Thermodynamics

Chapter - 1

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Thermodynamics:
 It is the science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
 In broad terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place
to another and from one form to another.
 The key concept is that heat is a form of energy corresponding to a definite amount
of mechanical work.
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS:
 The word system is very commonly used in thermodynamics;
let us know what it is.
 Certain quantity of matter or the space which is under
thermodynamic study or analysis is called as thermodynamic
system.
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 General definition of system:
Anything which is real in the universe is called as system.
Ex. Pen, House, water in the water bottle, etc…
Types of systems:
1) Open system, where mass and energy changes occur.
2) Closed system, in which only energy transfers and there is no mass transfer.
3) Isolated system, in which no transfer of mass and energy.
Note: there is no perfect isolated system available in the world.
Surroundings: Everything excluded of system in the
universe can be considered as surroundings.
System boundary: The thing which separates system
and surrounding.
Two types: Fixed and movable boundary 3
Thermodynamic Variables:
The variables which are used to define the state of the system are known as thermodynamic
variables. Ex. Temperature, Pressure, Volume, Enthalpy, Entropy, etc…
Thermodynamic Properties:
Extensive Properties:
 An extensive property is a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample.
 It depends upon mass and size of the system.
Ex. Moles, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy, volume…
Intensive Properties:
 It does not depend upon mass or size of a system.
 An intensive property is a property of matter that depends only on the type of matter in a
sample and not on the amount. Ex. temperature, density, concentration, solubility... 4
Laws of Thermodynamics:
The Zeroth Law:
 It states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they
are also in equilibrium with each other.
 When a body ‘A’ is in thermal equilibrium with another body ‘b’, and also separately in
thermal equilibrium with a body ‘C’, then body ‘B’ and ‘C’ will also be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
 This establishes temperature as a fundamental
and measurable property of matter.
This law is mostly used to compare temperatures of
different objects. Ex. Use of Mercury -in -glass thermometer
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The First Law of Thermodynamics:
 The first law of thermodynamics, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy.
 It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; energy can only be
transferred or changed from one form to another. Ex. Coal (potential energy) to
electricity.
 Therefore, the total energy of the universe is constant.
Internal Energy: Internal energy (U) of a system or a body with well defined boundaries is
the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion of molecules and the potential energy
associated with the vibrational motion. Internal energy also includes the energy in all the
chemical bonds. From a microscopic point of view, the internal energy may be found in
many different forms. For any material, attraction or repulsion between the individual
molecules. It is an extensive property. 6
Internal Energy of a Closed System
For a closed system the internal energy is essentially defined by
ΔU = Q - W
Where, ΔU is the change in internal energy of a system during a process, Q is the heat and
W is the mechanical work by the system.
 If an energy exchange occurs because of temperature difference between a system and
its surroundings, this energy appears as heat otherwise it appears as work.
 Internal energy increases with rising temperature and with changes of state or phase
from solid to liquid and liquid to gas.

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The different components of internal energy of a system is given below.

Energy change of a system associated with:

• Molecular translation, rotation, vibration.
Sensible heat
• Electron translation.

Thermal energy •Nuclear spin of molecules.

Energy required or released for phase change,

Latent heat change from liquid to vapour phase requires heat of
vaporization.

Chemical energy Energy associated with the chemical bonds in a molecule.

The large amount of energy associated with the bonds within the nucleus of the
Nuclear energy
atom.
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The physical and chemical processes that can change the internal energy of a system is
given below.
Energy transfer from a high temperature to low
Heat transfer
temperature state.
Transferring Energy transfer driven by changes in macroscopic
energy across Work transfer physical properties of a system such as compression
the system or expansion work.
boundary by
Energy transfer by mass flowing across a system
Mass transfer
boundary.
Heat releases upon components mixing that may
Mixing
Change lead to lower internal energy.
through Chemical Heat required or released during a chemical
internal reaction reaction that changes chemical energy.
processes Heat released during a nuclear reaction that
Nuclear reaction
changes nuclear energy.
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Potential Energy: (microscopic)
Stored energy or energy of position. For an example: A hammer when raised up has
potential energy (the energy of position or state). When it is falling down has kinetic energy
(the energy of motion).
So, the Potential energy (PE) is stored energy due to position or state.
a raised hammer has PE due to gravity.
fuel and explosives have Chemical PE.
a coiled spring or a drawn bow also have PE due to their state.
Potential Energy (PE) : m*g*h
• Where,
• PE is the potential energy of the object in Joules (J), m is the mass of the object in kg, g is
the acceleration due to gravity in ms-2, h is the height of the object with respect to the
reference point in m.

