the Harappan metal craft.
 Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places.
 Pottery remains plain and, in some places, red and black painted pottery is found.
 Beads were manufactured from a wide variety of semi-precious stones.
 Internal trade and foreign trade were extensive. Trade was of the barter type.
 The Sumerian texts refer lo trade relations with Meluha’ which was the ancient name given to Indus
region.
 Cotton was first produced by Indus people hence Greeks called it Sindon which is derived from Sindh.
Harappan Seals
 They are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people.
 Most commonly made of steatite (soft stone).
 Most of the seals have an animal engraved on them with a short inscription.
 Unicorn is the animal most frequently represented on the seals.
 Main type - (a) the square type with a carved animal and inscription, (b) the rectangular type with
inscription only.
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 Used weights for trade (Mostly in multiple of 16) and Bronze made marked sticks for measurements.
 The cow was not represented on the seals and terracotta art of the Harappan culture.
3. SOCIAL LIFE
 The dress of both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth, one upper garment and
the other lower garment. Beads were worn by men and women.
 Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, earrings, and fingerings were worn by
women.
 These ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi-precious
stones.
 The use of cosmetics was common. Children’s toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls
and dice were used for games.
 Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes.
4. Arts
 Terracotta Figures - Figures of men and women, animals and birds made of terracotta and the carvings
on the seals show
the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor.
 Bronze Dancing Girl- Mohenjo-Daro- It is remarkable for its workmanship. Its right-hand rests on the
hip, while the left arm, covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture.
 Stone Statue- Two stone statues from Harappa, one representing the back view of a man and the other of
a dancer are also specimens of their sculpture.
 Pottery -The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and
jars were painted with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality. The pictorial
motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some
pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock

5. SCRIPT AND LANGUAGE

 First to invent the art of writing.
 Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and a variety of human
forms.
 The script was boustrophedon written from right to left in one line and then from left to right in the next
line.
 The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600.
 The language of the Harappans is still unknown and must remain so until the Harappan script is
deciphered.
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6. RELIGION
 The chief male deity was the Pasupathi Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic
posture on a low throne, and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals
(elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and two deer appear at his feet.
 The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms.
 There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of female sex
organs (yoni worship), besides those of the phallus, have been discovered.
 The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa.
 Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees (Peepal etc) and animals (unicorn etc)
 Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.
 No temples has been found at any of the sites hence can be said that it was ruled by merchants not priests.
7. BURIAL PRACTICES
 Three forms of burials are found at Mohenjo-Daro, viz. complete burials, fractional burials (burial of
some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts’ birds) and post-cremation burials.
 Harappa- wooden coffin
 Lothal- pot burial
DECLINE
 According to some scholars, decline of trade, particularly oceanic trade with the Sumerians, must have
contributed partly in the decline.
 Even though there are various theories for the downfall of this civilization, the most accepted version is that
of ecological destruction.
o Natural Calamities such as floods, Earthquakes etc.
o Decrease in Land fertility
o Outbreak of an epidemic
o Deforestation due to constant consumption of wood.
o Drying up of river- Kalibangan and Banawali.

 Aryan’s invasion is regarded the weakest reason ever cited for its decline.

CHAPTER 3: VEDIC CULTURE (1500 BC – 600 BC)

The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-
Aryan language, Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region. This period
between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C
-1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C)

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WHO ARE ARYANS?
 Designation originally meaning “civilized”, “noble”, or “free” without reference to any ethnicity.
 It was first applied as a self-identifying term by a migratory group of people from Central Asia later
known as Indo-Iranians (who settled on the Iranian Plateau) and, later, applied to Indo-Aryans (who
traveled south to settle northern India).
 It is generally agreed that Aryans originally lived somewhere in Steppes stretching from southern
Russia to central Russia.
 On their way to India, Aryans first appeared in Iran and a little later than 1500 BC they appeared
in India.
 Kassite Inscription of about 1600 BC and Mittani Inscription of 1400 BC found in Iraq bear some
Aryan names, which suggest that from Iran a branch of Aryans moved towards west.
 The Rig Veda has many things in common with the Avesta - the oldest text in Iranian language.
 Rig Veda is the earliest specimen of any Indo-European language.
HOME OF ARYANS
The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and there are several views. Different scholars
have identified different regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic
region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia.
 Max Muller- Aryan Invasion theory
o They came from central Asia with weapons.
o Aryans possessed chariots driven by horse.
o They subjugated the natives (Dasyus)- Dasyuhatya (Rig Veda).
o Natives moved towards southern part- Dravidians.
o Aryans settled north western part- Aryavarta.
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak- The Aryan come from Artic
 Dayanad Saraswati- The Aryan come from Tibet.
HOW THEY ENTERED?
 Holy book of Iran ‘avesta’ indicates entry of aryans to India via iran.
 They entered India through Khyber pass (in Hindukush mountains) around 1500 BC.
 Hindu Kush, great mountain system of Central Asia.
REASON FOR THEIR SUCCESS
 Horse Driven Chariots.
 Coats of Mail (varman).
 Better arms compared to natives.

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BATTLE OF 10 KINGS 14TH BCE (DASARAJANA YUDDHA)
 Mentioned in 7 th Book of Rigveda.
 Bharata ruling clan (King Sudas) was opposed by host of 10 chiefs (5 Aryans and 5 non-Aryans)
supported by Vashishta.
 Bharat clan emerged victorious and subsequently joined hand with Purus (Most powerful defeated
tribe) and formed a new ruling tribe called Kurus.
 Bharatavarsa – The area where Bharata became dominant prominent.
 It was fought at the banks of River Ravi.
EARLY VEDIC PERIOD/ RIG VEDIC PERIOD (1500-1000 B. C)
 During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined
to the Indus region.
 The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers.
 This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with
the Indus and Saraswathi.
 The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig
Veda.

RIG VEDIC NAME MODERN NAME

VITASTA JHELUM

ASIKNI CHENAB

PARUSHNI RAVI

VIPASH BEAS

SHUTUDRI SUTLEJ

SARASVATI/ DRISHADVATI RIVER GHAGGAR

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POLITICAL LIFE
 The basic unit of political organization was kula or family.
 Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama. The leader of
grama was known as gramani.
 When gramas clashed with each another it caused Samgrama or war.
 A group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed by vishayapati.
 The highest political unit was called jana or tribe. The head of the kingdom was called as rajan or
king.
 The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of the army in his
administration.
 The princes received from the people voluntary offerings called Bali.
 Presents and spoils of war were perhaps distributed in some vedic assemblies.
 There were assemblies called Sabha ,Samiti, vidatha, Gana. These assemblies performed deliberative,
military and religious functions.
 Sabha-council of elders.
 Samiti -general assembly of the entire people.
KING Protector, Monarchical and Hereditary

Women Sabha& Vidatha

Taxation No officer.

Justice No officer.

Vrajapati Authority over pasture ground.

Army No regular/ standing army; Tribal Group

(Grama/ Gana/ Sardha)

Territorial System No- Term Janapada/ Territory not even used

once.
More attached to Jana/ Tribal Group- Jana
(275).

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SOCIAL LIFE
 The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the
family was known as grahapathi.
 Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families.
 The wife took are of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies.
 Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual
and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala,
Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
 Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no
child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
 Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made
of cotton and wool. A variety of ornaments were used by both men
and women.
 Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of
food.
 The eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal.
 Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite
pastimes.
 The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was in the later Vedic period.
SOCIAL DIVISION
 Varna or colour was the basis of initial differentiation between the Vedic and non-Vedic people.
 The Vedic people were fair whereas the non-Vedic indigenous people were dark in complexion and
spoke a different language.
 Thus the Rigveda mentions arya varna and dasa varna. Here dasa has been used in the sense of a
group different from the Rigvedic people.
 The dasas and dasyus who were conquered by aryas were treated as slaves & Sudras.
 The term dasyuhatya is repeatedly mentioned in the Rigveda.
 The slaves were mainly employed for domestic purposes. During Rigvedic times slaves were not
directly used in agriculture or producing activities.
ECONOMIC LIFE
 The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main
occupation was cattle rearing.
 Carpentry was another important profession and the
Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs.

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  Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen
fabrics were made.
 Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments.
 The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use.
 Trade was another important economic activity and rivers
served as important means of transport. Trade was conducted on
barter system.
 In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used as media of exchange in large transactions
RELIGION
 The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder.
 Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic period.
 They prayed mainly for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle), Wealth, Health, Food.
 There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were offered to the
gods in the expectation of rewards.
 The magical power of word was not considered so important as in the later Vedic period. Ghee, milk
and grain were given as offerings.
Indra Thunder – Warrior God- Purandra/ Breaker of
(250 times mentioned in Rig Veda) forts Rain God.

Agni Fire – Intermediary b/n God & People

(200)
Varuna Water- Upholder of Natural Order.
Vayu Wind.
Prithvi Earth
Soma God of Plants.
Aditi and Usha. Appearance of Dawn- not prominent (male
gods were far more important)

Marut Storm God- weather phenomena.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD
 The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic Period.
 The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains.
 Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned in the later Vedic literature.
 One important development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms. (Kuru and Panchalas.)

17
 The iron implements have been discovered from this area from the 7th B.C and the metal itself is
called Syama or Krishna Aya in the later Vedic texts.
PAINTED GREY WARE
 The digging and exploration has brought to light nearly 500 sites inhabited which are called PGW sites.
 They belongs to middle and later vedic period.
 Inhabited by people who used earthen bowls &dishes made of Painted Grey Pottery.
 PGW Sites-Hastinapura, Mathura, Kurukshetra, Indraprastha, Bhagwanpura – Haryana. (refer old
ncert –page no 53)
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
 Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period.
 Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period
 The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They include Rajasuya
(consecration ceremony), Asvamedha
(horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race).
 The kings also assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat and
Samrat (sole ruler).
 In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were involved in the administration in addition to
the existing purohita, senani and gramani.
 They include the treasury officer, tax collector and royal messenger.
 At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies.
 The importance of the Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period. The Vidatha
completely disappeared. The character of sabha and samiti changed now.
 The collection of taxes and tributes seems to have become common.
 Bhagadugha was the revenue collector during Vedic period.
King Royal Power Increased.
Women No Participation in Assemblies.

Taxation No officer.

Assembly Lost importance, Princes and Nobles

dominated.
Sangrihitri Treasurer.

Army No regular/ standing army.

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Territorial System Yes, term Rashtra which indicates territory
appeared first during this time.

ECONOMIC CONDITION
AGRICULTURE
 Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the
people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation.
 Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of
implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat
were grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement.
 The Atharvaveda narrated how to increase the soil fertility and how to improve the productivity of
the cultivated land.
ART AND CRAFTS
 Later Vedic people saw the emergence of diverse arts and crafts. There is evidence which suggests the
existence of copper smiths.
 Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater specialization.
 Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery made great progress.
 Copper objects have been found from PGW settlements. Copper objects were used for hunting, war
and ornaments.
 Weaving is widely practised but mainly confined to women.
 They were acquainted with four types of pottery.
a) Black and Red ware pottery.
b) Black –slipped ware.
c) Painted Grey ware. (Most distinctive pottery).
d) Red ware. (Most popular).
TRADE
 The rise of arts and crafts may have give rise to commerce and rise of towns.
 We can trace only the faint beginnings of the towns, which can be called as Proto- Urban Sites/
Primitive Towns. (Hastinapur/ Kausambi).
 The Vedic texts also suggest the existence of sea and sea voyages. This suggests some kind of maritime
trade existed.
 The Later Vedic people were familiar with the sea and they traded with countries like Babylon.
(Babylon was the capital city of the ancient Babylonian empire- South of Baghdad, Iraq.)
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 A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on trade and
commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known as ganas.
 Guild was mainly, an association of people, who earned their living by following one particular trade
though belonging to diverse castes.
 Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were used
as media of exchange.
SOCIAL LIFE
 In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period.
 There was no improvement in the status of women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate
to men.
 Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child
marriages had become common.
 According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the
women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.
 The institution of Gotra appeared in the later Vedic times. Literally it means the cow pen or the place
where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept, but in course of time it signified descent from common
ancestor.
 People began to practise gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to
the same gotra/ having the same ancestor.
SOCIAL DIVISION- VARNA SYSTEM
 It is mentioned in the Purusha Suktam ( Hymns of Cosmic Man) of 10th Book of Rig Veda.
 The four varnas in which society came to be divided were the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Shudras.
 The growing number of sacrifices and rituals during the period made the brahmanas very powerful.
 The kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers. They along with brahmanas controlled all
aspects of life.
 The vaishyas, the most numerous varna were engaged in agriculture as well as in trade and artisanal
activities.
 The brahmanas and the kshatriyas were dependent on the tributes (gifts and taxes) paid to them by the
vaishyas.
 The shudras, the fourth varna were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They were supposed to be in
the service of the three upper varnas. They were not entitled to the ritual of upanayana samskara.
 The other three varnas were entitled to such a ceremony and hence they were known as dvijas.

20
 Another important institution that began to take shape was ashrama or different stages of life. They were
not well established during this period.
 Brahmacharya (student life), grihastha (householder), and vanaprastha (hermitage) stages are
mentioned in the post Vedic texts.
 But the last stage Sanyasa (complete retirement) not well established during this period.
RELIGION
 Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their
importance.
 Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during
the Later Vedic period.
 In the Vedas, Rudra is known as the divine archer, who shoots arrows of death and disease and who has
to be implored not to slay or injure in his wrath.
 The Pushan who was supposed to look after cattle came to be regarded as the Gods of Sudras.
 Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with
them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined.
 Priesthood became a profession and a hereditary one. The formulae for sacrifices were invented and
elaborated by the priestly class.
 Therefore, towards the end of this period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and
against sacrifices and rituals.
 The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices.

TERMS MEANING
Goghna One who was fed on cattle/ guest

Yajamana On whose behalf a religious ritual or a yajna is

performed by a priest.

