Dr.

Tarun Garg
INTRODUCTION TO WAVES Assistant Professor
Department of Physics
VIT Vellore
 SYLLABUS & REFERENCE BOOKS
Waves on a string - Wave equation on a string (derivation) - Harmonic
waves- reflection and transmission of waves at a boundary (Qualitative)
- Standing waves and their eigen frequencies.

1. H. D. Young and R. A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics, 2020, 15th
Edition, Pearson, USA
2. H. J. Pain, The Physics of Vibrations & Waves, 2013, 6th Edition, Wiley Publication
India.

2
LECTURE PLAN
• Introduction 7 Lectures
• Wave on a string
• Wave equation for wave on a string (derivation)
• Harmonic waves
• Reflection and transmission of waves on a string at a
boundary (Qualitative)
• Standing waves and their eigen frequencies
(derivation)
• Numerical Problems

3
 WAVES
Kinds of waves:

Sound waves
Light or Electromagnetic waves
Seismic waves
Ultrasound waves

Many more……
Ocean Waves
Ocean waves travel thousand of kilometres
across the open sea before breaking on
A wave is a travelling disturbance
the shore. How much water they move? transporting energy not matter!
None 4
 CONT’D…
Mechanical waves: which
require a material medium to
propagate, e.g. sound waves,
seismic waves etc.

Electromagnetic waves: which

do not require medium, e.g.
light waves, radio waves,
microwaves etc.

5
LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVES
Longitudinal Transverse

6
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A LONGITUDINAL AND A TRANSVERSE WAVE
Longitudinal Wave Transverse wave
The particles of the medium move perpendicular to
The particles of the medium move in the direction of
the direction of wave propagation
the wave propagation

It acts in one dimension It acts in two dimensions

They cannot be polarized The wave can be polarized using polarizers
This wave can be produced in solid and liquid’s
This wave can be produced in any medium such as
surface
gas, liquid or solid

Examples: Seismic S-wave, Electromagnetic waves,

Examples: Seismic P-wave, sound waves,
ripples on the surface of water
Vibrations of an elastic spring

It is made of rarefactions and compressions It is made of troughs and crests

7
WHAT IS A WAVE?
“A wave is a disturbance of a continuous medium that propagates with a fixed shape
at constant velocity”.
Qualifiers for the above definition:
If the medium is dispersive, different frequencies travel at different speeds.
In the presence of absorption, the wave will diminish in size as it moves.
In two or three dimensions, as the wave spreads out its amplitude will decrease.
Standing waves do not propagate at all.

8
 CONT’D….
But these are refinements;
Let’s start with the simple case: fixed shape, constant speed.

How can we represent such an object mathematically?

9
 CONT’D…
f(z, t) represents the displacement of the string at the point z, at time t.
Given the initial shape of the string, g(z) = f (z, 0), what is the subsequent form, f(z, t)?
The displacement at point z, at the later time t, is the same as the displacement a
distance vt to the left (i.e. at z- vt), back at time t = 0:
f(z, t) = f(z-vt, 0) = g(z-vt)
That statement captures (mathematically) the essence of wave motion. It tells us that the
function f(z, t), which might have depended on z and t in any old way, in fact depends
on them only in the very special combination z- vt;
when that is true, the function f(z, t) represents a wave of fixed shape traveling in the z
direction at speed v.

10
EXAMPLES
For example, if A and b are constants (with the appropriate units),
f1(z, t) = Ae-b(z-vt) , f2(z, t) =A sin[b(z- vt)], f3(z, t) = A/[b(z- vt)2 + 1]
all represent waves (with different shapes, of course), but
−𝑏(𝑏𝑧 2 +𝑣𝑡)
𝑓4 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 and f5(z, t) = A sin(bz) cos(bvt)3
do not.