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Chemical Energy
• Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules.
Examples: biomass, petroleum, natural gas, propane and coal.
Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom - the energy
that holds the nucleus together.
Example: The nucleus of a uranium atom.
Stored Mechanical Energy
• Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a
force.
Examples: Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands.
Gravitational Energy
• Gravitational energy is the energy of place or position.
Example: Water in a reservoir behind a hydropower dam. When the water is
released to spin the turbines, it becomes motion energy.
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Example 1: A ball of mass 0.8 kg is dragged in the upward direction on an inclined
plane. Calculate the total potential energy gained by this ball given that the height of
the wedge is 0.2 meter.

Solution:
• It is given that mass of the object m = 0.8 kg. Since the potential energy of the
object is only dependent on its height from the reference position, we can say
that,
PE = m.g.h
Where,
m = 0.8 kg
g = 10 m/s2,
h = 0.2 m.
So, PE = 0.8 × 10 × 0.2
PE = 1.6 J
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Example 2: A wagon loaded with iron blocks is pushed up an inclined plane to its highest

point. The total mass of the wagon is 50 kg and the height of the topmost point from the

ground is 5 meters. What is the total potential energy of the wagon at the top?

Solution:

Given: m = 50 kg, g = 10 m/s2, h=5m

Substituting the above values in the formula, PE = m.g.h , we get,

So, PE = 50×10×5 (kg* m/s2 *m )

PE = 250 J

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Kinetic Energy: (Macroscopic)
It refers to a form of energy which an object or particle has due to the motion, i.e., Kinetic
energy is energy in motion- the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and
substances.
Kinetic energy (Ek) = 1/2 mv2
Here, m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body

Example 1: The mass of a bicycle is 10 kg, and it moves at a constant velocity of 15 m/s.
Find out the kinetic energy of this bicycle?
Here the mass is “m’ and the velocity is “v”.
Also, m = 10 kg and v = 5 m/s. Now, one must apply the kinetic energy equation:
Ek = 1/2 mv2
Ek = 1/2 (10 kg) (5 m/s)2
Ek = 125 Joules
Hence, the kinetic energy, in this case, is 125 Joules.
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Heat and Work:
Heat:
 Heat is a type of energy.
 Energy transferred to the motion of atoms and molecules.
 Heat changes lead to temperature difference of the system. Unit is Joule.
 Signs: If heat flow into the system (+) and If heat flow from the system (-)
Work:
Energy transferred to the motion of objects. Force multiplied by displacement
W = F. dx ; Unit is Joule,
Signs: If work done on the system (+), and If Work done by the system (-).
Work and heat are pathway dependant. Energy does not depend on the path.
So, It is called state mater.
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Work…
In particular, mechanical work is defined as an energy transfer to the
system through the change of an external parameter. Work is the only
energy which is transferred to the system through external macroscopic
forces.
Example: consider the mechanical work performed on a gas due to an
infinitesimal volume change (reversible transformation).
W = F dx
W-Work done by the force; F-Force; dx-Displacement
Here, force resulting in a displacement. The other word,
pressure resulting in a volume change.
 𝑊𝑜𝑛 (E transferred in) = - 𝑊𝑏𝑦 (E transferred out)
dV = a.dx

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Work…
• For an infinitesimal process, the change of the position of the wall by dx results in
performing work:
W = F.dx = -PdV
𝑉
The total work performed is ΔW = - ‫ 𝑉׬‬2 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1
Expansion Process:
Volume gets larger. So, ΔV is (+)
Caused by higher pressure inside, Work done by gas on surroundings, Gas losses
energy to surroundings, Work done is negative.
W = -PdV
Compression Process:
Volume gets smaller. So, ΔV is (-)
Caused by higher pressure outside, Work done on gas by surroundings, Gas gains
energy from surroundings, Work done is positive.
W = -PdV
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Constant Volume and Constant Pressure Processes:
Energy balance equation:
For a closed system, the internal energy is defined by
dU = dQ – dW …………….1
For a “n” moles of homogeneous substance,
d(U) = dQ – PdV ……………2
So, d(nU) = dQ – Pd(nV) ……………3

This is the energy balance equation for “n” moles of homogeneous substance in a closed
system.