ART OF WRITING
 The Rigveda was preserved orally before it was written down about 300 BCE.
 Though writings in India can be date back to the time of Harappa, it disappeared soon after. There were no
scripts during the Vedic period.
 No script was developed in rig Vedic India since the verb "likha-to write" is not mentioned in the Vedas.
VEDIC CONCEPTS
RITA
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  Sanskrit for 'truth' or 'order', Rita is a central concept in Vedic philosophy, used to explain the
principle that governs the order of the universe.
 Rita is responsible for the proper functioning of natural, moral, religious and sacrificial order, and is
the founding principle for dharma (duty) and karma (action).
 It is said to be a divine power that provides balance and harmony in the world.
DHARMA
 The word dharma comes from the Sanskrit root word dhri, which means “to hold,” "to maintain," or
"to preserve."
 On an individual level, dharma can refer to a personal mission or purpose. All entities have their own
Dharma.
 This includes the concepts of duty, rights, religion and morally appropriate behaviour, and so
dharma came to be understood as a means to preserve and maintain righteousness.
KARMA
 Karma is a Sanskrit word which means “action” or “work.” It derives from the root verb kri,
which means “to act.”
 As a concept, therefore, karma can refer to all the actions a person makes, both with their body and
in their mind. All activity creates karma.
 Positive actions create good karma, leading to future happiness, while negative ones create bad karma,
which leads to suffering.
VEDIC LITERATURE
VEDAS
 The word ‘Veda’ signifies knowledge and the texts are actually about
providing humans knowledge to conduct their entire life on earth and
beyond.
 It is written in highly stylised poetic style and the language is full of
symbols and myths.
 They are considered sacred because they are the divine revelations, which were determined by Gods
to guide humans eternally.
 There are four major Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and
Atharva Veda.
 The vedic literature comprise the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads.
 The Vedic literature is broadly divided into two categories viz. Shruti and Smriti.
SHRUTI
 Shruti, (Sanskrit: “What Is Heard”) literature is considered to be the product of divine revelation.

22
  Shruti works are considered to have been heard and transmitted by earthly sages.
 They considered being the more authoritative.
 The revealed texts encompass the four Vedas—Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda—
and the Brahmanas (ritual treatises), the Aranyakas (“Forest Books”), and
the Upanishads (philosophical elaborations on the Vedas).
SMRITI
 Smriti, (Sanskrit: “Recollection”) that class of Hindu sacred literature based on human memory.
 Smriti literature elaborates, interprets, and codifies Vedic thought but, being derivative, is
considered less authoritative than the Vedic Shruti.
 Post Vedic Classic Sanskrit Literature like Vedanga, Purana and Ithihasa are part of Smriti
Literature.
SAMHITAS
 The Samhitas contain mantras, prayers, litanies and hymns to God.
 The four Samhitas are
1. Rig Veda
2. Sama Veda
3. Yajur Veda
4. Atharva Veda.
RIGVEDA
 The Rig Veda is the oldest existing Veda amongst the other four. It consists
of 1028 individual Sanskrit hymns.
 It is said to be one of the first extensive composition in any Indo-European language that has
survived for our perusal.
 Historians argue that it was compiled around 1500-1200 BC. The text is
organised in 10 books, known as Mandalas, of varying age and length.
 Furthermore, each mandala comprises of several Suktas or hymns, which are
usually for sacrificial purposes.
 Most of the hymns concentrate on the themes of life, death, creation, sacrifice
and for seeking godly pleasure or soma.
 The entire Rig Vedic hymns are dedicated to several deities, in particular to their Chief Deity, Lord
Indra
SAMAVEDA
 Sama Veda has been named after ‘Saman’ (melody) and it concentrates on
melody or songs.

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  It consists of hymns, detached verses and 16,000 raga (musical notes) and
raginis.
 It is because of the lyrical nature of the text that it has also been
called the ‘book of chants’.
 It also shows us how Indian music had developed in the Vedic period.
YAJUR VEDA
 The name ‘Yajus’ signifies ‘sacrifice’ and this Veda concentrates on rites
and mantras of different types of sacrifices that were prevalent in the Vedic
times.
 The Yajur Veda is predominantly a ritual Veda as it acts like a guide book for the rishis/priests who
conduct sacrificial rituals.
ATHARVAVEDA
 It is mostly concerned with peace and prosperity of the human society
and covers all aspects of a man’s daily life, it specifically focuses on
treatment of several ailments.
 The book is known to prescribe treatment for almost 99 diseases.
 Most of the text deals with healing and black and white magic; speculation on the changes in the
universe; and even touches upon issues of the everyday problems in a householder’s life.
 It is the oldest literary monument of Indian Medicine. It is believed to be the origin of Ayurveda, the
Indian Science of Medicine.
BRAHMANAS
 Each Veda has a Brahmana attached to it, which is essentially a collection of
texts with commentaries on the particular Veda.
 They are usually a mixture of legends, facts, philosophy and detailed explanations of Vedic rituals.
 They also contain instructions on how to properly conduct rituals and
enunciate the science of sacrifice.
 Although historians disagree on the dating of the Brahmanas, it is usually pegged to be composed and
compiled between 900-700 BC.
Rig Veda Aitareya Brahmana Kaushitaki Brahmana
Sama Veda Tandya Mahabrahmana Sadvimsha Brahmana
Yajur Veda Taittiriya Brahmana Shatapatha Brahmana
Atharva Veda Gopatha Brahmana

ARANYAKAS
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  The Aranyakas are also texts attached to the Vedas and they describe the philosophy behind the
rituals and sacrifices involved in the Vedas from various perspectives.
 It is argued that holy and learned men, called Munis, who preferred to
dwell within the limits of the forests, taught them.
 As similar to Brahmanas, each Veda also has a accompanying Aranyaka.
UPANISHADS
 Interestingly, the term Upanishad or u (at), pa (foot), ni (down) and s(h)ad
(to sit), i.e. to sit down near (the teacher), describes the text completely.
 A collection of more than 200 Upanishads are known and the teacher usually
passed them down verbally to his students in the forest while they sat in front
of him.
 This tradition was part of the guru-shishya parampara.
 They are generally the last part of the Vedas, they are also known as Vedanta or ‘end (anta) of the
Veda’.
 They continue to talk about the abstract and philosophical problems faced by mankind, especially
about the origin of this universe, supposed origin of the mankind, life and death cycle and the
material and spiritual quests of man.
 Upanishads are referred to as the jnana-kanda.
MUNDAKA UPANISHAD.
 Satyameva Jayate the national motto of India, is taken from a hymn of the ancient Indian wisdom text,
the Mundaka Upanishad.
 This Upanishad is part of Atharva Veda.
KATHA UPANISHAD
 It contains famous dialogue between Nachiketa and yama.
 It is part of Yajur Veda.

CHAPTER 4: JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

Religious
 The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the 6th
century B.C.
 The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not acceptable to the
common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive.
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  The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in
nature therefore not easily understood by all.
Social
 The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Higher classes enjoyed
certain privileges which were denied to the lower classes.
 Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class. It should also to be noted that
both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin.
 The new forms of property created social inequalities and caused misery and suffering to the masses of
the people. So the common people wished to return to primitive life.
Economic
 The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As a result,
they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this.
 Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and Jainism. It was this merchant class that
extended the chief support to these new religions.
 The agricultural economy based on the iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks, and it could not
flourish without animal husbandry.
 But the Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices stood in the way of the progress
of new agriculture.
LIFE OF VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA (540-648 BC)
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near
Vaisali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trisala. He married Yasoda and gave birth to a daughter. At the
age of thirty he became an ascetic and wandered for twelve years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained
the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina. His
followers were called Jains and his
religion Jainism. He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha
THREE RATNAS
 Right faith (Samyak vishwas) - Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira.
 Right knowledge (Samyak jnan)- Acceptance of the theory that there is no God and that the world has
been existing without a creator and that all objects possess a soul.
 Right conduct (Samyak karma)-observance of the five great vows- It is said that only 5th doctrine
was added by Mahavira, other four being taken from his previous teachers. Eventhough Parsva
was had asked his followers to cover the upper and lower portions of their body, Mahavira asked
them to discard clothes completely. This implies that Mahvira asked his followers to lead a more
austere life.
26
MAHAVARTAS/ 5 GREAT VOWS
 AHIMSA-(NON- VIOLENCE) –It is the cardinal principle of Jainism and hence it is known as the
cornerstone of Jainism. Non-violence is the supreme religion (Ahimsa parmo dharma). According to
Jainism all living beings, irrespective of their size, shape, or different spiritual developments are
equal. Jainism allows laypeople to use only vegetables as a food for survival. Therefore, Jainism
preaches strict vegetarianism, and prohibits non-vegetarian foods.
 SATYA (NOT TO LIE) -Jainism insists that one should not only refrain from falsehood, but should
always speak the truth, which should be wholesome and pleasant. One should remain silent if the
truth causes pain, hurt, anger, or death of any living being.
 APARIGARH (NOT TO ACQUIRE PROPERTY)- Jains believe that possessions are an obstacle
to liberation. Jain monks have virtually no possessions, while lay Jains try to minimise their
possessions.
 Non-stealing (Achaurya or Asteya): Stealing consists of taking another's property without his
consent, or by unjust or immoral methods.
 Celibacy / Chastity (Brahmacharya): Total abstinence from sensual pleasure and the pleasure of all
five senses are called celibacy. Monks are required to observe this vow strictly and completely.
MAJOR DOCTRINES OF JAINISM
 Concept of God – Did not believe in the creator God. But recognized the existence of God and
placed it below the Jina. There is no creator God of the universe. If Jain religion’s concept of God is
trusted then this signifies all of us can become God since every human being has the potential and
with practices like forced mediation (hath yoga) and fasting every soul can become perfect.
 Vedas -Rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals.He advocated a very holy and ethical
code of life. Jainism mainly focuses on attainment of freedom from worldly bonds. It is not
necessary to use any rituals for attaining such liberation. It can be attained through full
knowledge and action.
 Varna- Jainism didn’t condemn the Varna system as Buddhism did. It considered a person is
born in higher or lower Varna in consequence of the virtues acquired by him in the previous birth.
Through pure and meritorious life even members of the lower caste can attain liberation.
 Karma -Believed in karma. All activities and thoughts create karmas, which can be negative or
positive. Bad karmas lead to rebirth as a creature of low spirituality and minimal senses, whereas
good karmas affect birth as a god or human being. The most desirable condition is that of the human
being, because liberation is impossible for any other kind of being.
 Soul - The Jain word that comes closest to soul is jiva, which means a conscious, living beingEven the
practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury to the earth, worms and animals.

27
 Jains believe that there are an infinite number of souls in the universe - every living thing, no matter
how primitive, is a jiva.
 Transmigration of soul – Jainism believed in Believed in transmigration of soul. Recurring process
in which a soul is born into a body, which lives and dies, and then is reborn into a different body. Jains
believe that this event repeats endlessly for souls that have karmas bound to them. The aim of
Jainism is liberation of the soul from this cycle, which requires the soul to be free of karma.
 Doctrine of asceticism and renunciation - The doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was also
carried to extreme lengths by the practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture.
JAIN PHILOSOPHY
 UNIVERSAL LAW - Jains believe that the universe has always existed and will always exist. It is
regulated by cosmic laws and kept going by its own energy processes. Jains do not believe that the
universe was created by any sort of god. All the constituents and actions are governed by universal
natural laws.
 ANEKANTAVADA – means "non-absolutism," is one of the basic principles of Jainism that
encourages acceptance of relativism and pluralism. Anekāntavāda represents the idea that reality is
perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view represents the
complete truth, yet taken together they comprise the complete truth.
 SYADVADA: All our judgements are necessarily relative, conditional, and limited. Absolute
affirmation and absolute negation both are wrong. All judgements are conditional.
GREAT SCHISM IN JAINISM
 By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley.
 Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in
Karnataka.
 Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Sthulabahu who changed the code of
conduct for the monks.
 This led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (whiteclad) and Digambaras (Sky-clad
or Naked).
SVETAMBARAS AND DIGAMBARAS
POINT OF DIGAMBARAS SVETHAMBARA
DIFFERENCE
SCRIPTURE Original texts of They have the
Jainism were lost original Jain
ago. scriptures. However,

28
 they also accept that
their collection is
also incomplete.
LIBERATION OF Women cannot Women are equally
WOMAN achieve nirvana or capable of achieving
liberation directly. liberation as a man.
DRESS One must renounce Practice of nudity is
everything including not essential to attain
clothes. liberation. Therefore
they wear white
clothes.
POSSESSIONS Not allowed to have Allowed to possess
any kind of some essential
possessions. things.
Not married. Married.
MAHAVIRA
MARRIAGE
IDOLS Digambara idols are Decorated with
naked, undecorated jewels,
with downcast eyes. wearing loincloth
with prominent
staring eyes
SALLEKHANA / SANTHARA
 Santhara, also called ‘Pandit-maran’, ‘Sallekhana’ and ‘Sakham-maran’, is believed to have been
practised since the foundation of Jainism and finds mention in its agams (religious texts).
 Voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids.
SUBSECTS OF JAINISM
DIGAMBARAS
 Bisapantha
 Terapantha
 Taranapanth/Samaiyapantha
 Gumanapantha
 Totapantha
 Kanjipantha
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SVETHAMBARAS
 Murtipujaka,
 Sthanakvasi,
 Terapanthi
JAIN COUNCILS
 FIRST COUNCIL
It was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted
in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. Svetambaras accepted but
Digambaras refused to accept this claiming that all old scriptures were lost. The teachings
of Jain Tirthankaras are compiled in 12 Angas. The sacred books of Jainas are collectively
known as Siddhanta or Agamas.
 SECOND COUNCIL
It was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in the 5th century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi
Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas( minor
sections).
JAIN LITERATURE
 The texts containing the teachings of Mahavira are called the Agamas, and are the canonical literature - the
scriptures - of Svetambara Jainism.
 The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a form of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi, and may be
classified as follows:
 (a)The twelve Angas (b) The twelve Upangas (c) The ten Parikarnas (d) The six Chhedasutras (e) The
four Mulasutras.
SPREAD OF JAINISM
 ROLE OF SANGHAS- Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He
admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers.
 Great Patrons of Jainism -Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga ( odisha- 2nd CE BC) and
the royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, (Karnataka) the Chalukyas
and the Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism.
 Spread in Karnataka – Epigraphical evidences shows spread of Jainism in Karnataka is not more than
the 3rd C E AD. In subsequent centuries, Numerous Jaina monastic establishments called Basadis sprang
up in Karnataka and were granted land by king for their support.
 Western India – Rajasthan, Malwa, Gujarat.
CONTRIBUTION OF JAINISM
 First serious attempt to mitigate the evils of Varna order & ritualistic Vedic Religion.
30
  They adopted Prakrit Language of common people to preach their doctrines. Their religious literature
was written Ardhamagadhi.
 Many regional languages developed out of Prakrit Language ( example – Sauraseni- from which
grew Marathi Language).
 They wrote extensively in sanskrit and Kannada language
 Jaina composed earliest important works in Apabhramsa and its first grammar.
REASONS FOR DECLINE OF JAINISM
 Digambaras and Svetambaras -Its division in to two sects weakened the religion.
 Lack of royal patronage - The initial tempo of royal patronage of Jainism by Bimbisara, Ajatasatru,
Udayin and Kharavela was not kept up by kings and princes of later times. Rather the zeal and
determination of Asoka, Kanishka and Harsha was to spread Buddhism.
 Severity of Jainism -Jainism stood for severe penance, meditation, fasting and restraint etc. All
these were too severe to endure.
 Unintelligible Philosophy - The concepts of Jeeva, Ajeeva, Syadbada etc. could not be understood
properly by the people.
 Buddhism appealed to people due to its emphasis on middle path than the severity of Jainism.
 Revival of Hinduism under the Guptas, Cholas, Chalukyas and Rajput kings also contributed to its
slow decline.