11
 WAVES ON A STRING

T s𝑖𝑛𝜃′
• Imagine a very long string under tension T.
• If it is displaced from equilibrium, the net
transverse force on the segment between z
and z + ∆z is T cos𝜃′
T cos𝜃
∆𝐹 = 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ′ − 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1)

T s𝑖𝑛𝜃
• Provided that the distortion of the string is not
too great, these angles are small (the figure
is exaggerated, obviously),
• we can replace the sine by the tangent:
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
∆𝐹 ≅ 𝑇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ′ − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑇 − ≅ 𝑇 2 ∆𝑧 (2)
𝜕𝑧 𝑧+∆𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 𝜕𝑧

12
 CONT’D….
𝜕2 𝑓
If the mass per unit length is µ, Newton's second law says ∆𝐹 = 𝜇(∆𝑧) 2 (3)
𝜕𝑡

and therefore 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜇 𝜕2 𝑓
= (4)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝑇 𝜕𝑡 2

Evidently, small disturbances on the string satisfy, 𝜕2 𝑓 1 𝜕2 𝑓

= (5)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2

where v (which, as we'll soon see, represents the speed of propagation) is

𝑇
𝑣= (6)
𝜇

Equation (5) is known as the (classical) wave equation, because it admits as solutions
all functions of the form f(z, t) = g(z- vt). 13
 CONT’D….
(that is, all functions that depend on the variables z and t in the special combination
u = z- vt), Such functions represent waves propagating in the z direction with speed v. That
means

qed ! 14
 CONT’D….
Note that g(u) can be any (differentiable) function whatever.
If the disturbance propagates without changing its shape, then it satisfies the wave equation.
But functions of the form g(z- vt) are not the only solutions.
The wave equation involves the square of v, so we can generate another class of solutions by
simply changing the sign of the velocity:
f(z, t) = h(z + vt)
This, of course, represents a wave propagating in the negative z direction, and it is certainly
reasonable (on physical grounds) that such solutions would be allowed.
The most general solution to the wave equation is the sum of a wave to the right and a wave to
the left:
f(z, t) = g(z- vt) + h(z + vt)

*(Notice that the wave equation is linear: The sum of any two solutions is itself a solution.) Every solution to the wave equation can be expressed in this form.
15
PROBLEM 1
By explicit differentiation, check that the functions f1, f2, and f3 in
the text satisfy the wave equation. Show that f4 and f5 do not.

For example, if A and b are constants (with the appropriate units),

f1(z, t) = Ae-b(z-vt) , f2(z, t) =A sin[b(z- vt)], f3(z, t) = A/[b(z- vt)2 + 1]
all represent waves (with different shapes, of course), but
−𝑏(𝑏𝑧 2 +𝑣𝑡)
𝑓4 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 and f5(z, t) = A sin(bz) cos(bvt)3
do not.

16
 SINUSOIDAL WAVES
Terminology. Of all possible wave forms, the sinusoidal one 𝑓 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐴 cos[𝑘(𝑧 − 𝑣𝑡) + 𝛿]
is the most familiar.

The argument of the cosine is called the phase, and δ is the phase constant.
Here at z = vt- δ/k, the phase is zero; This is called the "central maximum."
If δ = 0, the central maximum passes the origin at time t = 0; more generally, δ/k is the
distance by which the central maximum (and therefore the entire wave) is "delayed."
17
 CONT’D…
k is the wave number; it is related to the wavelength by the equation,
2𝜋
λ=
𝑘
for when z advances by 2π/k, the cosine executes one complete cycle.
As time passes, the entire wave train proceeds to the right, at speed v. At any fixed point
z, the string vibrates up and down, undergoing one full cycle in a period,
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝑘𝑣
The frequency v (number of oscillations per unit time) is,
1 𝑘𝑣 𝑣
ν= = =
𝑇 2𝜋 λ

18
 CONT’D….
A more convenient unit is the angular frequency ω, so-called because in the analogous case of
uniform circular motion, it represents the number of radians swept out per unit time:
𝜔 = 2𝜋ν = 𝑘𝑣
Ordinarily, it's nicer to write sinusoidal waves in terms of ω, rather than v:
𝑓(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
A sinusoidal oscillation of wave number k and (angular) frequency ω traveling to the left would be
written
𝑓(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝑘𝑧 + 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛿)