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Constant Volume Process:
The general equation is
d(nU) = dQ – Pd(nV) …………….1
At constant volume, work is 0.
So, d(nU) = dQ
Q = nΔU …………….2
Thus the heat transferred in a mechanically reversible, constant volume, closed system
process equals to internal energy change of the system.
Constant Pressure Process:
d(nU) = dQ – Pd(nV) …………….3
dQ = d(nU) + Pd(nV) …………….4
= d [n(U + PV)
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 dQ = d [n(U + PV) …………….5
Here, Enthalpy is a property of a thermodynamic system, defined as the sum of the
system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume.
That is H ≡ U + PV
So, Eq. 5 becomes
dQ = d [n(H)
Q = nΔH …………….6
Thus the heat transferred to the closed system is equal to change in the enthalpy of the
system.
Units of enthalpy: Pressure (Pascal = Nm-2); molar volume: m3 mol.-1
So, PV = Nm-2 m3 mol-1 = Nm/mol = J mol-1

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Example 1: Calculate ΔH and ΔU for 1kg of H2O when it is vaporized at the constant
temperature of 100 oC and the constant pressure of 101.33 kPa. The specific volumes of
liquid and vapour water at these conditions are 0.00104 and 1.673 m3/kg. For this change,
heat in the amount of 2256.9 kJ is added to the water.
Solution:
At constant temperature and constant pressure,
Q = ΔH
So, ΔH = 2256.9 kJ/kg
To determine ΔU,
H = U + PV
ΔH = ΔU + PΔV
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 ΔU = ΔH – PΔV
For PΔV
= 101.33 kPa * (1.673 - 0.00104 m3/kg)
= 169.4 k Pa m3/kg
= 169.4 kJ/kg
For ΔU,
ΔU = ΔH – PΔV
= (2256.9 - 169.4) kJ/kg
= 2087.5 kJ/kg
Thus, ΔH = 2256.9 kJ/kg
ΔU = 2087.5 kJ/kg
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Example 2: A gas contained in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston expands against a
constant eternal pressure of 1 atm from a volume of 5 litre to 10 litre. In doing it absorbs
400J of thermal energy from its surroundings. Determine the change in internal energy
(ΔU).
Solution: i. Expansion work (-), ii. Constant pressure, So, Isobaric process
Pressure (P) = 1 atm; Volume change (ΔV) = 10 – 5 = 5 litre; Heat (Q) = 400 J
ΔU = Q – PΔV
= 400 J – 1 atm* 5 litre
= 400 J – 5 lit. atm [1 lit. atm = 101.33J]
= 400 J – 5 (101.33) J
= 400 J – 506.65J
ΔU = - 106.65J 23
Specific heat capacity (Cp): The amount of heat energy needed to raise 1 kg of substance by
1 oC.

Energy transferred (J)

Cp =
Mass (kg)∗Temperature change (oC)
Q
Cp = J/kg. oC
m∗Δ𝑇
Q = Cp.m.ΔT ΔT = T2 – T1

Example 1: To increase the 3 kg lead’s temperature from 40 to 50 oC, 3840J heat energy
transferred. What is the specific heat capacity of lead?
Q
Cp = J/kg. oC
m∗Δ𝑇
3840
= J/kg. oC
3∗1 0
= 128 J/kg. oC 24
Example 2: The specific heat capacity of steel is 500J/kg.oC. A 5kg of steel is cooled from 20
to 5 oC. Determine the amount of heat energy released from the steel.
Q = Cp.m.ΔT
= 500J/kg.oC∗5kg*(-15) oC
= 500J * (-75)
Q = - 37500J or -37.5kJ
If Q is Negative (cooling), Positive (heating).
Example 3: The specific heat capacity of liquid water is 4186 J/kg.oC. A 10 kg of water is
heated from 20 to 100 oC. Determine the amount of heat energy transferred to water to
reach final temperature. Q = Cp.m.ΔT
= 4186J/kg.oC∗10kg*(80) oC = 4186J * (800)
Q = 33,48,800J or 3348.8kJ 25
Ideal and Real Gas Laws:
 The three states of matter that are recognised by their characteristics are solids,
liquids and Gases.
 Solids have definite mass and shape due to the strong molecular attraction.
 In liquids, the molecules are moving so they result in taking the shape of the
container.
 In gases, the molecules are free to move anywhere in the container.