BUDDHISM
LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA (563-483BC)
Buddhism, religion and philosophy developed from the teachings of the Buddha (Sanskrit: “Awakened
One”). Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 B.C. in Sakya Kshatriya family
in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu (foothills of Nepal). His father was Suddodhana and mother
Mayadevi (Princess from Kosalan Dynasty). As his mother died at child birth, he was brought up by his aunt
Prajapati Gautami. At the age of sixteen he married Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula. The sight
of an old man, a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from worldly life. He left home at
the age of twenty nine in search of Truth. He wandered for seven years and met several teachers but could
not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which
he got Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. Since then he became known as the Buddha or ‘the
Enlightened One’. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Banaras and for the next forty five years he
led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of eighty in (483 BC) at Kusinagara (U.P)
DOCTRINES OF BUDDHISM

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FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
1. The world is full of suffering.
2. The cause of suffering is desire.
3. If desires are get rid of, suffering can be removed.
4. This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.
EIGHTFOLD PATH ((ASHTANGAMARGA)

Right Right Thought. Right Action Right Livelihood.

Understanding
Right Effort. Right Exercise Right Mindfulness Right
Concentration.

NIRVANA
 If desires are conquered nirvana will be attained.
 A man will be free from cycle of birth and death.
 Eternal state of peace which is free from desire and sorrow.
 Annihilation of desire.
 The Buddha taught that when Nirvana is achieved, Buddhists are able to see the world as it really is.
 Nirvana means realising and accepting the Four Noble Truths and being awake to reality.
CODE OF CONDUCT (FIVE PERCEPTS)
The Five Precepts are the Buddhist version of a code of conduct or rules to help people behave in a moral and
ethical way. Buddhists should follow the Five Precepts to ensure they are living a morally good life.
(1) Do not covet the property of others
(2) Do not commit violence.
(3) Do not use intoxicants.
(4) Do not speak a lie
(5) Do not indulge in corrupt practices.
TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA
 GOD AND SOUL-Buddha neither accepts god nor rejects the
existence of god. He taught that the soul does not exist. Buddhists believe that nothing is permanent.
Everything changes. So this means that things like everlasting souls or eternal gods cannot exist.
 LAW OF KARMA – The action driven by intention. Karma refers to good or bad actions a person
takes during her lifetime. Buddhists believe we are in control of our ultimate fates. The problem is that

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 most of us are ignorant of this, which causes suffering. The purpose of Buddhism is to take conscious
control of our behaviour.
 VEDAS & RITUALS - Buddha believed that rituals were nothing on their own. They don’t have
any importance unless someone believes in them. He opposed and rejected the blind faith of
anything, including Vedas.
 CONCEPT OF REBIRTH - Buddhists believe that what they are reborn as in future will depend on
how they live their current life
 SALVATION - For a Buddhist salvation is reaching Nirvana.
 CASTE SYSTEM - Buddhism’s individual outlook and disregard for the caste system in attaining
enlightenment were appealing to people in lower castes. Buddhism suggested that individual people
might be able to attain enlightenment in this life and held that caste was not a punishment for deeds
committed in a past life.
SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
 ROLE OF SANGHA -Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers
(upasikas).The monks were organized into the Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings.
The membership was open to all persons, male or female and without any caste restrictions. There
was a special code for nuns restricting their residence and movement. Sariputta, Moggallana and
Ananda were some of the famous monks. Owing to the organised efforts made by the Sangha,
Buddhism made rapid progress in North India even during Buddha’s life time. Magadha, Kosala,
Kausambi and several republican states of North India embraced this religion.
 EFFORT OF ASHOKA -Through missionary effort Asoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and
Ceylon. Thus a local religious sect was transformed into a world religion.
 PERSONALITY & METHOD OF BUDDHA –He tried to fight evil by goodness and hatred by
love.By his love for human beings and all living creatures, he endeared himself to all. Even under the
gravest provocation he did not show the least anger or hatred and instead conquered everyone by
his love and compassion.
 USE OF PALI LANGUAGE - It’s a sacred language mainly used in early Buddhist scriptures. The
ancient Buddhist scriptures called Tripitakas are written in Pali Language.
BUDDHIST COUNCILS
1st Council @ Rajgir
 Was held immediately after the death of Buddha at Saptaparni cave in which the unwritten
teachings of Buddha were penned down after his death.
 Held at Rajgir under the patronage of Ajatashatru under the chairmanship of Mahakashyap

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  Ananda composed Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings) and Upali composed Vinaypitaka (Monastic
code for Buddhism).
2nd Council @ Vaishali
 Was held approx. 100 years after the death of Buddha under the patronage of King Kalasoka under
the chairmanship of Sabakami
 Mainly due to 10 disputed points under Vinaypitaka (Monastic codes of Buddhism).
Schism in the second council
 After unsuccessfully trying to modify the Vinaya, a small group of "elderly members", i.e. sthaviras,
broke away from the majority Mahāsāṃghika during the Second Buddhist council, giving rise to the
Sthavira sect.
 It is explained that the schism resulted from the majority (Mahāsaṃgha) refusing to accept the
addition of rules to the Vinaya by the minority (Sthaviras).
 Many scholars also look to the Mahāsāṃghika branch for the initial development of Mahayana
Buddhism.
3rd Council @ Patliputra
 Held under the patronage of Ashoka under the chairmanship of Mogliputra Tissa
 Compilation of Abhidhamma pitaka took place (Philosophical exposition of Buddhism).
4th Council @ Kashmir
 Held under the patronage of Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra
 Resulted in division of Buddhism into Hinyana and Mahayana
 Asvaghosa (Deputy) participated in this council and all the deliberations were made in Sanskrit.
EARLY BUDDHIST SCHOOLS
1. Sthavira Nikaya (sub-sects included Mahisasaka, Sarvastivada, Sankrantika, Sautrantika, Dharmaguptaka,
Vatsiputriya, Dharmottariya, Bhadrayaniya, Sannagarika and Sammitiya)
2. Mahasamghika (sub-sects included Gokulika, Prajnaptivada, Bahusrutiya, Ekavyaharikas, Caitika)
Tri Pitakas of Buddhism
PITAKA NAME CONTENT
Sutta Basket of discourse Texts constituting the basic
doctrinal section of the
Buddhist canon.

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 Vinaya Basket of discipline Monastic rules of conduct
for monks and nuns

Abhidhamma Basket of higher doctrine They are generally claimed to

represent not the words of
the Buddha himself but
those of disciples and great
scholars.

MAHAYANA AND HINAYANA BUDDHISM

HINAYANA
 Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha.
 They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
 They did not believe in idol-worship.
 The oldest school of Hinayana Buddhism is the Sthaviravada (Theravada in Pali) or the ‘Doctrine of
the Elders’.
 Buddhism preached and Propagated by Ashoka is known as Hinyana
MAHAYANA
 Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the salvation of all through the grace
and help of Buddha and Bodhisatvas.
 Believes in Idol worship of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
 Zen, Pure Land, Tiantai, and Nichiren, Shingon and Tibetan Buddhism are traditions of
Mahayana.
 Mahayana believed in universal liberation from suffering for all beings (hence the “Great Vehicle”).
 Kanishka patronized Mahayana Buddhism.
 The language adopted to preach Mahayana Buddhism was Sanskrit.
BODHISATTVA
 Bodhisattva, (Sanskrit), Pali bodhisatta (“one whose goal is awakening”) means one who seeks
awakening (bodhi)—hence, an individual on the path to becoming a buddha.
 Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who have put off entering paradise in order to help others attain
enlightenment.
 Renouncing their own salvation and immediate entrance into nirvana, they devote all their power and
energy to saving suffering beings in this world.

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BODHISATTVA FEATURES
Avalokitesvara/ Padmapani/ Lokesvara The bodhisattva of compassion, the listener of the
world’s cries who uses skilful means to come to
their aid.
Vajrapani Vajrapani is contemplated to manifest all the
powers of Buddha.
Manjusri He is associated with the Wisdom of
Buddha and is a male Bodhisattva with a wielding
sword in his hand.
Maitreya A Future Buddha who will appear on Earth in the
future, achieves complete enlightenment, and
teaches the pure dharma.

PARAMITAS
 Paramita” is a Sanskrit term, which means “perfection”
 To become Bodhisattvas, Buddhists must practise various characteristics, which Mahayana Buddhists
call the Six Perfections.
 The Six Perfections, or paramitas, are guides for Mahayana Buddhist practice.
 They are virtues to be cultivated to strengthen practice and bring one to enlightenment.
 In time, a set of six perfections became standard in Mahāyāna sūtras.
Six Perfections
1. Be generous and give to others.- Dana Paramita
2. Live a life in which you do the right thing.- Sila Paramita
3. Have patience with all people. Ksanti Paramita
4. Sustain your energy so that you keep going through difficult times- Virya Paramita.
5. Work on concentration by meditating-Dhyana Paramita.
6. Gain wisdom- Prajna Paramta
VAJRAYANA BUDDHISM (TANTRIC BUDDHISM)
 Vajrayana school developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Shaivism, i.e.,
they say, it was influenced by Hinduism.
 The main deity is Tara (a lady).
 It involved combining Brahmanical (Veda based) rituals with Buddhist philosophies.
 Vajrayana is based on Mahayana Buddhist philosophy.
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  It believes in Tantra’s, Mantras and Yantras superiority as being a faster vehicle to liberation
containing many skillful methods of tantric ritual.
 According to this school, the mantra is an easy path to achieve Buddhahood without the difficulties as
compared to striving for six perfections or Paramitas under Mahayana.
 Countries following it include Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, Kalmykia, etc.
THERAVADA BUDDHISM/ SOUTHERN BUDDHISM
 It refers to the school of elder monks. The school uses Buddha’s teaching preserved in the Pali Canon
as its doctrinal core.
 The ultimate goal is the cessation of the kleshas and the
attainment of the sublime state of Nirvana.
 Theravada believes in the concept of vibhajjavada i.e., “teaching of
analysis”.
 The Vibhajjavada school says that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's
experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.
 It discusses seven stages of purification (satta-visuddhi) to be
followed under Theravada Buddhism to attain salvation.
 Theravada is contemplated to be a successor of Hinayana school.
 Countries following it include Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand,
Myanmar, etc.
BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY
NO PHILOSOPHY KEY POINTS
1 SARVASTHIVADA  It is the doctrine that everything is real.
(VAIBHASHIKA.)  Everything has an existence of its own.
 Subsect of Sthavira Vada.
2 SAUTRĀNTIKA  Offshoot of Sarvasthivada
 Doctrine of "extreme momentariness" that held that only
the present moment existed.
 Subsect of Sthavira Vada
3 SAMMATIYA  Distinctive theory concerning the pudgala, or person.
 Though an individual does not exist independently from the
five skandhas, or components that make up his personality,
he is at the same time something greater than the mere sum
of his parts.
 Subsect of Sthaviravada
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4. PRATITYASAMUTPA  All schools of Buddhism.
DA  It states that all dharmas (phenomena) arise in dependence
(Dependent origination, upon other dharmas.
or dependent arising,)
5 YOGACHARA,VIJNA  Doctrine of Consciousness.
NAVADA OR VIJNAP  Reality is nothing-but mind.
TIMATRA  Only the consciousness that one has of the momentary
interconnected event.
 Absolute idealism.
 Mahayana Tradition.
6 MADHYAMAKA OR  "Middle way" or "centrism"
SUNYAVADA  Nagarjuna.
 Mahayana Tradition.
 Doctrine That All Is Void.
 World is a mere illusion.
 Foundational text -Mūlamadhyamakakārikā

BHUMISPARSHA MUDRA
 ‘Touching the Earth.
 It is more commonly known as the ‘earth witness’ mudra.
 Symbolizes the Buddha’s enlightenment under the bodhi tree.
 Buddha’s calling of the earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara.
DHYAN MUDRA
 It is also known as Samadhi or Yoga Mudra.
 ‘The Mudra of meditation, of concentration on the good law.
 Attainment of spiritual perfection.
 Buddha used this Mudra while meditating under the Pipal tree before his enlightenment.
DHARMA CHAKRA MUDRA
 Gesture of ‘teaching of the wheel of dharma’.
 Buddha performed the dharmachakra mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained
enlightenment.
 Buddha, dharma and sangha, is represented by the three stretched fingers of the left hand.
TRI RATNAS OF BUDDHISM
1. Budhha (The enlightened)
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 2. Dhamma (Doctrine of Buddhism)
3. Sangha (Order of Buddhism)
PLACES VISITED BY BUDDHA
The kingdoms he visited are Kosala and Magadha Kingdom. The places visited under these two kingdoms
include Kapilavastu, Rajgriha, Vaishali, Gaya, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kosambi, Shravasti (capital of Kosala
Kingdom), Kushinagar, Nalanda, Mathura, Varanasi, Saket, Champapuri, etc.
ASHTAMAHASTHANAS
Lumbini, Bodh-Gaya. Sarnath and Kusinagar, where the tour principal events of the Buddha’s life, namely,
Birth, Enlightenment, first sermon and Mahaparinirvana took place. To these are added four places
Sravasti, Rajgriha, Vaishali and Sankasya. These eight places have all along been considered as the eight
holy places (ashtamahasthanas).
CONTRIBUTIONS OF BUDDHISM
 The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. It boosted the cattle wealth of the country. Later, it
became one of the cherished values of our nation.
 Buddhism asked people not to acquire property. The code of conduct prescribed for monks partially
reflects a revolt against the use of money, private property and luxurious living.
 Buddhism does not encourage blind faith of anything. This promoted the rationalism among the
people.
 The Buddhism kept its door open to women and sudras.
 Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and
Gaya are wonderful pieces of architecture.
 It promoted education through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila.
 It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.
DECLINE OF BUDDHISM
 The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the fall of popularity of Buddhism.
 The use of Pali, the language of the masses as the language of Buddhism was given up from the 1st
century A.D. The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite.
 After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol worship and making offerings led to the
deterioration of moral standards.
 Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries and the Turkish invaders in 12th century
destroyed the monasteries.
 In course of time, the Buddhist ‘Sangha’ became corrupt. The monks and followers came to be
drawn towards luxury and enjoyment. Receiving and saving valuable gifts like gold and silver made
them greedy and materialistic.

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  Division into various splinter groups like ‘Hinayana’, ‘Mahayana’, ‘Vajrayana’, ‘Tantrayana’ and
‘Sahajayana’ led Buddhism to lose its originality.