19
 COMPLEX NOTATION
Euler’s Formula: 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
The sinusoidal wave function can be written as
𝑓(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡+𝛿 ]
where 𝑅𝑒(𝜉) denotes the real part of the complex number 𝜉. This invites us to introduce
the complex wave function
𝑓(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡

with the complex amplitude 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝛿 absorbing the phase constant. The actual wave
function is the real part of 𝑓:
𝑓(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝑓(𝑧, 𝑡)]
If you know 𝑓, it is a simple matter to find f; the advantage of the complex notation is that
exponentials are much easier to manipulate than sines and cosines.
20
 VELOCITIES IN WAVE MOTION
The particles or constituents of the medium which make up the medium do not progress through the medium
with the waves.
Their motion is simple harmonic, limited to oscillations, transverse or longitudinal, about their equilibrium
positions.
It is their phase relationships we observe as waves, not their progressive motion through the medium.
There are three velocities in wave motion which are quite distinct although they are connected
mathematically. They are:
The particle velocity, which is the simple harmonic velocity of the oscillator about its
equilibrium position.
The wave or phase velocity, the velocity with which planes of equal phase, crests or
troughs, progress through the medium.
The group velocity. A number of waves of different frequencies, wavelengths and
velocities may be superposed to form a group.
21
 vp wave velocity

vg Group velocity

22
 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF A STRING
Any medium through which waves propagate presents an impedance to those waves.
A string presents such an impedance to progressive waves and this is defined, as the
transverse impedance for transverse waves
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹
𝑍= =
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓

𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝐹𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
z

𝐹𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡

23
CONT’D…..
In Figure, we consider progressive waves on the string which are generated at one end by
an oscillating force, F = F0 e-iωt , which is restricted to the direction transverse to the string and
operates only in the plane of the paper.
The tension in the string has a constant value, T, and at the end of the string the balance of
forces shows that the applied force is equal and opposite to T sinθ at all time, so that
𝜕𝑓
𝐹𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ −𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = −𝑇
𝜕𝑧
Where θ is small.
The displacement of the progressive wave may be represented as
𝑓(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡

24
CONT’D….
Where the amplitude A may be complex. At the end of the string, where z=0,
𝜕𝑓
𝐹𝑜 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝑇 = −𝑖𝑘𝑇𝐴𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 Transverse Force
𝜕𝑧 𝑧=0

and 𝑓 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡)
The transverse velocity of the string , 𝑓 =
𝜕𝑓
= −𝑖𝜔𝐴𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 Transverse Velocity
𝜕𝑡 𝑧=0
−𝑖𝑘𝑇𝐴𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑇 𝑇
Thus transverse impedance is given by, 𝑍 = = =
−𝑖𝜔𝐴𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝜔 𝑣
Which is called characteristic impedance of the string.
𝑇
We know that wave velocity is given by, 𝑣 = 𝜇
which gives 𝑇 = 𝜇𝑣 2 and therefore, 𝒁 = 𝝁𝒗
Since the wave velocity is determined by the inertia and the elasticity of the medium, the
impedance is also governed by these properties. 25
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS: REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION
We would like to see what happens when a
wave reaches the end of the string.
Depending upon the end of the string is open
or fixed, the wave on the string may be Z=0 Z=0
partially or completely reflected or transmitted.
Suppose, for instance, that the string is simply
tied onto a second string. The tension T is the Incident wave
same for both, but the mass per unit length µ
presumably is not, and hence the wave
velocities v1 and v2 are different (remember, 𝑣 Reflected wave
𝑇
=
𝜇
).

Let's say, for convenience, that the knot occurs Transmitted wave
at z = 0.
26
CONT’D….