Two types of gases exist:

1) Ideal gas 2) Real Gas

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Ideal Gas: An ideal gas is defined as a gas that obeys gas laws at all condition of
pressure and temperature.
 As the particle size of an ideal gas is extremely small, the mass and volume of the
gas are almost zero.
Ideal gas law equation
PV = nRT
 Where, P – Pressure, V- Volume, R – ideal gas constant, T-Temperature and
n-Amount of substance. Here, R = 8.3188 J/K mol.
Real Gas: The gas which does not obey the gas law is known as real gas.
 All practical gases are real gases.
 Real gas obeys the law at low pressure or high temperature or both.

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Comparison between Ideal and Real Gases:

Sl. No. Ideal Gas Real Gas

1 No definite volume It has definite volume

2 No mass (point mass) It has definite mass

3 Collision of particle is elastic Collision of particle is non-elastic

4 No energy involved in collision It has attractive and repulsive forces

5 Obeys ideal gas law at all pressure and It does not obey ideal gas law

temperature

6 It is an imaginary gas All practical gases are real gases

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Laws of Gas
1. Boyle’s Law:
 A relation concerning the compression and expansion of a gas at constant
temperature.
 The law states that the pressure of a given quantity of gas varies with its volume at
constant temperature.
 In other word, when the temperature of a gas is kept constant, the volume of a fixed
mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
1
Vα (at constant n and T)
𝑃
PV = Constant
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2. Charle’s Law
 A statement that the volume occupied by a fixed amount of gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature, if the pressure remains constant.
 In other word, when the pressure of the gas kept constant, the volume of the gas is
directly proportional to the temperature of gas.
V α T (at constant n and P)
V/T = Constant
3. Avogadro’s Law: A statement that under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain an equal number of moles.
V α n (at constant T and P); V/n = Constant
The number of moles or atoms in a specific volume of a ideal gas is independent of their
size or molar mass of the gas. 30
Ideal Gas Equation:

Boyle’s Law
𝟏
Vα (at constant n and T) …………..1
𝐏

Charle’s Law
VαT (at constant n and P) …………..2

Avogadro’s Law
Vαn (at constant T and P) …………..3

Combining Eq. 1, 2 and 3 and we get

𝒏𝑻 𝒏𝑻
Vα ; V = Constant*
𝑷 𝑷

𝒏𝑻
V= R ; PV = nRT (This is an ideal gas equation)
𝑷 31
Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Fluids:
 Heat is one mode of energy interacting between system and surroundings.
 The system interacts with its surroundings by work and heat modes.
 State of the interactions can be just looking at the properties in a quantitative manner.
 To evaluate the degree of change, the properties of the system are to be known
because the change of state is depends on the change in properties of system.
 The system’s property change is not depends on the path.
 Properties of a system is a point function (unique value independent of path).

2
C The process occurs
b from state 1 to 2
a
1
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Types of thermodynamic properties
1. Measurable properties:
Ex.: P, V, T, etc… (P- Pressure, V- Volume, T- Temperature)
2. Non-Measurable properties
Ex.: U, H, S, etc… (U- Internal Energy, H- Enthalpy, S- Entropy)
What is Pure Substance
The substance which consists of a matter with
fixed chemical composition. So, It will be a
homogenous composition.
Ex.: H2, He, O2, H2O, CO2, etc….
Air is also a pure substance at ambient temperature and pressure.
Water + its vapour – A pure substance
Oil + Water – Not a pure substance
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What is Phase?
 A distinct state in which matter remains homogeneous physically and chemically.
 It can be identified as a distinct molecular arrangements that is homogeneous throughout
its boundary.
Types of Phases:
Solid Phase:
 The molecules in a solid are kept at their positions by inter molecular forces.
 In a solid, there are attractive and repulsive forces between the molecules tend to
maintain them relatively constant distance from each other.
 These molecules are vibrating and intramolecular forces are high.
 Molecules are at relatively fixed positions.
Liquid phase: Groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid phase. 34
Vapour phase:
Here, the molecules move about at random in the gas.
*****
 Thermodynamic properties of a substance change abruptly at phase boundary although
certain intensive properties (P, T, etc.) remain constant. The extensive properties like V,
U, H, S are quite different across its phase boundary.