CHAPTER 5: MAHAJANAPADAS AND RISE OF MAGADHA- PERSIAN

AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS.
BACKGROUND
REASON FOR THE RISE OF MAHAJANAPADAS
 Widespread use of Iron in eastern U.P and western Bihar- Iron weapons enabled warrior classes to
play an important role.
 Agricultural tools and implements enabled the peasants to produce far more food grains than they
required for consumption.
 The growth of towns.
 These material advantages enabled people to stick to their land and strengthened the territorial idea
or Janapada.
SIXTEEN MAHAJANAPADAS
 The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen
Mahajanapadas’.
 They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya,
Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja.
 Jain texts also contain references to the existence of sixteen kingdoms.
 In course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually
got eliminated.
 Finally in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha
survived.
NO Mahajanapadas Capital Modern Day Remarks
Location
1 Anga Champa Bihar It was swallowed by
Magadha.
2 Magadha Girivraja/Rajgriha Bihar
3 Vajjis Vaishali Bihar  It includes 8 clans.
 Litchchhavis most
powerful.

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4 Kasi Varanasi U.P  It submitted to the
power of Kosala.

5 Kosala Sravasti U.P  It contains important

city Ayodhya.
 It included Sakyas of
Kapilavastu- the
birth place of
Buddha.
 Most famous ruler
was Prasenjit
whose sister was
married to
Bimbisara
 After his death
Kosala became part
of Magadha.
6 Mallas Kusinara. U.P  The place where
Gautama Buddha
passed away.
7 Vatsas Kausumbi.(Near U.P.  Popular ruler was
Allahabad) Udayana.
 After his death,
Vatsa was annexed
to the Avanti
kingdom
8 Avanti Northern- Ujjain U.P  Eventually Ujjain
Southern- surpassed
Mahishamati Mahishamati.
 Most important ruler
was Pradyota
 Patronized
Buddhism
 Finally, was annexed

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 to Magadha.

9 Covered the western

part of Pakistan and
Gandhara Taxila
eastern Afghanistan.

10 Covered the area of

Hindukush (modern
Kamboja Rajpur
Hazara districts of
Pakistan)
11 Situated in the
southern part of the
India between the
Asmaka Potana
rivers Narmada and
Godavari.(Andhra
Pradesh)
12
Covered the area
Surasena Mathura
around Mathura.

13 Covering the
modern
Chedi Shuktimati Bundelkhand area
(River Ken,
Yamuna)
14 Covering the
modern Haryana
Hastinapur/Indrapr
Kurus and Delhi area to the
astha
west of River
Yamuna
15 Covering the area of
Alwar,Bharatpur
Matsya ViratNagara
and Jaipur in
Rajasthan

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16 Ahichhatra(Uttara Covered the area of
Panchala) and present western UP
Panchala Kampilya( up to the east of
Dakshina river Yamuna up to
Panchala) Kosala janapada.

HARYANKA DYNASTY
BIMBISARA (546 – 494 BC)
 Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty.
 He was contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.
 Set up his capital at Rajgir (Known as Girivraja). It was surrounded by five hills , the openings in
which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir Impregnable.
 Strengthened his position by marriage alliances (Kosala, Lichhavi (Vaishali) andMadra clan
(Punjab)
 He defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and annexed that kingdom.
AJATASHATRU (494 - 462 B.C.)
 Killed his father and succeeded to the throne
 Fought with Kosala and Vaishali (Lichhavis – destroyed it in 16 years) and won both war.
 He possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, and it facilitated mass killings.
 He realised the strategic importance of the small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra). He fortified it
to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali.
 Embraced Buddhism and led the foundation for 1stBuddhist council at Rajgir. He is said to have
met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Barhut.
UDAYIN
 Successor of Ajatashatru
 Founded new capital at Pataliputra. It is situated at the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and
the Son.
 Later it became famous as the imperial capital of the Mauryas. Udayin’s successors were weak rulers
and hence Magadha was captured by Saisunaga.
 Thus the Haryanka dynasty came to an end and the Saisunaga dynasty came to power.
SHISHUNAGAS
 The genealogy and chronology of the Saisunagas are not clear.
 Temporary shifted the capital to Vaishali.
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  Defeated Avanti and bought end to 100-year-old rivalry.
 After Sisunaga, the mighty empire began to collapse.
 His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka.
 During his reign the second Buddhist Council was held at Vaisali.
 Kalasoka was killed by the founder of the Nanda dynasty
NANDAS
MAHAPADMANANDA
 Known as Ekarat (sole king who destroy others)
 Conquered Kalinga and bought image of Jina as trophy.
 It seems that he not only conquered Kalinga but also Koshala which had probably rebelled against
him.
 Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela King (Kalinga) refers to conquest of Kalinga by Nandas.
DHANANANDA
 Last ruler of Nanda dynasty
 He kept the Magadhan empire intact and possessed a powerful army and enormous wealth.
 During his reign, Alexander invaded India but did not move ahead to east (Nanda’s Power).
 The enormous wealth of the Nandas is also referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the
poet Mamulanar.
 The flourishing state of agriculture in the Nanda dominions and the general prosperity of the country
must have brought to the royal treasury enormous revenue.
 The oppressive way of tax collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people.
 Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya initiated a popular movement against
the Nanda rule.
CAUSE OF MAGADHA’S SUCCESS
 Capitals: Rajgir (Surrounded by 5 hills) + Patliputra (Surrounded by Ganga, Gandak, Son and
Ghagra river → True Jaladurga).
 Her strategic position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great
advantage.
 It had a fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya
added to its natural assets.
 Her location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her wealth.
 Magadha → 1st used elephants in war against enemies.

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PERSIAN INVASIONS
RULER REMARKS
Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C)  The founder of the Achaemenid Empire,
the first Persian empire.
 First conqueror who led an
expedition and entered into India.
 Captured Gandhara region.
Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.)  Conquered the Indus valley
in 518 B.C. and annexed the Punjab and
Sindh.
Xerxes (465-456 B.C.)  Xerxes faced a defeat in Greece.
 After this failure, the Achaemenians
could not follow a forward policy in
India.
 Control of Persians slackened on the eve
of Alexander’s invasion of India.

EFFECT OF PERSIAN INVASIONS

 Growth of Indo-Iranian commerce.
 It prepared the ground for Alexander’s invasion.
 The use of the Kharoshti script, a form of Iranian writing became popular in northwestern India.
 Influence of Persian art on the art of the Mauryas, particularly the
monolithic pillars of Asoka.
 Very idea of issuing edicts by Asoka and the wording used in the
edicts are traced to Iranian influence.
ALEXANDER INVASION OF INDIA (327-325 B.C.)
 Political Conditions - The north-western India remained the most disunited part of India and the
rulers were fighting with one another. They never come together against common enemy.
 Economic Condition – The fabulous wealth of India attracted the Alexander.

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  His interest in geographical inquiry and love for nature -He believed
that on the eastern side of India there was the continuation of the Caspian Sea, according the
geographical knowledge of his period.
BATTLE OF HYDASPES (326 BC)
 It’s the fourth and last pitched battle fought by Alexander the Great during his campaign of
conquest in Asia.
 It was fought between Alexander the Great and King Porus on the banks of River Jhelum
(known to the ancient Greeks as Hydaspes).
 Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle. Alexander was impressed by the courage
and heroism of this Indian prince, after the battle, asked Porus to become one of his satraps
(Governor).
EFFECT OF ALEXANDER INVASIONS
 First time ancient European came to contact ancient India.
 Greek settlements in north –western India.
 Many historians had wrote about Alexander’s Indian Campaign through this it’s possible to trace the
chronology of Indian Rulers also.
 It encouraged political unification of north India under the Mauryas. The system of small
independent states came to an end.
 It also paved the way for direct contact between India and Greece.
 The routes opened by him and his naval explorations increased the existing facilities for trade
between India and West Asia.
 Expansion of Mauryans in North Western India.
 The system of military Governship was first introduced in India by Greeks.

CHAPTER 6: THE MAURYAN EMPIRE ((325 BC -183 BC)

LITERARY SOURCES
 Kautilya’s Arthasastra
 This book in Sanskrit was written by Kautilya, a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya.
Kautilya was also called ‘Indian Machiavelli’. The manuscript of Arthasastra was first discovered
by R. Shama Sastri in 1904.
 The Arthasastra contains 15 books and 180 chapters but it can be divided into three parts:
o The first deals with the king and his council and the departments of
government;

46
 o The second with civil and criminal law;
o The third with diplomacy and war.
 Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa
 The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit.
 Although written during the V, it describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya
overthrew the Nandas.
 It also gives a picture on the socio-economic conditions under the Mauryas.
 Megasthenes’ Indica
 Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
 It gives details about the Mauryan administration, particularly the administration of the
capital city of Pataliputra and also the military organization.
 Other Literature
 Apart from these three important works, the Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as
Jatakas provides information on the Mauryas.
 The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throws light on the role of Asoka in
spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
 Edicts of Asoka
 The inscriptions of Asoka were first deciphered by James Princep in 1837.
 They are written in Pali language and in some places Prakrit was used. The Brahmi script was
employed for writing.
 In the Northwestern India Asokan inscriptions were found in Karoshti script.
 There are fourteen Major Rock Edicts. The major pillar Edicts were erected in important cities. There
are minor Rock Edicts and minor pillar Edicts.
 These Edicts of Asoka deal with Asoka’s Dhamma and also instructions given to his officials.
o The XIII Rock Edict gives details about his war with Kalinga.
o The Pillar Edict VII gives a summary of his efforts to promote the Dhamma within his
kingdom.
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322 – 298 B.C.)
 Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan
Empire.
 He captured Pataliputra from the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda. In this task he was
assisted by Kautilya, who was also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta.

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  After firmly establishing his power in the Gangetic valley, he marched to the northwest and subdued
the territories up to the Indus. Then he moved to central India and occupied the region north of
Narmada river.
 In 305 B.C., he marched against Selukas Niketar, who was Alexander’s General controlling the
northwestern India. Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and a treaty was signed. By this treaty,
Selukas Niketar surrendered a vast territory.
 Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus.
 Chandragupta became a Jain and went to Sravanbelgola with Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow
starvation.
 Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first time, the whole of northern India was united.
BINDUSARA (298 – 273 B.C.)
 Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning slayer of enemies.
 Taranatha, the Tibetan monk states that Bindusara conquered 16 states comprising ‘the land between
the two seas’.
 The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south.
 Therefore, it can be said that the Mauryan Empire under Bindusara extended up to Mysore.
 Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect.
ASHOKA THE GREAT (273 – 232 B.C.)
 There is little information regarding the early life of Asoka. It appears from
the available evidence that there was a struggle for the throne after Bindusara’s death.
 The Ceylonese Chronicles, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa state that Asoka captured power after killing
his ninety nine brothers including the his elder brother Susima. The youngest brother Tissa was
spared. Radhagupta a Minister of Bindusara helped him in fratricidal struggle.
 But according to Taranatha of Tibet, Asoka killed only six of his brothers. However, it is clear that the
succession of Asoka was a disputed one.
 The most important event of Asoka’s reign was his victorious war with Kalinga in 261 B.C. After the
war he annexed Kalinga to the Mauryan Empire.
 Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka embraced Buddhism under the
influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.
 In other words, Bherighosa was replaced by Dhammaghosha.
 Bherigosha means war drums. After the war of Kalinga dismayed Asoka declared that now
instead of Bherigosha he would favour in future Dhammagosha (Drum of Dhamma)

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  Asoka was not an extreme pacifist. He retained Kalinga after its conquest and incorporated it into
his empire. There is nothing to show that he has disbanded the huge army maintained from the time of
Chandhragupta Maurya.
 Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the whole of the
subcontinent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control.
 Asoka sent missionaries to the kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas, and five States ruled by
Greek kings.
ASHOKA AND BUDDHISM
 According to some scholars, his conversion to Buddhism was gradual and not immediate.
 He had visited important places associated with Buddhism like Bodh-Gaya, Lumbini, Saranat,
Sravasti etc
 He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra who planted there
the branch of the original Bodhi tree.
 Asoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 240 B.C.
 Rummindei Pillar Inscription -Lumbini Pillar Edict in Nepal is known as the Rummindei Pillar
Inscription. It mentions Asokha’s visit to Lumbini & exemption of Lumbini from tax.
ASOKA’S DHAMMA
 The word Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma.
 Asoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith.
 It was a way of life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be
adopted and practiced by the people at large.
 He appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma.
 Its broad objective was to preserve the social order it ordained that people should obey their
parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and show mercy to slave and servants.
 He held that if people behaved well, they would attain Swarga (heaven).
 He never said that they would attain Nirvana, which was goal of Buddhist Teaching.
 He did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist teachings. Buddhism
remained his personal belief.
 Kandahar Inscriptions of Ashoka speaks of success of his dhamma policy with the hunters and
fisherman, who gave up killing animals and possibly took a settled agriculture.
 His Dhamma is so universal that it appeals to humanity even today.
IMPORTANT MAJOR ROCK EDICTS

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  Major Rock Edict XIII: Asoka’s victory over Kalinga. Victory of Asoka’s Dhamma over Greek
Kings, Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and Cholas, Pandyas etc. This is the
Largest Edict.
 Major Rock Edict II: Provides for care for man and animals, describes about Chola, Pandyas ,
Satyapura and Keralputra Kingdoms of South India.
 Name of Ashoka -The name Ashoka occurs in few minor edicts (Maski&Girnar) (In
karnataka&Gujarat), rest at all places edicts mention him as “Devanampiya Piyadassi” which means
"Beloved-of-the-Gods, He Who Looks On With Affection."
SOHGAURA INSCRIPTION- UTTAR PRADESH.
 It is a copper plate inscription belonging to Mauryan period.
 It is written in Prakrit in the Brahmi script.
 Its mentions the establishment of two grain depots (Kosthagara) to fight against famine.
KANGANAHALLI
 Kanaganahalli in Karnataka is the site with an inscription in Brahmi script reading Ranyo
Ashoka and a sculpture of King Ashoka.
 It is on the banks of River Bhima.
 It contains a sculpture-portrait of Emperor Ashoka — the only available image of the Mauryan
emperor.
ASHOKA’S PLACE IN HISTORY
 Greatest Missionary ruler- He worked with great zeal and devotion to his mission, and achieved a
lot, both at home and abroad.
 Paternal kinship- he repeatedly asked his officials to tell the subjects that the king looked upon
them as his children.
 Political unification through Dhamma policy.
 Religious tolerance- He did not try to foist Buddhist belief on his subjects.
 Policy of peace, non- aggression and cultural conquest.
LATER MAURYAN RULERS
 Asoka’s death in 232 B.C. was followed by the division of
the Mauryan Empire into two parts – western and eastern.
 The western part was ruled by Kunala, son of Asoka and the eastern
part by Dasaratha, one of the grand sons of Asoka.
 Due to the Bactrian invasions, the western part of the empire collapsed. The eastern part was intact
under Samprati successor of Dasaratha.