27
 CONT’D….

These boundary conditions determine the outgoing amplitudes (𝐴𝑅 and 𝐴 𝑇 ) in terms of the
incoming one (𝐴𝐼 ):

From which it follows that:

In terms of velocities

The real amplitudes and

phases, then, are related by:
28
 CONT’D….
If the second string is lighter than the first (µ2 < µ1, so that v2 > v1), all three waves have
the same phase angle (𝛿𝑅 = 𝛿𝑇 = 𝛿𝐼 ), and the outgoing amplitudes are

If the second string is heavier than the first (v2 < v1), the reflected wave is out of phase by
180° (𝛿𝑅 + 𝜋 = 𝛿𝑇 = 𝛿𝐼 ). In other words, since

the reflected wave will be upside down. The amplitudes in this case are:

If the second string is infinitely massive, then v2=0 and

No transmitted wave. 29
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS: REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION

µ1>µ2 µ1<µ2
or v1< v2 or v1> v2

𝐴𝑅 𝑣2 −𝑣1 𝑍1 −𝑍2 𝐴𝑅 𝑣1 −𝑣2 𝑍2 −𝑍1

Reflection coefficient, 𝑅 = = = Reflection coefficient, 𝑅 = = =
𝐴𝐼 𝑣1 +𝑣2 𝑍1 +𝑍2 𝐴𝐼 𝑣1 +𝑣2 𝑍1 +𝑍2
𝐴𝑇 2𝑣2 2𝑍1 𝐴𝑇 2𝑣2 2𝑍1
Transmission coefficient, 𝑇 = = = Transmission coefficient, 𝑇 = = =
𝐴𝐼 𝑣1 +𝑣2 𝑍1 +𝑍2 𝐴𝐼 𝑣1 +𝑣2 𝑍1 +𝑍2

If Z2 = ∞, this is equivalent to z =0 being a fixed end to the string because no transmitted wave exists.
If Z2 = 0, so that z=0 is a free end of the string, then AR/AI = 1 and AT/AI = 2. This explains the ‘flick’ at the
end of a whip or free ended string when a wave reaches it. 30
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

Two waves
out of phase

Resultant
wave

31
 WAVES WITH DISPERSION
• Waves occur as a mixture of a number or
group of component frequencies e.g.
white light is composed of visible
wavelength spectrum of 400 nm to 700
nm.
• The behavior of such a group leads to the
group velocity.
Dispersion causes the spatial separation
of a white light into components of
different wavelength (different colour)

32
SUPERPOSITION OF TWO WAVES OF NEARLY
EQUAL FREQUENCIES
A group consists of two components
of equal amplitude A but 𝜔1
frequencies 1 and 2 which differ 𝜔2
by a small amount.
• Their displacements:
• 𝑓1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝑘1 𝑧 − 𝜔1 𝑡) and 𝑓2 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝑘2 𝑧 − 𝜔2 𝑡)
• Superposition of amplitude and phase:
• 𝑓 = 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘1 𝑧 − 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝐴 cos(𝑘2 𝑧 − 𝜔2 𝑡)
• Using trigonometry, cos 𝐶 + cos 𝐷 = 2 cos((𝐶 − 𝐷)/2) cos((𝐶 + 𝐷)/2)
( 𝑘1 −𝑘2 )𝑧− (𝜔1 −𝜔2 )𝑡 ( 𝑘1 +𝑘2 )𝑧− (𝜔1 +𝜔2 )𝑡
• We get 𝑓 = 2A cos cos
2 2 33
 WAVE GROUP/WAVE PACKET
A resultant wave with a frequency (𝜔1 +𝜔2 )/2 which is very close to the frequency
of either component but with a maximum amplitude of 2A, modulated in space and
time by a very slowly varying envelope of frequency (𝜔1 −𝜔2 )/2 and wave number
(𝑘1 −𝑘2 )/2.

34
 GROUP VELOCITY
• Two frequency components have different phase velocities so that ω1/k1 ≠ ω2/k2.
(𝜔1 −𝜔2 ) ∆𝜔
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
(𝑘1 −𝑘2 ) ∆𝑘
• The superposition of the two waves will no longer remain constant and the group
profile will change with time.
• In a dispersive medium, the phase velocity is frequency dependent (i.e. ω/k not
constant).
• If a group contains a number of components of frequencies which are nearly
equal the original, expression for the group velocity is written:
∆𝜔 𝑑𝜔
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑔 = =
∆𝑘 𝑑𝑘
35
 RELATION BETWEEN GROUP AND PHASE VELOCITY
Since ω = kv (v is the phase velocity) and
𝑑𝜔 𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑣𝑔 = = 𝑘𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑘 =𝑣−λ
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑑λ

• A non-dispersive medium where ω /k is

constant, so that vg = v, for instance free
space behaviour towards light waves
• A normal dispersion relation, vg < v
• An anomalous dispersion relation, vg > v

36
 A STANDING WAVE IS SUPERPOSITION OF TWO WAVES TRAVELLING IN
OPPOSITE DIRECTION
• When two identical waves of the same amplitude and frequency
travel in opposite directions with the same speed along the same path
superpose each other, the resultant wave does not travel in the either
direction and is called a stationary or standing wave.
• It is called a standing wave because it does not appear to move.
• Standing wave can also be created when a single wave is reflected
off a fixed boundary (string reflecting with one end of the string
attached to the wall).
• In stationary or standing waves, the shape or profile of the wave stays fixed in a medium.
• An example of a stationary wave is the wave produced on the string of a string instrument.
• When the string is plucked, a wave is caused to travel up and down.
• Since both ends of the string are fixed, the waveform is reflected back up and down the string or
along its path. This confines a wave to stay within it.
37
STANDING WAVES ON A STRING OF FIXED LENGTH
(1-DIMENSIONAL STANDING WAVES)
Allowed standing waves have Non-integer no. of half
integer no. of half wavelengths wavelengths are forbidden

A N
N
Transverse standing
waves can have only
A A
N N particular frequencies
N
for a string of given
A A A length.
N N
N N
Nodes are points in 1-
A A A A dimensional standing
N N
N N N
waves 38
NODES IN 2-DIMENSIONAL STANDING WAVES
Radial and angular nodes Sand on a vibrating surface

A 3-dimensional
standing waves
have nodes that are
two dimensional

39
 STANDING WAVES ON A STRING OF FIXED LENGTH (ANALYTICAL
TREATMENT)
We have already seen that a progressive wave is completely reflected at an infinite impedance with
a π phase change in amplitude.
A standing wave, also known as a stationary wave, is a wave which oscillates in time but whose peak
amplitude profile does not move in space.
The peak amplitude of the wave oscillations at any point in space is constant with respect to time, and the
oscillations at different points throughout the wave are in phase.
A string of fixed length l with both ends rigidly clamped presents an infinite impedance at each end.
Let us consider a wave with an amplitude A, travelling in the positive z-direction and another one of
the same amplitude and same frequency travelling in the negative z-direction on the string
The displacement on the string at any point would then be given by
𝑓 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑧 + 𝜔𝑡) = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 --------------(1)

40
CONT’D….
The first boundary condition f = 0 at z = 0 gives 0 = 2𝐴 sin(0) cos 𝜔𝑡 for all t and is well
satisfied.
Note here that the wave function (eq. 1) for a standing wave satisfies the time independent
form of the wave equation.
𝜕2 𝑓
+ 𝑘2𝑓 = 0
𝜕𝑧 2
Differentiating equation (1) twice w.r.t to t, we get
𝜕2 𝑓
= −2A𝜔2 sin 𝑘𝑧 cos 𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑓
𝜕𝑡 2
1 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜔2
= − 2𝑓 = −𝑘 2 𝑓
𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑣

41
 CONT’D….
The second boundary condition that f = 0 at z = l for all t
𝜔𝑙 𝜔𝑙
requires sin 𝑘𝑙 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑣 𝑣
Limiting the value of allowed frequencies to
𝑛𝜋𝑣 𝑛𝑣 𝑣
𝜔𝑛 = or ν𝑛 = =
𝑙 2𝑙 λ𝑛
𝑛λ𝑛
That is 𝑙 =
2
𝜔 𝑧 𝑛𝜋𝑧
giving 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑣 𝑙
These frequencies are the normal frequencies or modes of vibration. They are often
called eigen frequencies, particularly in wave mechanics.