Vapour Phase
System Phase boundary
Liquid phase

Q (heat)

 Liquid water and its vapour co-exist at 100 oC with 101.35 kPa.
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Phase Changes with Temperature:

Above, T Fully ionized plasma

10,000 K Plasma Phase: Free electrons move among positively charged ions

5000 K Gas Phase: Changes to molecular dissociation into component atoms

500 K Liquid phase

Cold Solid phase

All substances change their specific volume when subjected to a change in pressure and
temperature.
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Incompressible fluid:
When pressure or temperature applied to a system, the change in the volume is small.
Ex.: Solid, Liquid
Isothermal compressibility and Volume Expansivity:
V (m3/kg) = V (T, P) ………………1
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
The total derivative is d𝑉 =
𝜕𝑇 P
. dT +
𝜕𝑃 T
. dP ………………2

Divide both side by V, We get

d𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
= . dT + . dP
𝑉 𝑉 𝜕𝑇 P 𝑉 𝜕𝑃 T

d𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
𝑉
=
𝑉 𝜕𝑇 P
. dT - −
𝑉 𝜕𝑃 T
. dP ………………3

d𝑉
= β. dT - K. dP
𝑉

β is Volume Expansivity and k is Isothermal compressibility 37

 𝟏 𝝏𝑽
Isothermal compressibility: K=-
𝑽 𝝏𝑷 𝑻

*Negative sign indicates the volume reduction. (V2 – V1 = - value)

When; k is quite small, Incompressible substance
K is large, compressible substance
Coefficient of Volume Expansion (β):
There will be a change in volume of the system due to change in temperature when pressure remains
𝟏 𝝏𝑽
constant. β=
𝑽 𝛛𝑻 𝐏

 Thus, K and β are used to measure the non-measurable thermodynamic variables.

 Thermodynamic properties of a system can be analysed by mathematical relations, Tables (steam table)
and using charts or diagrams.
 It can also be determined experimentally at specific temperature and pressure by interpolation method
and fundamental relations.
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 Phase Change Process in a Pure Substance:

Stage 1: P = 0.1 MPa  Temperature is increasing

H2O at 20 oC
 Specific volume is increasing
 Pressure will be constant

Q (heat)
 Vaporization occurs
Stage 2:
P = 0.1 MPa  Specific volume increases at very high rate
 Pressure and temperature remains constant
Vapour
 T = 20 to 99.6 oC (Sensible heat)
H2O at 99.6 oC  T = After 99.6 oC (given heat is latent heat)
Q (heat) 39
Stage 3:

P = 0.1 MPa

 Volume increases
Vapour
phase  Temperature increases

Q (heat)

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Diagram for heating process of water at constant pressure:

300 Points:
1. Compressed liquid
200
oC 5 2. Saturated liquid point
T,
100 2 3 4 3 to 2. Saturated mixture of
liquid and vapour
20 1 4. Saturated vapour point
v, m3/kg 5. Super heated vapour

 When increase the pressure, the saturated mixture/wet mixture area is reducing

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 The entire process between state 1 to 5 is reversible or
reversed by cooling the water while maintaining same
pressure, the water will go back to state one.
 The amount of heat release is equal to the amount of
heat added. The temperature at which water starts
boiling depends on the pressure.