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  The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga.
MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
 Monarchy -The ascendancy of the Mauryas had resulted in the triumph of monarchy in India. Other
systems like republics and oligarchies that were prevalent in the pre-Mauryan India had collapsed.
 King - Dharmapravartaka or promulgator of social order.
 Mantriparishad - The king was assisted by Mantri Parishad, whose members included – (i) The
Yuvaraj, the crown prince,thePurohita, the chief priest, the Senapati, the commander-in-chief of the
army a few other ministers.
 Amatyas-There were civil servants called Amatyas to look after the day-to-day administration.
 Elaborate system of espionage
 Census-The taking of Census was regular during the Mauryan period.
PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
o The northern province, called Uttarapatha had Taxila as its capital
Western province, known as Avantipatha had its capital in Ujjain.
Prachyapatha with its capital Toshali (Kalinga) formed the Eastern province while Dakshinapatha
with its capital Surarnagiri was the Southernmost province. Central province was Magdha, with its
capital at Pataliputra, was the headquarters of the entire kingdom.
o The provincial governors were mostly appointed from the members of royal family. They were
responsible the maintenance of law and order and collection of taxes for the empire.
o The district administration was under the charge of Rajukas, whose position
and functions are similar to modern collectors. He was assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials.
o Village administration was in the hands of Gramani and his official superior was called Gopa who
was in charge of ten or fifteen villages.
o Both Kautilya and Megasthanes provided the system of Municipal administration. Arthasastra
contains a full chapter on the role of Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to
maintain law and order.
o Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five members each to look after the administration of
Pataliputra. These committees looked after: 1. Industries 2. Foreigners 3. Registration of birth and
deaths 4. Trade 5. Manufacture and sale of goods 6. Collection of sales tax.
ECONOMIC SYSTEM
 Agriculture – The mainstay of the economy under the Mauryas was agriculture. For the first time in
Mauryan Period slaves were engaged in agricultural work on a large scale.

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  Sources of Revenue -The revenues came from land, irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests,
mines and pastures, license fee from craftsmen, and fines collected in the law courts. The land
revenue was normally fixed as one sixth of the produce. The taxes were collected in cash and kind.
 Samharta-The chief of the Revenue Department, was in charge of the collection of all revenues of the
empire.
 Sannidhata- The chief custodian of state treasury.
 Department of Commerce and Industry - This department had controlled the retail and wholesale
prices of goods and tried to ensure their steady supply through its officers called Adyakshas. It also
controlled weights and measures, levied custom duties and regulated foreign trade.
 Coinage- The punch marked silver coins which carry the symbols of peacock, and the hill and
crescent formed the imperial currency of the Mauryas.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
 Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts.
 The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital was called Dharmathikarin.
 There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and districts under Amatyas.
 Different kinds of punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death were given to the
offenders.
 The Dhamma Mahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust
imprisonment.
 Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asoka’s inscriptions.
ARMY
 The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the control of Senapati. The salaries were
paid in cash.
 Kautilya refers to the salaries of different ranks of military officers.
 According to Megasthenes the administration of Army was carried by a board of 30 officers divided
into six committees, each committee consisting of 5 members.
 They are: (i) Infantry(ii) Cavalry (iii) Elephants (iv) Chariots v) Navy (vi) Transport
 Each wing was under the control of Adyakshas or Superintendents.
IMPORTANT OFFICIALS

Title of Official Position

Durgapala Governor of royal fort
Antapala Governor of the frontier

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Akshapatala Accountant General
Vachabhumika Officer in charge of the rest houses,
groves and wells etc.
Lipikaras Scribes
Prativedikas Reporters.

MAURYAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

 PILLAR
o Asokan pillars with inscriptions were found in places like Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi
and Saranath.
o Their tops were crowned with figures of animals like lion, elephant and bull.
o The Saranath pillar with four lions standing back to back is the most magnificent.
o The Indian government adopted this capital with some modifications as its state emblem.
 STUPAS
 A ‘stupa’ is a solid domical structure of brick or stone, resting on around base.
 The main purpose of building it was to enshrine some relics of the Buddha or some great
Buddhist monk or to commemorate some Buddhist sacred place.
 Asoka built a number of stupas throughout his empire but majority of them were destroyed during
foreign invasions. Only a few have survived.
 The best example is the famous Sanchi stupa with massive dimensions. It was originally built with
bricks but later enlarged after the time of Asoka.

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  CAVES
 This period saw the emergence of rock-cut cave architectures.
 During the Mauryan period, these caves were generally used as viharas, i.e. living quarters, by the
Jain and Buddhist monks.
 It also served the purpose of churches and assembly halls (chaityas).
 While the early caves were used by the ajivika sect, later, they became popular as Buddhist
monasteries.
 The caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are wonderful pieces of Mauryan architecture.
CAUSE FOR THE DECLINE OF MAURYAN EMPIRE
 ASHOKA AS A CAUSE
 Brahmanical Reaction-It was said that Asoka’s pro-Buddhist policies antagonized the
Brahmins who brought about a revolution led by Pushyamitra Sunga.
 Neglect of North- western Frontier – Since Ashoka was mostly preoccupied with
missionary activities at home and abroad, he could not pay attention to safeguarding of
the passage on the North- Western Frontier.
 Financial Crisis – Large grants made by Ashoka to Buddhist Monks.
 Non- Violence Policy -Asoka’s policy of non-violence reduced the fighting spirit of
his army was another charge against him. But Asoka had never slackened his control
over his empire despite following a pacifist policy.
 Therefore, solely blaming Asoka for the decline of the Mauryan empire may not be
correct because Asoka was more a pragmatist than an idealist.
 OTHER CAUSES
o Financial Crisis- Due to enormous expenditure on army and payment to bureaucracy.
o Oppressive Rule – Oppressive rule in the provinces by the wicked bureaucrats.
o Spread of new material culture – The regular use of Iron tools and weapons, spread of
material culture to the other parts of the peripheral kingdoms gave rise to independent
kingdoms.
o Weak successors.
o Partition of empire.

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 CHAPTER 7: THE POST MAURYAN INDIA
POST MAURYAN INDIA
 After Ashoka’s death, his successors were not able to keep the vast Mauryan kingdom intact. Provinces
started declaring independence.
 North-West India slipped out of Mauryan control and a series of foreign invasion affected this
region.
 Kalinga declared its independence and in further south Satavahanas declared their independent
rule
 As a result, the Mauryan empire was confined to Gangetic valley and soon replaced by Sunga
dynasty
Sungas Dynasty (184 BC-75BC)
 Founder of Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was commander in chief under the
Mauryas. He assassinated the last Mauryan ruler and claimed the throne
 After the invasion from Bactrian Greeks from North-West, Greeks advanced up to Patliputra and
occupied it for some time but Pushyamitra Sunga reclaimed it.
 Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism.
 Buddhist sources refer him as a persecutor of Buddhism. But there is enough evidence to show that
Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist art.
 During his reign the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further
improved.
 After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler.
 The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his own minister Vasudeva Kanva,
Founder of Kanva dynasty.
MALAVIKAGNIMITRAM
 Sanskrit play by Kalidasa.
 Depicts Agnimitra as its hero and he falls in love with Malvika who a maid servant of his Chief
Queen is.
 It gives account of Rajsuya Yajna of Pushyamitra Shunga.

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EFFECT OF SUNGAS
 Defended Gangetic valley from foreign invaders, revived Brahmanism, Vaishnavism, horse sacrifice
and use of Sanskrit language.
 Hence, Sunga rule was a brilliant anticipation of golden age of Guptas

KANVA DYNASTY (72 BC-28 BC)

 Kanva dynasty ruler for approximately for 45 years and then Supplanted by Satavahanas and
few time later Guptas came at Magadha.
 After the fall of the Kanvas, the history of Magatha was a blank until the establishment of the Gupta
dynasty.
 Susharma was the last of the Kanvas.
 The last ruler of the Kanva dynasty was deposed by the Andhras.
SATAVAHANAS
 In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas. Their
rule lasted for about 450 years. They were also known as the Andhras.
 Sources – Puranas, Inscriptions and Coins.
 Capital →Paithan/ Pratisthan on the river Godavari.
 Official Language – Prakrit- All inscriptions written in Prakrit Language and written in the Brahmi
Script.
 Simuka -Founder of Satavahana dynasty.
 Krishna- Next ruler who extended his kingdom to west up to Nashik.
 Hala- 17th King -Hala became famous for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700
verses in Prakrit language.
 Gautamiputra Satkarni
o He was greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty .
o He ruled for a period of 24 years from 106 to 130 A.D.
o His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami
Balasri.
o Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole of Deccan and expanded his empire.
o His victory over Nagapana, the ruler of Malwa was remarkable. He patronized
Brahmanism. Yet, he also gave donations to Buddhists.
 Vashishtaputra Pulamayi

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 o Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi.
o He extended the Satavahana power up to the mouth of the Krishna river.
o He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed.
o They reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas.
 Yajna Sri Satakarni -The last great ruler of Satavahanas
 Satavahanas were succeeded by Ikshvakus.
PATTERN OF ADMINISTRATION
 The king was considered as the upholder of Dharma and also attributed divine qualities.
 Satavahana administration was almost same as Mauryans as District were called Aharas and officials
Amatyas and Mahamantras.
 Administration of rural areas was placed under Gaulmika who was the head of military regiment.
 Satvahana Rule was of military character.
 They started granting tax free villages to Brahmanas and Buddhist Monks.
 The Satavahana kings claimed to be Brahmanas and considered it their primary duty to uphold
varna system i.e. the four fold division of social structure.
 Satavahana Kingdom had 3 grades of feudatories
o Raja → Sole right to strike coin
o Mahabhoja
o Senapati
ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION
 There was a remarkable progress in the fields of internal trade and overseas commercial activity.
 Merchants organized guilds to increase their activities.
 The artisans and merchants made generous donations to Buddhism. Among the artisans Gandhikas
(traders of perfume)or perfumers are repeatedly mentioned as donors.
 Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.
 West Port → Kalyani (North east of Mumbai) + East Port → Gandakasela + Ganjam (Odisha).
CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION
 They built chaityas and viharas. The most famous Chaitya is Karle Chaitya (Pune)- Largest
Chaitya Griha among all Buddhist Monuments in India.
 At Nasik we have three viharas, which carry Inscriptions of Nahapana (important ruler of the Western
Kshatrapas) and Gautami Putra , it seems that belong to the first- second centuries AD.
 They also made grants of villages and lands to Buddhist monks.
 The most important stupa- Amarvati & Nagarjunakonda Stupa.

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  Amaravati Stupa began in about 200 BC but was completely reconstructed in the second half of
the Second Century AD. It was built during the reign of Ashoka the Great of the Mauryan dynasty,
who himself constructed a vast number of Buddhist monuments across the Indian subcontinent.
Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa.
 Their architecture in Nagarjunakonda was also notable. It prospered more under the Ikshvakus, the
successors of Satvahanas. It contains not only Buddhist Monuments but also the earliest
brahmanical brick temples. It is named after the renowned Buddhist Monk Nagarjuna (the famous
Buddhist scholar and the contriver of Mahayana Buddhism) who imparted his summons over here.
Nagarjunakonda was the capital of Ikshvaku Kingdom and was called Vijayapuri.
 Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya
sacrifices.
 They also patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai is an
excellent piece of Prakrit literature.

Foreign Invasion of North West India

BACTRIANS/ INDO-GREEKS
 The first to cross Hindukush were the Greeks, who ruled Bactria, lying south of the oxus river in the
area covered by North Afghanistan.
 Demeritus -Bactria and Parthia became independent from the Syrian empire in the middle of the
third century B.C. Demetrius, the Greek ruler of Bactria invaded Afghanistan and Punjab and
occupied them.
 Menander (165-145 BC)- Menander extended his rule up to Mathura and from there he made
attempts to capture Pataliputra. But he was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of
Pushyamitra Sunga. Menander was also known as Milinda and the capital of his kingdom was Sakala
(Sialcot).
 Milindapanho –Milinda evinced much interest in Buddhism and his dialogues with the Buddhist
monk Nagasena was compiled in the Pali work, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda). He also
embraced Buddhism.
 Helidorus -A Greek ambassador Heliodorus became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at
Besnagar. The Greek influence in India lasted for more than a century after the death Menander.
EFFECTS OF GREEK RULE
 The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings.
 Indo-Greeks were 1st to issue gold coins in India.

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  The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the North-west frontier of India. The
Gandhara art was largely Hellenistic in the beginning.
Shakas (Scythians)
 Greeks were followed by scythians (Shakas) who controlled much larger area of India than Greek did.
 There were 5 branches of Shakas in 5 different directions in India and Afghanistan. They didn’t face
much resistance from the rulers and people of India.
 VIKRAM ERA -Around 58 B.C, we hear of a king of Ujjain who fought effectively against Shakas and
emerged victorious. He called himself ‘Vikramaditya’, by whose name an era Vikram Samvat is
reckoned. Henceforth, Vikramaditya became a coveted title and whosoever achieved anything great
adopted this title. The Vikrama era (58 BC) is said in to have been founded after a victory of King
Vikramāditya over the Śaka. But some scholars credit the Saka ruler Azes 1 with the foundation of this
era.
 RUDRADAMAN 1-Most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman 1 who ruled not only Sindh but
also considerable part of Gujrat, Konkan, Malwa and Kathiawar.
 Junagarh Inscription - It is located on a rock near Girnar hill, in Junagadh, Gujarat. This inscription
written in Brahmi script, entirely in prose, using Sanskrit language was the earliest record ever written in
perfect Sanskrit. He issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. The Rudradaman
inscription is in fact one of the three significant inscriptions found on the same rock, dated to be the
second in chronology. The oldest inscription is a version of Ashoka edicts, while the last and third
inscription is of the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta. The Junagarh inscription gives the information about
the Sudharshan lake that the lake was an artificial reservoir, was built by the Mauryan emperors
(Chandhragupta Maurya)for checking floods. Around 150 AD, the lake was repaired by the Shaka ruler
Rudradaman I.
Parthians (Pahlavas)
 The Parthians were of Iranian origin and because of strong cultural connection with the Shakas, these
groups were referred to in the Indian sources as Shaka-Pahlava.
 In comparison with the Greeks and the Sakas they occupied only a small portion of North-western India in
the first Century.
 Most famous Parthian king was Gondopherens, in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have visited India for
propagation of Christianity.
Kushanas
 Branch of Yuchis or Tocharians tribe from north central Asia basically from neighbourhood of China

