Handout 4

2. BODY SECTION
• Is where you present your work.
• In this section the author:
describes the methods, assumptions, and procedures;
presents and discusses the results;
draws conclusions, and recommends actions based on the results.
The body of the report:
• presents the information from your work, both real world and
theoretical, or your design.
• organizes information logically under appropriate headings.
• conveys information in the most effective way for communication:
uses figures and tables.
can use bulleted or numbered lists.
Parts of the body/text

• Introduction
• Methods, Assumptions, and Procedures
• Results and Discussion
• Conclusions
• Recommendations*
2.1. Introduction
• provides the background information.
• is usually half to three-quarters of a page in length.
• Its purpose is to set the context for your report.
• It prepares the reader to read the main body of the report.
• It focuses on the subject, purpose, and scope of the report.
• It puts a clear statement of the aims of the project.
• It states technical background necessary to understand the report;
• e.g. theory or assumptions
Subject - defines the topic and associated terminology; may include
theory, historical background, and its significance.

Purpose - indicates the reason for the investigation, objectives.

Scope - indicates the extent and limits of the investigation.

2.2 Methods, Assumptions, and Procedures
Information in this section includes:
• System of measurement
• Types of equipment used and accuracy
• Test methods used
Methods
• How did you discover the problem? What measuring tools were used? what
measurement system was used?
Assumptions
• What do you think, but cannot demonstrate as fact?
Procedures
• How did you gain a better understanding of the problem?
2.3 Results and Discussion
The results and discussion section describes what you learned about the
problem as a result of your research, identifies the degree of accuracy
related to your findings, and gives the reader your view of the
significance of your findings.

Results:
Explain your findings with help of graphs or tables, simulations etc.
Discussion:
How accurate are your findings? What is the significance of the results
of the research?
2.4 Conclusion
The conclusion section provides an effective ending to your report.
This section:

States whether you have achieved your aims.

Gives a brief summary of the key findings or information in your report
Highlights the major outcomes of your investigation and their significance.
The conclusions should relate to the aims of the work:

Example:
Aim
The aim of this project is to design a mobile phone tower.
Conclusions
In this report, a design for a mobile phone tower has been presented. The key
features of the tower are... It was found that...
2.5. Recommendations*
• is often included in reports that are the result of tests and experiments,
field trials, specific design problems, and feasibility studies.
• The author may recommend additional areas of study and suggest a
course of action, such as pursuing an alternate design approach.
• You should not introduce new ideas in it.
Additional Studies
• Is there information that still needs to be learned?
Suggested Actions
• What does the author want the reader to do with the information?
3. Back Matter
The back matter supplements and clarifies the body of the report, makes
the body easier to understand, and shows where additional information
can be found.
Components of Back Matter:
• References.
• Bibliography*
• Appendixes*
• List of Symbols, Abbreviations, and Acronyms.
3.1 References

1. What is referencing?
2. Why should you write reference?
3. What is the difference between reference and bibliography?
4. Where do we use references in the report?
5. What are the forms of writing references?
6. How do we write references?
References
• is the place where the author cites all of the secondary
sources* that were used to:
• develop an understanding of the problem
• support the information contained in the report
• The reference list only identifies sources referred to (cite) in
the text of your research.
• In most cases, it is arranged in alphabetical order of authors'
surnames for each author.
3.2 Bibliography

• A bibliography is presented in the same format as reference list but it

includes a list of all material referred to due to the course of your
investigation.
• In other words, a bibliography presents the same items as a reference
list but it also includes all other sources which you read or consulted
but did not cite. This must be done using the referencing convention
specified by your lecturer/tutor.
Where and how to write references
Referencing of sources in written work generally occurs:
A. in the body of the text as either:
- in-text citations or
- footnotes, and
B. at the end of the text in the form of
- a reference list or
- a bibliography.
Therefore, the two parts to referencing are:
• citations in the text of the report
• a list of references in the final section
- A citation shows that information comes from another source.
- The reference list gives the details of these sources.
You need to use in-text citations and provide details in the references
section when:
1. You include information from other sources
2. You quote word-for-word from another work (when you do this the
page number must be given in the in-text citation)
Example of in-text citation and reference list entry:
Example of in-text citation
A. Quotation
Corrosion is defined as a “chemical action which harms the properties
of a metal” (Glendinning 1973, p.12).
B. Paraphrasing
Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to
help minimize the amount of quoted material in a research paper (Lester
1976).
Referencing style
APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language
Association), MHRA (Modern Humanities Research Association), Chicago, or
Harvard and others.
Nowadays, the APA system of referencing is popular, and has some advantages
in technical material.
As APA style, a bibliography/ reference list is written in the following manner
and arranged alphabetically:
1. Name of the author with the last name first and initials afterwards,
2. The year of publication is given in bracket after the name of the author or
authors,
3. Title of the book or the work is written, underlined/ bolded/ italicized and
followed by a full stop,
4. Place of Publication followed by a colon (:).
5. Name of the publishing agency or publishers and followed by a full stop (.).
Examples of writing reference lists

• Hawley, R. (1996). Leadership challenges in an engineering

environment, Engineering Management Journal, vol 6 no 5, pp 217-
231.
• Seliger,W.H. and Shohamy, E. (1989). Second Language Research
Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Singh, K.Y. (2006). Fundamental of Research Methodology and
Statistics. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited Publishers.
• Van Emden, J. (2005). Writing for Engineers. (3rd ed). Palgrave:
Macmillan.
Activity
The following works are not arranged to be used as a reference
in research report writing. Rewrite them using APA style of
documentation.