Saturation Temperature: Temperature at which vaporisation occurs at a given

pressure. [99.6 oC for 0. 1MPa for water]
Saturation pressure: Pressure at saturation point at given temperature.
[Psat = 0.1 MPa for T = 99.6 oC for water ]
For, a pure substance, Psat has definite value corresponding to Tsat and Vice versa.
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43
 At super critical point, the specific volume of liquid and its vapour will be same.
vf = vg
Where, vf is specific volume of liquid and vg is specific volume of gas.
 Percentage of vapour is zero at saturated liquid point. Whereas, the it is 100% at
saturated vapour point.
Different critical parameters data for various substance:
Substance Critical Temp. Critical Pressure Critical Specific Vol.
(K) (MPa) v (m3/kg)
H2O 647.39 22.07 0.003155
CO2 304.20 7.37 0.002143
O2 154.80 5.08 0.002438
H2 33.30 1.3 0.032192
He 5.3 0.23 0.0578
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T-V diagram for pure substance:
Critical point

T, oC

Sub-cooled/
Compressed Super heated
Saturated Liquid- vapour region
liquid region Vapour region

v, m3/kg
Saturated liquid-vapour mixture:
𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
Steam quality (X) = = = ;
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑓+𝑚𝑔 𝑚

Where, mf = mass of saturated liquid; mg = mass of saturated vapour

m = mass of mixture; vf and vg are specific vol. of saturated liquid and vapour, respectively.
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To Determine Specific Volume of Wet Mixture:
V = mfvf + mgvg --------------1
Dividing equation 1 by m, we get
𝑉 𝑚𝑓.𝑣𝑓 𝑚𝑔.𝑣𝑔
= + --------------2
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
We know, m = mf + mg --------------3
Dividing equation 3 by m, we get
𝑚 𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑔
= +
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑔
1= +X =𝑋
𝑚 𝑚
𝑚𝑓
=1–X --------------4
𝑚
46
Substitute Eq. 4 and X in Eq. 2, we get
Critical point

𝑉 𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑔 v - vf
v= = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑔 T, oC
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 vf v
vg
v = (1-X) 𝑣𝑓 + X 𝑣𝑔 Vfg = vg - vf

v = 𝑣𝑓 - X 𝑣𝑓 + X 𝑣𝑔 v, m3/kg

𝑣 −𝑣𝑓
v = 𝑣𝑓 + X(𝑣𝑔 - 𝑣𝑓) [As, vfg = 𝑣𝑔 - 𝑣𝑓] & 𝑋 =
𝑣𝑔 −𝑣𝑓

v = 𝒗𝒇 + X(𝒗𝒇𝒈) --------------5

Similarly, For internal energy (u): u = 𝑢𝑓 + X(𝑢𝑓𝑔)

For enthalpy (h): h = h𝑓 + X(h𝑓𝑔); For entropy (s): s = s𝑓 + X(s𝑓𝑔)

47
Gibb’s Free Energy (G):
 The energy associated with a chemical reaction that can be used to do work. Gibbs free
energy is the maximum amount of energy present in a thermodynamic system that can
be used to perform work at a constant temperature and pressure.
 The free energy of a system is G = H – TS
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS Where, ΔG = Change in Gibb’s free energy;
S = Entropy (Degree of randomness or measure of the molecular disorder of a system)
𝒅𝑸
ΔS = Change in entropy; dS = (J/K), at constant temperature.
𝑻

Condition:
i) ΔG < 0; Spontaneous (with out an input), i.e., Exergonic
ii) ΔG > 0; Non-spontaneous (Can not proceed with out an input energy), i.e., Endergonic
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Standard – State Free Energy of Reaction (ΔGo):
The free energy of reaction at standard state conditions is
ΔGo = ΔHo – TΔSo
Standard – State Conditions:
i) The partial pressure of any gases involved in the reaction is 0.1 MPa.
ii) The conditions for concentrations of all aqueous solutions are 1M.
iii) The measurements are also taken at a temperature of 25 oC (298.15 K).
Standard – State Free Energy of formation (Δ𝑮𝒐𝒇 ):
 The change in free energy that occurs when a compound is formed from its elements in
their most thermodynamically stable states at standard-state conditions.
 Δ𝑮𝒐𝒇 that accompanies the formation of 1 mole of a substance in its standard state from
its constituents elements in their standard. 49
Gibbs–Helmholtz equation is a
thermodynamic equation used
for calculating changes in the
Gibbs energy of a system as a
function of temperature at the
process taking place in at
constant pressure.