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 They first occupied Bactria or North Afghanistan, displacing Shakas and then gradually moved up to
Kabul valley and seized Gandhara by crossing Hindukush range, replacing rule of Greeks and Parthians
from these areas.
 Finally, they setup their authority over lower Indus basin and Greater part of Ganga basin
 Founder of Kushana dynasty was Kadphises 1 who issued coins in Kabul valley in his name.
 His son Kadphises 2 issued gold coins with high sounding titles like “Lord of whole world” and spread
his kingdom to the east as far as Mathura. He was a devotee of
Lord Siva.
Kanishka (78 – 120 AD)
 Most important ruler of Kushana dynasty and founder of Shaka era (Starts from 78 AD) used by GOI
 He was not only a great conqueror but also extended his wholehearted patronage to Buddhism
 At the time of his accession his empire included Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind and
Punjab. Subsequently he conquered Magadha and extended his power as far as Pataliputra and Bodh
Gaya.
 The empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending from Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east, and
from Kashmir in the north to Malwa in the south.
 His capital was Purushapura or modern day Peshawar. Mathura was another important city in his
empire.
Kanishka and Buddhism
 Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign. However, his coins exhibit the images of not
only Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods. It reflects the Kanishka’s toleration towards other
religions.
 In the age of Kanishka the Mahayana Buddhism came into vogue.
 Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia and China for the propagation of the new faith.
Buddhist chaityas and viharas were built in different places. He patronised Buddhist scholars like
Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna.
 He also convened the Fourth Buddhist Council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and
doctrine. It was held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar in Kashmir under the presidentship of
Vasumitra.
 Important Personalities in the rule of Kanishka
o Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet and dramatist. He was the author of Buddhacharita . He
composed Saundarananda which is fine example of Sanskrit Kavya. It is a kāvya poem with the
theme of conversion of Nanda, Buddha's half-brother, so that he might reach salvation. The first half

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 of the work describes Nanda's life, and the second half of the work describes Buddhist doctrines and
ascetic practices.
o Nagarjuna from south India adorned the court of Kanishka.
o The famous physician of ancient India Charaka who wrote “Charaksamhita”
was also patronized by him

Impact of Central Asian Contact

Gandhara School of Art
The home of the Gandhara School of art is the territory in and around Peshawar in north-western India.
The best of the Gandhara sculpture was produced during the first and second centuries A.D. It originated
during the reign of Indo-Greek rulers but the real patrons of this school of art were the Sakas and the
Kushanas, particularly Kanishka. Gandhara art was a blend of Indian and Graeco-Roman elements.
Specimens of Gandhara sculpture have been found in Taxila, Peshawar and in several places of northwest
India.
The salient features of Gandhara art are.
 The stone used for making idols of Buddha and Bodhisattava was predominantly blue-grey schist.
 Moulding human body in a realistic manner with minute attention to physical features like muscles,
moustache and curtly hair.
 Thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.
 Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and symbolic expressions.
 The main theme was the new form of Buddhism – Mahayanism and the evolution of an image of
Buddha.
 The depiction of Buddha as a ‘man-god’ in Gandharan sculpture is believed to be inspired from
Greek mythology.
Mathura School of Art
 The school of art that developed at Mathura in modern Uttar Pradesh is called the Mathura art.
 It flourished in the first century A.D. In its early phase, the Mathura school of art developed on
indigenous lines. Later, it also borrowed from the Gandhara school and adopted more than one
Graeco- Roman motif.
 The Buddha images exhibit the spiritual feeling in his face which was largely absent in the Gandhara
school.
 The Mathura school also carved out the images of Siva and Vishnu along with their consorts
Parvathi and Lakshmi.
 The female figures of yakshinis and apsaras of the Mathura school were beautifully carved.

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  Famous for headless erect statue of Kanishka with his name inscribed below
 The artists of Mathura used the spotted red sandstone for making images.
 It also produced several stone images of Vardhamana Mahavira.
Amaravati School of Art
 The Amravati school of art flourished in the region of Andhra Pradesh between the lower valleys of
rivers Krishna and Godavari.
 The main patrons of this art form were the Satavahans but it carried on even later, patronized by their
successor Ikshavaku rulers.
 This art is said to have flourished between 150 BC and 350 AD.
 An important characteristic of the Amravati school is the ‘narrative art’.
 The use of white marble like stone to carve out the figures.
 Religious and secular features.
Literature and Learning
 Avadanas- (Sanskrit: “Noble Deeds”,) legendary material centring on the Buddha’s explanations of
events by a person’s worthy deeds in a previous life. Most of them composed in Buddhist Hybrid
Sanskrit. Example- Mahavastu and Divyavadana.
 Yavanika – The foreigners also contributed to the Indian Theatre, by introducing the use of curtain. Since
the curtain was borrowed from Greeks it came to be known as yavanika.
OTHER IMPACTS (SAKAS AND KUSHANAS)
 Shakas – Kushanas introduced better cavalry and use of riding horses on large scale along with use of
turban, tunic, trousers and longcoats. They made use of reins and saddles common.
 Kushanas were the 1st ruler in India to issue gold coins on wide scale and controlled major part of silk
trade.
 Kushanas adopted pompous titles as King of Kings and were called Sons of God like Asoka was called
Dear to Gods.
 Satrap System- Under this system, the kingdom was divided into provinces, each under military governor
Mahakshatrapa (great satrap).
Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushana Rule.
 The last important Kushana ruler was Vasudeva. The Kushana empire was very much reduced in his
rule. Most of his inscriptions are found in and around Mathura.
 He seems to have been a worshipper of Siva. After Vasudeva, petty Kushan princes ruled for
sometime in northwestern India

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 CHAPTER 8: SANGAM AGE
SANGAM AGE
According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu
popularly called Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.
The first Sangam, held at then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of
this Sangam was available. The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had
perished except Tolkappiyam. The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was
attended by many poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived. These Tamil literary
works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.
SANGAM LITERATURE
 The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the
two epics- Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
 Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature.It is a work on Tamil
grammar but it provides information on the political and socio-economic conditions of the Sangam
period.
 The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
 The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji,
Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
 Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
 Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals. The most
important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
 Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides
valuable information on the Sangam polity and society.
OTHER SOURCES
 In addition to the Sangam literature, the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and
Ptolemy mention the commercial contacts between the West and South India.
 The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenese who speaks of the Pandya kingdom being ruled by
a woman and that even seven-year-old mothers were found in the Pandya country; this may suggest
some matriarchal influence in the Pandya society.
 According to Megasthenese Pandyan kingdom was celebrated for pearls.

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  The three kingdoms – Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras, together with Satiyaputras (Satyaputra) are
referred to as independent states by Ashoka in his inscriptions with which he maintained friendly
relations.
 The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms.
 The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places reveal the overseas
commercial activities of the Tamils.
PERIOD OF SANGAM LITERATURE
 The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed topic among the scholars.
 The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran
Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries.
 This is confirmed by Silappathigaram as well as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa.
 Also, the Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of the first century A.D were found in plenty in
various places of Tamil Nadu.
 Therefore, the most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third
century B.C. to third century A.D on the basis of literary, archaeological, and numismatic evidences.
POLITICAL HISTORY
The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam
Age. The political history of these dynasties can be traced from the literary references.
THE CHERAS
 The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. The history of the Cheras was marked by continuous
fight with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
 Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. The Cheras owed its
importance to trade with the Romans.
 The Pugalur inscription of the first century A.D refers to three generations of Chera rulers.
Padirruppattu also provides information on Chera kings.
 Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and Cheran
Senguttuvan were the famous rulers of this dynasty.
 Cheran Senguttuvan (Red Chera) belonged to 2nd century A.D. His younger brother was Elango
Adigal, the author of Silappathigaram.
 Among his military achievements, his expedition to the Himalayas was remarkable. He defeated many
north Indian monarchs. (Exaggeration).
 Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal
wife in Tamil Nadu.
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 After the second century A.D., the Chera power declined, and nothing of its history until the eighth
century A.D. is known.
THE CHOLAS
 The Cholas Kingdom which was situated between the Pennar and the Velar rivers was the most
powerful of all three kingdoms.
 Their chief centre of political power was at Uraiyar, a place famous for cotton trade.
 In the middle of second century B.C., a Chola king named Elara Conquered Sri Lanka and ruled
over it for nearly 50 years. He was the first important Chola king.
 A firmer history of the Cholas begins in the second century A.D. when their greatest and most famous
king Karikala, who founded the port city of Puhar (identical with Kaveripattinam) and constructed
160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River.
 Puhar or Kaveripattanam was Chola capital. Puhar was also a great centre of trade and commerce.
 Battle of Venni- Karikala defeated groups of cheras, pandyas & minor chieftains.
 Trade in cotton cloth was one of the main sources of Cholas wealth.
 The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy.
THE PANDYAS
 The Pandyan kingdom occupied the south-most and the south-eastern portion of the Indian Peninsula,
with Madurai as it capital.
 The Pandyas were one of the most ancient dynasties to rule South India and are mentioned in
Kautilya’s Arhasastra and Megasthenes’ Indica.
 The most prominent among Pandyans was Nedunzalian, who made Madurai his capital.
 Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan- He is responsible for execution of Kovalan for which
Kannagi burnt Madurai.
 Another king was Madaranjeral Irumporai who sent ambassadors to Roman emperor Augusts and
performed Vedic sacrifices.
 Pandya rulers exercised a clan-rule under several lineages, each bearing Tamil names ending with
suffixes such as Valuti and Celiyan.
 Maduraikkanji , the Sangam literature written by Mangudi Maruthanar gives us information on
socio-economic condition of the pandya country and flourishing Seaport of korkai
 The Pandyas acquired their resources in inter-tribal conflicts with the Cheras and Cholas, and
luxury goods from their maritime trade with countries further west.
 They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests.
 Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.
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  After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than century, only to rise once again at
the end of the 6th century.
MINOR CHIEFTAINS
 The minor chieftains played a significant role in the Sangam period and among them Pari, Kari, Ori,
Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman were popular for their philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets.
 They were known as Kadai Yelu Vallalgal. Although they were subordinate to the Chera, Chola and
Pandya rulers, they were powerful and popular in their respective regions
SANGAM POLITY
 Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period.
 The king had also taken the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court or avai.
 The Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and
Villavar,the Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi and the Pandya kings Thennavar and
Minavar.
 Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem – carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and
bow for the Cheras.
 The imperial court or avai was attended by a number of chiefs and officials.
 The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils.
 They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys
(thuthar) and spies (orrar).
 The military administration was also efficiently organized during the Sangam Age and each ruler had a
regular army and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
SANGAM SOCIETY
 Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral),
Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).
 The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for
worship.
 Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection
 Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy
products.
 Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
 Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing
 Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.
 Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely Arasar, Anthanar, Vanigar and Vellalar.
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  The ruling class was called Arasar.
 Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.
 Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.
 The Vellalas were agriculturists.
 Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also
found in the Sangam society.
 Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
RISE OF SOCIAL CLASSES
 The Brahmins first appear in the Tamil Nadu in the Sangam Age. An ideal king was one who never
hurt the Brahmins.
 The Kshatriyas and Vaisyas appear as regular varnas in Sangam Texts.
 Agricultural operations were generally carried on by women of the lowest class (Kadaisiyar), who’s
status appear to have differed little from that of Slave.
 Besides agricultural laboures we come across low class artisans. To this category belonged the
Pulaiyans, who made rope Charpaiys and used animal skin as mats.
 Several outcastes and forest tribes suffered from extreme poverty and lived from hand to mouth.
 The sharp social inequalities existed in the age of Sangam.
POSITION OF WOMEN
 There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to trace the position of women during the
Sangam age.
 Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and
contributed to Tamil literature.
 The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems.
 Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women.
 Love marriage was a common practice.
 Women were allowed to choose their life partners.
 However, the life of widows was miserable.
 The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society
 The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and nobles.
RELIGION
 The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
 The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was
mentioned in the Sangam literature.
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  Murugan was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.
 Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan
and Korravai.
 The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period and was erected in memory
of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.
 Many hero stones with legends inscribed on them were found in different parts of Tamil Nadu. This
kind of worshipping the deceased has a great antiquity.
FINE ARTS
 Poetry, music, and dancing were popular among the people of the Sangam age.
 Liberal donations were given to poets by the kings, chieftains and nobles.
 The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts
in folk songs and folk dances.
 The arts of music and dancing were highly developed.
 A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the Sangam literature.
 Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar.
 Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.
ECONOMY OF THE SANGAM AGE
 Agriculture was the chief occupation and Rice was the common crop.
 Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety of fruits were the other
crops.
 Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country.
 Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country.
 Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income while custom duty was also imposed on
foreign trade.
 The Pattinappalai refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar.
 Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury.
 Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and day to prevent robbery and
smuggling.
 The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular and include weaving, metal works and carpentry,
ship building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
 There was a great demand for these products, as the internal and external trade was at its peak during
the Sangam period.
 Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality.
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  The poems mention the cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough of a snake.
 There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
 Both internal and foreign trade was well organized and briskly carried on in the Sangam Age. The
Sangam literature, Greek and Roman accounts and the archaeological evidences provide detailed
information on this subject.
 Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on animal-back from place to place.
 Internal trade was mostly based on the barter system.
 External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms.
 After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance.
 The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with
precious goods.
 Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.
 The author of Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade.
 Plenty of gold and silvercoins issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero
were found in all parts of Tamil Nadu which reveals the extent of the trade and the presence of
Roman traders in the Tamil country.
 The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom,
cinnamon and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones.
 Gold, horses, and sweet wine were the chief imports.
END OF THE SANGAM AGE
 Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline.
 The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries.
 Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period
 The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern TamilNadu drove the Kalabhras
out of the Tamil country and established their rule