42
CONT’D….
Such allowed frequencies define the length of the string as an exact
number of half wavelengths, and Figure shows the string displacement for
the first four harmonics n = 1,2,3,4,…. The value for n = 1 is called the
fundamental.
For each single harmonic n > 1 there will be a number of positions along
the string which are always at rest. These points occur where
𝜔𝑛 𝑧 𝑛𝜋𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =0
𝑣 𝑙
𝑛𝜋𝑧
or = 𝑟𝜋 (𝑟 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … . . 𝑛)
𝑙
The values r = 0 and r = n give z = 0 and z = l, the ends of the string, but between the ends
there are (n–1) positions equally spaced along the string in the nth harmonic where the
displacement is always zero.
These positions are called nodes or nodal points, being the positions of zero motion in a system
of standing waves. 43
 CONT’D….
Standing waves arise when a single mode is excited and the incident and reflected waves
are superposed.
If the amplitudes of these progressive waves are equal and opposite (resulting from
complete reflection), nodal points will exist.
Often however, the reflection is not quite complete and the waves in the opposite direction
do not cancel each other to give complete nodal points.
Whenever nodal points exist, however, we know that the waves travelling in opposite
directions are exactly equal in all respects so that the energy carried in one direction is
exactly equal to that carried in the other.
This means that the total energy flux; that is, the energy carried across unit area per second
in a standing wave system, is zero.

44
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A STANDING WAVE AND A TRAVELING WAVE
Standing Wave: A standing wave, also known as a stationary wave, is a wave pattern that remains in a
constant position. It occurs when two waves of equal amplitude and frequency traveling in opposite
directions interfere with each other. Instead of propagating forward, the wave appears to oscillate in
place.
Travelling Wave: A traveling wave is a wave that propagates through a medium, transferring energy
from one point to another. It moves or travels from its source to other locations, carrying its energy
along.
Differences between Standing Wave and Travelling Wave:
1. Nature of Wave: - Standing Wave: A standing wave exhibits a stationary pattern, oscillating in
place without any net transfer of energy.
Travelling Wave: A travelling wave moves through space, transferring energy from one location to
another.
2. Waveform: - Standing Wave: In a standing wave, the waveform appears to be fixed and does not
change its shape over time.
Traveling Wave: A traveling wave exhibits a changing waveform as it propagates through space.
45
 CONT’D…
3. Interference: - Standing Wave: A standing wave is formed by the interference of two waves
traveling in opposite directions. This interference causes stationary points called nodes and points of
maximum displacement called antinodes.
Travelling Wave: A travelling wave does not exhibit interference with another wave. It propagates
through space without any interference pattern.
4. Energy Transfer: - Standing Wave: In a standing wave, there is no net transfer of energy. The wave
appears to oscillate without any movement of energy from one point to another. –
Travelling Wave: A travelling wave transfers energy as it propagates through space. The energy is
carried from the source to other locations.
5. Examples: - Standing Wave: Standing waves can be observed in musical instruments, such as guitar
strings or organ pipes, where the waves reflect back and forth to create a stationary pattern.
Travelling Wave: Examples of travelling waves include ocean waves, sound waves, and light waves,
which all propagate through their respective mediums.

46
 EXAMPLE
A very long string fixed at both the ends has a linear density of 5.0 g/m and is stretched with a
tension of 8.0 N. Waves of 100 Hz frequency and 2.0 mm amplitude are generated in the
string.
(i) What is the spacing between adjacent nodes in the resulting standing waves?
(ii) What is the maximum displacement of the string?
𝑇
Solution: (i) The speed of the transverse waves on the string is given by 𝑣 =
𝜇
8.0
T = 8.0 N and µ = 5.0 g/m = 5.0×10-3 kg/m, therefore 𝑣 = = 40 𝑚/𝑠
5.0×10−3
𝑣 40
Thus the wavelength is λ = ν = 100 = 0.4 𝑚 = 40 𝑐𝑚
Consequently, the spacing between adjacent nodes will be 20 𝑐𝑚.
(ii) The maximum displacement, at the antinodes where sin kz = 1, is 2×amplitude, i.e. 4.0 mm
47
Thank You

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