- 2nd edition of an introduction to qualitative research at

London by U. Flick in 1995, sage publications.
- The practice of communicative teaching by C. Brumfit in
1986, Pergamum press at oxford.
3.3 Appendixes*
Anything that cannot be left out of a report, but is too large for the main
part of the report and would serve to distract or interrupt the flow, fits in
the appendixes.
Examples include:
• Large tables of data
• Flowcharts
• Mathematical analysis
• Large illustrations
• Detailed explanations and descriptions of test techniques and device
• Technical drawings
 Plagiarism

Plagiarism can be:

1. Unauthorized use of the language and thoughts of another author and
the representation of them as one's own.
2. Submitting someone else’s text as one’s own or attempting to shade
the line between one’s own ideas or words an those borrowed from
another source.
3. Carelessly or inadequately citing ideas or words borrowed from
another source.
Types of Plagiarism
• Complete plagiarism
• Direct plagiarism
• Paraphrasing plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Patchwork plagiarism
• Source-based plagiarism
• Accidental plagiarism
Complete plagiarism
• This obvious type of plagiarism occurs when a writer submits
someone else’s work in their own name. Paying somebody to write a
paper for you, then handing that paper in with your name on it, is an
act of complete plagiarism—as is stealing or “borrowing” someone’s
work and submitting it as your own.
• An example of complete plagiarism is submitting a research paper for
English class that your older brother/sister wrote and submitted when
he/she took the class years ago.
Direct plagiarism
• Direct plagiarism is similar to complete plagiarism in that it, too, is the
overt passing-off of another writer’s words as your own. The
difference between the two is how much of the paper is plagiarized.
With complete plagiarism, it’s the entire paper. With direct plagiarism,
specific sections or paragraphs are included without crediting (or even
acknowledging) the author.
• An example of direct plagiarism is dropping a line or two from your
source directly into your work without quoting or citing the source.
Paraphrasing plagiarism
Paraphrasing plagiarism is what happens when a writer reuses another’s
work and changes a few words or phrases. It’s a common type of
plagiarism, and many students don’t even realize it’s a form of
plagiarism. But if you’re presenting someone else’s original idea in your
writing without crediting them, even if you’re presenting it in your own
words, it’s plagiarism.
 Self-plagiarism
• You might be surprised to find out that you can plagiarize yourself.
• How? After all, your original thoughts are your own to use as you please …
right?
• Yes, but with a caution. Let’s say you wrote an essay about the pros and cons of
changing your city’s zoning laws two years ago, and now you’re writing a
research paper about how adopting certain zoning laws has impacted other cities
in the past decade. Reusing content from your essay in your research paper would
be an act of self-plagiarism. You can absolutely use the same sources and if you
cite them properly, you don’t have to worry about being accused of plagiarism.
• Self-plagiarism can be an issue if you write professionally. When you’re
commissioned to write for a client, the client owns that work. Reusing your own
words for subsequent clients is plagiarizing your own work and can damage your
professional reputation (as well as make your clients look bad).
Patchwork plagiarism
• Also known as variety plagiarism, patchwork plagiarism refers to
instances where plagiarized work is linked with the writer’s original
work. This kind of plagiarism can be simple and easy to miss, and it
may happen in conjunction with direct plagiarism.
• An example of patchwork plagiarism is taking a part from a source
and implanting it in a sentence of your own.
Source-based plagiarism
• Source-based plagiarism can be a tricky one to understand. With this
kind of plagiarism, the writer might cite their sources correctly but
present the sources in a misleading way.
• For example, the writer might reference a secondary source in their
work but only credit the primary source from which that secondary
source is derived. Other examples include citing an incorrect source
and even making up sources.
Accidental plagiarism
• Accidental plagiarism is perhaps the most common type of plagiarism
because it happens when the writer doesn’t realize they are
plagiarizing another’s work. Accidental plagiarism includes the
following:
• Forgetting to cite your sources in your work.
• Not citing your sources correctly.
• Failing to put quotes around cited material.
• Even accidental plagiarism is subject to consequences, such as failing
your assignment.
How to avoid plagiarism
• Plagiarism can sometimes be the result of poor note taking, or
paraphrasing without properly citing the reference. You can avoid
plagiarism by:
citing your references
referencing correctly
recording direct quotes and paraphrases correctly when note
taking.
• Quotes
When you use the exact words, ideas or images of another person,
you are quoting the author.
If you do not use quotation marks around the original author's
direct words and cite the reference, you are plagiarizing.
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is when you take someone else's concepts and put them
into your own words without changing the original meaning. Even
though you are not using the same words you still need to state where
the concepts came from.
Note taking:
Poor note taking can lead to plagiarism. You should always take care to:
• record all reference information correctly
• use quotation marks exactly as in the original
• paraphrase correctly
• clearly distinguish your own ideas from the ideas of other authors and
researchers. All plagiarism is viewed seriously by the University and
can incur penalties.
 Module Practical Exercises and Revisions.

Implement the knowledge you obtained during

the TRW course on the presented research works.
“Be judgemental”.