CHAPTER 9: GUPTA EMPIRE

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BACKGROUND
On ruins of Kushan Empire arose a new empire, which established its sway over a good part of the former
dominions of both the Kushanas and Satvahanas. This was the power of Guptas, who may have been of
Vaisya origin. Although Gupta empire was not large as the Mauryan empire it kept north India politically
united for more than a century from 355 to 455 AD. The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of Kushanas
in Uttarpradesh, and seem to have succeded them without any wide timelag. The original kingdom of
Guptas comprised UP and Bihar at the end of third century AD. The main center of power became Prayag
(Allahabad) during Gupta Period.
SOURCES
1. Puranas
2. Devichandraguptam and the mudhrakshasam.
3. Accounts of fahien.
4. Numismatcs
5. Inscriptions
EARLY RULERS
 The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta.
 He was succeeded by Ghatotkacha. These two were called Maharajas.
 Much information was not available about their rule.
CHANDRAGUPTA 1 (320 – 330 A.D.)
 1st to be called as Maharajadhiraja (Great king of kings)
 He strengthened his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Licchavis.
 Chandragupta I is considered to be the founder of the Gupta era which starts with his accession in A.D.
320
SAMUDRAGUPTA (330-380 A.D.)
 Samudragupta was the greatest of the rulers of the Gupta dynasty.
 He was a lover of art and literature, Self-proficient in music and poetry, hence called Kaviraja.
 His image depicting him with Veena is found in the coins issued by him. It is the proof of his
proficiency and interest in music.
 Patronized many poets and scholars along with famous Harisena.
 He evinced keen interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandu.
 He also permitted Buddhist king Meghavarman (King of Sri Lanka) to build monasteries in Bodh
Gaya.
 He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but tolerant to other religions.
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ALLAHABAD PILLAR INSCRIPTION
 The most important source for the reign of Samudragupta is the Allahabad Pillar inscription. It
describes his personality and achievements. This inscription is engraved on an Asokan pillar.
 It is written in classical Sanskrit, using the Nagari script. It consists of 33 lines composed by
Harisena.
 It describes the circumstances of Samudragupta’s accession, his military campaigns in north India
and the Deccan, his relationship with other contemporary rulers, and his
accomplishments as a poet and scholar.
 Allahabad Pillar Inscriptions mentions regarding three major expeditions of Ashoka
o Against some rulers of North India.
o His famous Dakshinapatha expedition against South Indian rulers.
o A second campaign against some other rulers of North India.
 It is because of his military achievements Samudragupta was hailed as ‘Indian Napoleon
CHANDRAGUPTA 2 (380-415 A.D.)
 Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.
 His reign saw high watermark of Gupta Empire.
 He also contributed to the general cultural progress of the age and patronized great literary figures
like Kalidasa. Because of the high level of cultural progress that was achieved during this period, the
Gupta period is generally referred to as a golden age.
 Extended his empire by military conquests and marriage alliances.
 . He gave his daughter Prabhavati in marriage to the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.
 This alliance served a useful purpose when Chandragupta-II undertook his campaign in western
India against the Sakas.
 Conquest of Western India-
o Rudrasimha III, the last ruler of the Saka satrap was defeated, dethroned and killed. His
territories in western Malwa and the Kathiawar Peninsulawere annexed into the Gupta
Empire.
o After this victory he performed the horse sacrifice and assumed the title Sakari, meaning,
‘destroyer of Sakas’. He also called himself Vikramaditya.
 Impact of the Conquest
o As a result of the conquest of western India, the western boundary of the Empire reached
to the Arabian Sea gaining access to Broach, Sopara, Cambay and other sea ports.
o This enabled the Gupta empire to control trade with the western countries.

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 o Ujjain became an important commercial city and soon became the alternative capital of the
Guptas.
FAHIEN’S VISIT
 The famous Chinese pilgrim, Fahien visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II.
 He visited Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara, Pataliputra, Kasi and
Bodh Gaya among other places.
 The main purpose of his visit was to see the land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist manuscripts
from India.
 Fahien provides valuable information on the religious, social and economic condition of the Gupta
empire.
 According to him, Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in the northwestern India but in the
Gangetic valley it was in a state of neglect. He refers to the Gangetic valley as the ‘land of
Brahmanism’.
 Fahien mentions the unsatisfactory state of some of the Buddhist holy places like Kapilavastu and
Kusinagara.
 According to him the economic condition of the empire was prosperous.
 The main limitation of Fahien’s account is that he analysed everything from the Buddhism
Perspective.

GUPTA ADMINISTRATION
 He characterises the Gupta administration as mild and benevolent. There were no restrictions on
people’s movements and they enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom. There was no state
interference in the individual’s life. Punishments were not severe. Imposing a fine was a common
punishment.
 The administration was so efficient that the roads were kept safe for travelers, and there was no fear of
thieves.
 He mentioned that people were generally prosperous and the crimes were negligible. Fahien had also
appreciated the efficiency of the Gupta administration as he was able to travel without any fear
throughout the Gangetic valley.
 On the whole the administration was more liberal than that of the Mauryas.
KUMARAGUPTA
 He was the son and successor of Chandragupta II.
 His reign was marked by general peace and prosperity.

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  He laid the foundation of the Nalanda University.
 A branch of the Huns from Central Asia made attempts to cross the Hindukush mountains and
invade India.
SKANDAGUPTA
 He really faced the Hun invasion. He fought successfully against the Huns and saved
the empire.
 Junagarh Rock – Inscription- Restoration of Sudharsana Lake by Skanda Gupta.
SUCCESSORS
 After Skandagupta’s death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Narasimhagupta, Buddhagupta
and Baladitya could not save the Gupta empire from the Huns.
GUPTA ADMINISTRATION
 KING -The king was assisted in his administration by a council consisting of a chief minister, a
Senapati or commanderin-chief of the army and other important officials. The right of succession
belonging to the firstborn child was not followed always.(Primogeniture)
 OFFICIAL -A high official called Sandivigraha was mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions, most
probably minister for foreign affairs. The king maintained a close contact with the provincial
administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. Recruitment not
restricted to upper Varnas. The bureaucratic system was not elaborate. Many offices/ posts were
held by same person. This weakened the royal control.
 DIVISION OF EMPIRE -Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis
and provincial governors as Uparikas. They were mostly chosen from among the princes.
Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or districts. They were governed by Vishyapatis. Nagara
Sreshtis were the officers looking after the city administration. The villages
in the district were under the control of Gramikas.
 VILLAGE HEADMAN- The village headman gained in importance in Gupta times, managing
village affairs with the assistance of elders. With the administration of a village or a small town,
leading local elements were associated. No land transactions could be effected without their
consent.
 ARMY – The king maintained a standing army, which was supplemented by the forces occasionally
supplied by feudatories. Chariots receded in to background, and cavalry came to the forefront.
 JUDICIARY –The Judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas than in earlier times.
Several law books were compiled in this period. For the first time Civil and Criminal law were
clearly demarcated. Theft and adultery came under criminal law. Elaborate laws were laid down
about inheritance.
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SOCIAL LIFE
 During the Gupta period, the caste system became rigid. The Brahmins occupied the top ladder of the
society. They were given enormous gifts by the rulers as well as other wealthy people.
 The practice of untouchability had slowly begun during this period. Fahien mentions that Chandalas
were segregated from the society.
 The position of women had also become miserable during the Gupta period. They were prohibited from
studying the religious texts like the Puranas. The subjection of women to men was thoroughly
regularized
 The practice of Swyamvara was given up and the Manusmriti suggested the early marriage for girls.
 The position of Sudras improved in Gupta period. They were now permitted to listen to the epics
and Puranas. They could also worship lord Krishna. They were also allowed to perform certain
domestic rites which brought fees to priests.
RELIGION
 Brahmanism reigned supreme during the Gupta period. It had two branches - Vaishnavism and
Saivism.
Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites. They performed Aswamedha sacrifices.
 The worship of images and celebration of religious festivals with elaborate rituals made these two
religions popular. Religious literature like the Puranas was composed during this period.
 The progress of Brahmanism led to the neglect of Buddhism and Jainism. Fahien refers to the
decline of Buddhism in the Gangetic valley. But a few Buddhist scholars like Vasubandhu were
patronized by Gupta kings.
 In western and southern India Jainism flourished. The great Jain Council was held at Valabhi
during this period and the Jain Canon of the Swetambras was written.
ECONOMY
 DECLINE IN FOREIGN TRADE -During this time we can see a decline in foreign trade. Till A.D.
550 India carried on some trade with Eastern Roman Empire , to which it exported Silk. Around
A.D. 550 the people of Eastern Roman Empire learnt from the Chinese the art of growing Silk. It
adversely affected the export trade of India.
 VISHTI - Villagers were subjected to forced labour called Vishti for serving royal army and officials.
It was forced labour in lieu of tax and therefore not entitled to weekly wages. Anyone can be sent as
the forced labourer, not particularly from the eldest son of the labourer. Most of the inscriptions refers
to Vishti as more prevalent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire.

74
  THE RISE OF LANDED CLASS – The striking development of the Gupta Period was the
emergence of priestly landlords at the cost of local peasants. Land grants made to the priests
certainly brought many virgin areas under cultivation. The peasants were reduced to lower class.
 LAND GRANTS – The Land Grants to the Brahmins on a large scale suggest that the brahmana
supremacy continued in Gupta Times.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
 Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period. But most of the
architecture of this period had been lost due to foreign invasions like that of Huns.
 The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi and the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas near Allahabad
remain important specimen of the Gupta art.
 There was no influence of Gandhara style. But the beautiful statue of standing Buddha at
Mathura reveals a little Greek style.
 The gigantic copper statue of Buddha, originally found at Sultanganj now kept at Birmingham
museum, was about seven and a half feet height and nearly a ton weight. It shows the excellence of
metal craftship.
 The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is still free from rust though completely exposed to
sun and rain for so many centuries.
 The paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior. The mural paintings of
Ajantha mostly illustrate the life of the Buddha as depicted in the Jataka stories.
 The paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly influenced by the Ajantha style.
LITERATURE
 The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta period. Nagari script had evolved from
the Brahmi script. Numerous works in classical Sanskrit came to be written in the forms of epic,
lyrics, drama and prose. The best of the Sanskrit literature belonged to the Gupta age.
 The court of Chandragupta II was adorned by the celebrated Navratnas. Kalidasa remain the
foremost among them. His master-piece was the Sanskrit drama Shakuntala. It is considered one among
the ‘hundred best books of the world’.
 He wrote two other plays - the Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvasiya. His two well-known epics are
Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava. Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are his two
lyrics.
 The Puranas in their present form were composed during this period. There are eighteen Puranas. The
most important among them are the Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas.
 The Mahabharatha and the Ramayana were given final touches and written in the present form
during this period
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NAVRATNAS

PERSONS REMARKS
Amarsimha Sanskrit
Lexicographer -
Amarakosha

Dhanvantri Great Physician

Kalidasa Sanskrit Writer And

Poet

Kshapanka Astrologer

Sanku Architecture.

Varahamihira Astronomer,
Astrologer And
Mathematician
Vararuchi Grammarian

Ghatakarpura Expert In Sculpture

And Architecture

Vetala Bhatta Sanskrit Author.

OTHER WRITERS
PERSONS REMARKS

76
 Visakadatta Mudrarakshasam,
devichandraguptam.

Sudraka Mrichchakatika

Bhasa Plays

Dandin Kavyadarsa
Dasakumaracharita.

Bharavi Kiratarjuniya
Subhandhu Vasavadatta

Vishnusarma. Panchatantra stories

Science and Technology

ARYABHATTA  Aryabhatiyam, aryasidhhanta
 Great mathematician and astronomer.
 First to declare that the earth was spherical in shape
and that it rotates on its own axis.
 It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and
lunar eclipses.
VARAHMITRA  He composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five
astronomical systems.
 His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in Sanskrit
literature.
 It deals with a variety of subjects like astronomy,
astrology, geography, architecture, weather, animals,
marriage and omens.
 His Brihadjataka is considered to be a standard work
on astrology
VAGBHATA  Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of 8 branches of
Medicine).

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FALL OF GUPTA EMPIRE
 Due to invasion of Hunas from central Asia.
 Due to rise of Yashodharman in Malwa.
 Rise of feudatories and independent kingdoms.
 Difficult to maintain army on account of growing practice of land grants for religious and other
purposes, which had reduced their revenue.
 Decline of foreign trade.

CHAPTER 10: POST GUPTA PERIOD

HARSHA AND HIS TIMES
The decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of political disorder and disunity in North
India. It was only in the beginning of the seventh century A.D. that Harshvardhana succeeded in
establishing a larger kingdom in north India.
SOURCES
 Harshacharita written by Bana and the Travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang (7TH CE AD).
 The dramas written by Harsha- Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyardarsika.
 The Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpat inscription are also helpful to know the chronology
of Harsha.
 The Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha.
PUSHYABHUTIS OF THANESWAR
 The founder of the family of Harsha was Pushyabhuti. Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the
Guptas. They called themselves Vardhanas.
 After the Hun invasions they assumed independence. The first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty
was Prabhakaravardhana. His capital was Thaneswar, north of Delhi.
 After Prabhakaravardhana’s death, his elder son Rajyavardhana came to the throne Rajyavardhana
was killed by sasanka ( ruler of bengal).
 Harsha succeeded his brother at Thaneswar. He made Kannuaj as his capital. Harsha established his
hold over the whole of north India.
 The regions modern Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct
control. But his sphere of influence was much more extensive.

78
  The peripheral states such as Kashmir, Sind, Valabhi and Kamarupa acknowledged his sovereignty.
SOUTHWARD MILITARY EXPEDITION
 The most important military campaign of Harsha was against the Western Chalukya ruler
Pulakesin II. Both the accounts of Hiuen Tsang and the inscriptions of Pulakesin II provide the
details of this campaign.
 Harsha with an ambition to extend his kingdom south of the Narmada river marched against the
Chalukya ruler. But the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentions the defeat of Harsha by
Pulakesin, who after this achievement assumed the title Paramesvara.
 Aihole Inscription was done by Ravi Kirti in Sanskrit language. Hiuen Tsang’s accounts also
confirm the victory of Pulakesin.
HARSHA AND BUDDHISM
 In his early life, Harsha was a devout Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist.
Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism.
 Harsha prohibited the use of animal food in his kingdom and punished those who kill any living being.
He erected thousands of stupas and established travellers’ rests all over his kingdom.
 He also erected monasteries at the sacred places of Buddhists.
 ALLAHABAD CONFERENCE Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account about the conference
held at Allahabad, known as Prayag. Once in five years he convened a gathering of
representatives of all religions and honoured them with gifts and costly presents.
 KANAUJ ASSEMBLY Harsha organized a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour
the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang towards the close of his reign. He invited representatives of all
religious sects. Hiuen Tsang explained the values of Mahayana doctrine and established its
superiority over others. However, violence broke out and there were acts of arson. There
was also an attempt on the life of Harsha. Soon, it was brought under control and the guilty were
punished. On the final day of the Assembly, Hiuen Tsang was honoured with costly presents.
HARSHA’S ADMINISTRATION
 The administration of Harsha was organized on the same lines as the Guptas did. Hiuen Tsang gives
a detailed picture about this. The king was just in his administration and punctual in discharging his
duties.
 Taxation was also light and forced labour was also rare. One sixth of the produce was collected as
land tax. Cruel punishments of the Mauryan period continued in the times of Harsha.
 Hiuen Tsang condemned the trials as barbarous and superstitious. Harsha’s army consisted of the
traditional four divisions – foot, horse, chariot and elephant. The number of cavalry was more than

79
 one lakh and the elephants more than sixty thousands. This was much more than that of the
Mauryan army.
 Land grants were made to priests. In addition Harsha is credited with the grant of land to officers
by charters. Thus his administration was more feudal and decentralised.
 The revenue of Harsha were divided in to four parts. One part was earmarked for the expenditure of
the king, the second for scholars, a third for endowment of officials and public servants and a fourth for
religious purposes.
 The feudal practise of rewarding and paying officers with grants of land seems to have begun
under Harsha.
 The law and order was not well maintained during Harsha’s time. The Hsuan Tsang was robbed of
his belongings, although he reports that according to the laws of land severe punishment were inflicted
for crime.
 The maintenance of public records was the salient feature of Harsha’s administration. The archive
of the Harsha period was known as nilopitu and it was under the control of special officers. Both good
and bad events happened during his time had been recorded.
SOCIETY AND ECONOMY UNDER HARSHA
 The fourfold division of the society – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vysya and Sudra – was prevalent. The
Brahmins were the privileged section of the society and they were given land grants by the kings.
There existed many sub castes.
 The position of women was not satisfactory. The institution of Swyamvara (the choice of choosing
her husband) had declined. Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly
among the higher castes. The system of dowry had also become common. The practice of sati was
also prevalent.
 The trade and commerce had declined during Harsha’s period. This is evident from the decline of
trade centres, less number of coins, and slow activities of merchant guilds. The decline of trade in
turn affected the handicrafts industry and agriculture.
 Since there was no large scale demand for goods, the farmers began to produce only in a limited
way. This led to the rise of self-sufficient village economy. In short, there was a sharp economic
decline as compared to the economy of the Gupta period.
HSUAN TSANG’S ACCOUNT
 He visited India during reign of Harshavardhana ie; 7th CE.
 He had came to study in Buddhist University of Nalanda and to collect Buddhist texts from India.
 He vividly describes Harsha’s court and life in those days. This account is much larger than that of
Fa- hein.
80
  It sheds light on the economic and social life as well as the religious sects of the period.
 The Chinese account shows that Patatliputra was in state of decline; so was Vaishali.
 On the other hand, Prayag and Kannauj in the doab had become important.
 The Brahmanas and Kshatriyas are reported to have led a simple life, but the nobles and priests led a
luxurious life.
 Hsuan Tsang calls the Sudras agriculturalists, which is significant.
 In the earlier texts they are represented as serving the three higher varnas.
 The Chinese pilgrim takes notice of untouchability such as scavengers, executioners etc.
CULTURAL PROGRESS
 The art and architecture of Harsha’s period are very few and mostly followed the Gupta style.
Hiuen Tsang describes the glory of the monastery with many storeys built by Harsha at Nalanda.
 He also speaks of a copper statue of Buddha with eight feet in height.
 The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur (Chattisgarh).
 His biographer Banabhatta adorned his royal court. Besides Harshacharita, he
wrote Kadambari. Other literary figures in Harsha’s court were Matanga Divakara and the famous
Barthrihari, who was the poet, philosopher and grammarian.
 Harsha patronised the Nalanda University by his liberal endowments.
NALANDA UNIVERSITY
 Hiuen Tsang gives a very valuable account of the Nalanda University. The term Nalanda means
“giver of knowledge”. It was founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta period. It was patronised
by his successors and later by Harsha.
 The professors of the University were called panditas. Some of its renowned professors were
Dingnaga, Dharmapala, Sthiramati and Silabadhra. Dharmapala was a native of Kanchipuram and
he became the head of the Nalanda University.
 Nalanda University was a residential university and education was free including the boarding and
lodging. It was maintained with the revenue derived from 100 to 200 villages endowed by different
rulers.
 Though it was a Mahayana University, different religious subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana
doctrine, Sankhya and Yoga philosophies were also taught.
 In addition to that, general subjects like logic, grammar, astronomy, medicine and art were in the
syllabus. It attracted students not only from different parts of India but from different countries of
the east.

81
  Admission was made by means of an entrance examination. The entrance test was so difficult that
not more than thirty percent of the candidates were successful. Discipline
was very strict.
 More than lectures, discussion played an important part and the medium of instruction was
Sanskrit. It had numerous classrooms and a hostel attached to it.
 According to Itsing, the Chinese pilgrim, there were 3000 students on its rolls. It had an observatory
and a great library housed in three buildings.
TAXILA UNIVERSITY
 It is an ancient site of buddhism & vedic learning centre which is located in Pakistan during 6 th
CE BCE TILL 5TH AD.
 The Chanakya, Charaka, Panini are important personalities associated with Taxila University.
 The famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself.
 It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students
from around the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century CE.
TAXILA vs NALANDA

NALANDA TAXILA

FORMAL UNIVERSITY INFORMAL

MULTIPLE CLASSROOMS, EXTENSIVE NO LECTURE HALL OR NO

LIBRARY, DORMITORIES FOR RESIDENTIAL QUARTERS.
STUDENTS, ACCOMMODATION FOR
PROFESSORS

ENTRANCE EXAMINATION NO CENTRALIZED SYSTEM OF

SCHOOLING OR SYLLABUS IN TAXILA,
TEACHERS ARE HAVING COMPLETE
AUTONOMY

MATHEMATICS, SCIENCE, VEDIC LITERATURE, HUNTING,

ASTRONOMY. ARCHERIES

82
 REVENUES OF VILAGES SUPPORT FROM THE RULERS.

CHAPTER 10: PALLAVAS AND CHALUKYAS

PALLAVAS
After the decline of the Sangam Age in the Tamil country, the Kalabhra rule lasted for about 250 years.
Thereafter, the Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam with its capital at Kanchipuram.
Their rule continued till Tondaimandalam was captured and annexed by the Imperial Cholas in the
beginning of the tenth century A.D
IMPORTANT RULERS
 SIMHAVISHNU
 He destroyed the Kalabhras and firmly established the Pallava rule in Tondaimandalam.
 He also defeated the Cholas and extended the Pallava territory up to the river Kaveri.
 MAHENDRAVARMAN I (600 – 630 A.D.)
 The long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya Conflict began during his period.
 Pulakesin II marched against the Pallavas and captured the northern part of their kingdom.
 He was a follower of Jainism in the early part of his career. He was converted to Saivism by the
influence of the Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar. He built a Siva temple at Tiruvadi.
 He was a great builder of cave temples. The Mandagappattu inscription hails him as
Vichitrachitta who constructed a temple for Brahma, Vishnu and Siva without the use of bricks,
timber, metal and mortar.
 His rock-cut temples are found in a number of places like Vallam, Mahendravadi, Dalavanur,
Pallavaram, Mandagappattu and Tiruchirappalli.
 He had also authored the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam. His title Chitrakarapuli
reveals his talents in painting.
 He is also regarded as an expert in music. The music inscription at Kudumianmalai is ascribed to
him.
 Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)
 He was also known as Mamalla, which means ‘great wrestler’.

83
  He wanted to take avenge the defeat of his father at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II. His
victory over Pulakesin II in the Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi is mentioned in Kuram
copper plates.
 He destroyed the capital city of Vatapi and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’. He regained the lost
territory.
 Another notable achievement was his naval expedition to Sri Lanka. He restored the throne to his
friend and Sri Lankan prince Manavarma.
 During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. His description of
Kanchi is vivid. He calls it a big and beautiful city which had 100 Buddhist monasteries in which
about 10,000 Buddhist monks lived.
 According to his account the people of Kanchi esteemed great learning and the Ghatika at
Kanchi served as a great centre of learning.
 Narasimhavarman I was the founder of Mamallapuram and the monolithic rathas were erected
during his reign.
 Narasimhavarman ii or Rajasimha (695 -722 A.D.)
 Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by Mahendravarman II and Parameswarvarman I.
 The Pallava – Chalukya conflict continued during their reign.
 Thereafter, Narasimhavarman II became the ruler of the Pallava kingdom. He was also known
as Rajasimha.
 The Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were
built in this period.
 The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court.
 He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished during his reign.
 Later Rulers
 He was succeeded by Parameswaravarman II and Nandivarman II.
 The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the ninth century A.D.
 The Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava ruler Aparajita and seized the Kanchi
region.
 With this, the rule of Pallava dynasty came to an end.

84
ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
 The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. The Pallava state was divided into
Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.
 The king was at the centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers. He was the
fountain of justice. He maintained a well-trained army.
 He provided land-grants to the temples known as Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as
Brahmadeya.
 It was also the responsibility of the central government to provide irrigation facilities to the lands.
 A number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings. The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi
and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
 Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue. The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands
were exempted from tax.
 Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers and weavers paid
taxes to the government.
 The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas and their
committees. They maintained records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed
temples.

SOCIETY
 The caste system became rigid.
 The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. They were given land-grants by the kings and
nobles. They were also given the responsibility of looking after the temples.
 The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline of
Buddhism and Jainism. The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the
growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi Movement.
 They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These hymns revealed the importance of
devotion or Bakthi.
 The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the way for the spread of these two
religions.

85
EDUCATION AND LITERATURE
 The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. Their capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning.
The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India and abroad.
 The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi. Dinganaga, a
Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the Nalanada
University, belonged to Kanchi. Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu.
Dandin, another Sanskrit writer adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II.
 The Nayanmars and Alwars composed religious hymns in Tamil. The Devaram composed by
Nayanmars and the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars represent the religious
literature of the Pallava period.
 Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated the Mahabharata as
Bharathavenba in Tamil. Nandikkalambagam was another important work but the name of the
author of this work is not known.

PALLAVA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

 Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from the rock. In fact, the Dravidian style of
temple architecture began with the Pallava rule. It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave
temples to monolithic rathas and culminated in structural temples. The development of temple
architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages.

RULER FEATURE EXAMPLE

MAHENDRAVARMAN 1 ROCK CUT Temples were known as mandapas

TEMPLES (Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur,
Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli)

NARASIMHAVARMAN 1 ROCK-CUT  MANDAPAS-SEPARATE

(NARASIMHA GROUP) TEMPLES WERE RATHAS.
DECORATED  PANCHAPANADAVA RATHAS.
WITH  DHARMARAJARATHA,DRAUPADI
INTRICATE RATHA.
SCULPTURES  DRAVIDIAN STYLE -SUCCESSOR OF

86
 THE DHARMARAJA RATHA

REAL  SHORE TEMPLE AT

RAJASIMHA GROUP STRUCTURAL MAHABALIPURAM.
TEMPLES.  KAILASHNATH TEMPLE at
SOFT SAND KANCHIPURAM, ETC.
ROCKS

VAIKUNDAPERUMAL TEMPLE. SMALLER

MUKTHEESWARA
NANDIVARMAN
TEMPLE.
GROUP TEMPLE
ALMOST  MATAGENSWARA TEMPLES AT
SIMILAR TO KANCHIPURAM
DRAVIDIAN
TEMPLES

FINE ARTS
 The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.
 The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments.
 The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes.
 The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures.
 The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.
 The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had
the title Chittirakkarapuli.
 The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone.

CHALUKYAS - (543 – 755 A.D.)

 The Western Chalukyas ruled over an extensive area in the Deccan for about two centuries after
which the Rashtrakutas became powerful.
 The family of Western Chalukyas had its offshoots like the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the
Chalukyas of Kalyani.
 Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty. He established a small kingdom with Vatapi
or Badami as its capital.

87
PULAKESIN 2 (608-642 AD)
 The Aihole inscription issued by him gives the details of his reign.
 The notable achievement of Pulakesin II was the defeat of Harshavardhana on the banks of the
river Narmada. He put a check to the ambition of Harsha to conquer the south.
 The most important event in the reign of Pulakesin II was the visit of Hiuen Tsang to his kingdom.
 In his first expedition against the Pallavas, Pulakesin II emerged victorious. But he suffered a
humiliating defeat at the hands of Narasimhavarman I near Kanchi.
 Subsequently, the Chalukya capital Vatapi was captured and destroyed by the Pallavas.

SUCCESSORS OF PULAKESIN 2
 The successor of Pulakesin II was Vikramaditya. He once again consolidated the Chalukya kingdom
and plundered the Pallava capital, Kanchi. Thus he had avenged his father’s defeat and death at the
hands of the Pallavas.
 Kirtivarman II was the last of the rulers of the Chalukyas. He was defeated by Dantidurga, the
founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY
 The Chalukya administration was highly centralized unlike that of the Pallavas and the Cholas.
 Village autonomy was absent under the Chalukyas.
 The Chalukyas had a great maritime power.
 The Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus but they gave respect to other religions.
 Hiuen Tsang mentioned about the decline of Buddhism in western Deccan. But Jainism was steadily
on the path of progress in this region.
 Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II who composed the Aihole inscription was a Jain.
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
 Chalukyas developed the Vesara style in the building of structural temples.
 However, the Vesara Style reached its culmination only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas.
 Structural temples -Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal.
 Cave temples-Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.
 The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages.
 The first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami. Among the seventy temples
found at Aihole, four are important.

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 o Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall.
o Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.
o Huchimalligudi temple.
o The Jain temple at Meguti.
 Temples at Badami
o Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya.
o Four rock-cut temples at Badami
 Second Stage -Pattadakal
o There are ten temples here, four in the northern style and the remaining six in the
Dravidian style. The Papanatha temple is the most notable in the northern style.
o The Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple are famous for their Dravidian
style.
 Virupaksha Temple
o Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram.
o It was built by one of the queens of Vikramaditya II.
o Sculptors brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction.
PAINTING
 The best specimens of Chalukya paintings can be seen in the Badami cave temple and in the Ajanta
caves.
 The reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II is depicted in a painting at Ajantha.
VAKATAKAS (250 CE-500 CE)
 Northern Maharashtra and Vidharba region Satvahanas succeeded by Vakatakas.
 Capital -Vatsagulma ( washim)
 Gujarat, Maharashtra, Chattisgarh.
 The Vakatakas, who were brahmanas themselves, are known from a large number of copper plate
land grants issued to Brahmans.
 Culturally Vakatakas became a channel for transmitting Brahmanical ideas and social institutions
to south India.
 Vakatakas followed by Chalukyas of Badami.
 Ajanta caves built under patronage of Vakatakas.
IKSHAVAKUS (3RD CE-4TH CE)
 On the ruins of the Satvahana power in the eastern part of peninsula there arose Ikshavakus in
Krishna-Guntur region.
 They have left behind many monuments at Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikota.
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  They started the practise of land grants in the Krishna- Guntur region.
 They finally absorbed in to Pallava kingdom by 4th CE.
KADAMBA KINGDOM (345-525 CE)
 They had founded their rule in the Northern Karnataka in the 4th Century AD.
 It was founded by Mayusarvarman.
 Capital- Banavasi/ Vaijayanti- Karnataka.
 They claim to be brahmanas, and they rewarded their fellow caste man generously.
 MID 6TH CE – They became Vassals of Chalukyas.
WESTERN GANGAS (350 CE-550CE)
 They set up their rule in Southern Karnataka around the 4th Century AD.
 They are called Western Gangas/ Gangas of Mysore.
 Most of the time they were feudatories of the Pallavas.
 Their earliest capital was at Kolar which may have helped the rise of this dynasty, because of its gold
mine.
 Later Capital- Talakadu.
 They made land grants mostly to the Jainas.

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