Course: Educational philosophy (8609)

Semester : Spring,2024

Level: B.ED(1.5/2.5 year)

Assignment No. 1

Q.1 Education cannot be separated from philosophy. Give example

to support your answer?

Answer:

The assertion that education cannot be separated from philosophy is

grounded in the understanding that both fields are inherently
interconnected . Philosphy provides the foundational principles and
framework upon which educational theories and practices are built.
Education, in turns , serves as the practical means of the applying
philosophical ideas to develop individuals and societies. This essay explore
the relationship between education and philosophy by examining historical
examples, educational theories and role of philosophy in shaping
contemporary educational practices.

Historical Foundations

Ancient Greece: Plato and Aristotle

The roots of relationship between education and philosophy can be traced

back to ancient Greece. Plato, a student of Socrates emphasized the
importance of an ideal educational system in his work, “The Republic’’. Plato
believed that education should nurture the soul and develop virtues such as
wisdom, courage and justice. He purposed a structured education system
that would lead individuals towards the ultimate truth, culminating in the
philosopher king who embodies the highest educational and moral
standards.

Aristotle, a student of Plato also made significant contributions to the

philosophy of education. In his work , “Nicomachean Ethics ’’. Aristotle
discussed the concept of eudaimonia or human flourishing , which he
believed was the ultimate goal of education. He argued that education
should cultivate intellectual and moral virtues, enabling individuals to live
fulfilling and rational lives. Aristotle emphasis on the development of critical
thinking and ethical behavior has had a lasting impact on educational
philosophy.
Educational Theories and philosophical Underpinnings

John Dewey and Pragmatisms:

In the early 20th century, John Dewey, an American philosopher and

educator, introduced the philosophy of Pragmatism to education. Dewey
argued that education should be grounded in the experience and that
learning should be and active participatory process. His work “Democracy
and Education ’’ emphasis the idea that education is a social process aimed
at preparing individuals for participation in democratic society. Dewey’s
pragmatic approach to education highlights the inseparable connection
between philosophy and educational practices.

Paulo Freire and Critical Pedagogy

Paulo Freire , a Brazilian educator and philosopher, is best known for his work
”Pedagogy of Oppressed ’’ which introduced the concept of critical pedagogy.
Freire philosophy emphasis the role of education in liberating individuals
from oppression and promoting social justice. He argued that traditional
educational methods often reinforce existing power structures and that
education should instead encourage critical thinking and empower learner to
challenge and transform their realities.

Contemporary Educational Practices

Constructivism and Jean Piaget

Constructivism is an educational theory that emphasis the active role of

learner in constructing their own knowledge. This approach is heavily
influenced by the philosophical ideas of Jean Piaget. Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development posits that learner built knowledge through
interaction with their environment and through process of assimilation and
accommodations. Constructivist educational practices which encourage
exploration , problem solving and critical thinking are deeply rooted in Jean
Piaget philosophical Understanding.

Humanism and Education

Humanistic education is another example of the inseparability of education

and philosophy. Humanism as philosophical perspective emphasizes the
inherent Worth and potential of individuals , in context of education
humanism advocates for leaner centered that priorities the development of
the whole person, including emotional and social aspect . Carl Rogers an
influential humanistic psychologists argue for an educational environment
that foster self actualization and personal growth . Humanistic educational
practices, which focus on empathy, respect and holistic develop of leaner
are directly influenced by humanistic philosophical principles.

Philosophy and Educational Policy and Curriculum

Liberal Art Education

The concept of liberal Art Education is deeply philosophical, rooted in the

idea that education should develop well rounded individuals with broad
knowledge and critical thinking skills. This approach to education can be
traced to the ancient Greeks and medieval trivium and quadrivium which
formed the basis of liberal arts education . The philosophical foundation of
liberal arts education emphasis of the interconnectedness of different field of
knowledge and the importance of cultivating intellectual virtues such as
reasoning analysis and ethical judgment.

Education for Global Citizenship

In an increasingly interconnected world the philosophy of education has

expanded to include the concept of global citizenship. This philosophical
perspective argue that education should prepare individual to engage with
global issues and to understand and respect cultural diversity. Educational
Practices that promote global citizenship, such as an intellectual studies
program and multicultural education are grounded in philosophical ideas
about cosmopolitanism, ethical responsibility and common good.

Challenges and Critiques

Standardization and Philosophical Diversity

One of the challenge in aligning education with philosophical principles is the

trend towards standardization in education system . Standardized testing
and curriculum can limit the scope of Philosophical inquiry and critical
thinking in education . Critiques argued that this focus on standardization
undermine the Philosophical foundation of education , which emphasized the
development of independent thought and exploration of diverse
perspectives.

Ethical Considerations in Education

Ethical Considerations are central to philosophy of education . Question

about what should be taught ,how should be taught ,who should have access
to education are inherently Philosophical issues such as educational equity
inclusion and role of technology in education required careful philosophical
analysis.

Q.2. How does “idealism’’ impact different ideas of education .

Discuss

Answer:

Idealism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the primacy of mind,

spirit, ideas over material objects. In context of education, idealism posit that
reality is fundamentally mental and that the development of intellect and
moral character are Paramount. This philosophy has profoundly influenced
various areas of education, from curriculum design to teaching method and
the overall goals of education . This essay explore the impact of idealism on
different facts of education, demonstrating it’s enduring influence.

Curriculum Design

Emphasis on classical Education

Idealism advocates for curriculum that focuses on the study of classical text
and the great work of literature, philosophy and science. This approach often
referred to as liberal arts of education aim to cultivate intellectual and moral
virtues by exposing students to timeless ideas and universal truth.

Development of the whole person

Idealism in education promote the development of whole person including

intellectual, moral, aesthetic and spiritual dimensions. This holistic approach
means the curriculum should not only include academic subject but also
arts , music, physical education and moral philosophy . The goal is to nurture
well rounded individuals who are capable of intellectual reasoning and
possess strong moral character .

Teaching Methods

Socratic method

The Socratic method is inspired by the teaching style of Socrates is

Pedagogical approach align with idealist philosophy. This method involve
dialogue and questioning to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas.
Teacher using the Socratic method to encourage students to think deeply
articulate their thoughts clearly fostering an environment where ideas can be
examined and refine.
Lectures and Expository Teaching

In idealist education teacher is often seen as knowledgeable guide who

imparts wisdom and facilitate the intellectual growth of students. Lecture
and expository teaching methods are commonly employed to convey
complex ideas and foster understanding . The teacher role is to present
material in a coherent and inspiring manner helping students to internalize
and reflect on profound concepts . This method respect the teacher authority
and expertise, viewing them an essential guiding students towards truth.

Goals of Education

Intellectual and moral development

One of the central tenets of idealism in education is the emphasis on

intellectual and moral development . Education is seen as means to cultivate
the intellect and nurture ethical behavior . Idealist educators aim to develop
students ability to think critically, reasoning logically and act ethically. This
involves instilling values such as honesty , integrity, and respect for others
which are considered fundamental to leading virtuous life.

Pursuit of Truth and wisdom

Idealism posits that the ultimate goal of education is the pursuit of Truth and
wisdom. This philosophical stance holds that there are absolute truth and
enduring principles that transcend individuals experiences and cultures.
Education therefore should be directed towards discovering and
understanding these truth. This goal emphasizes the importance of
Philosophical inquiry reflective thinking and a commitment to lifelong
learning.

Classroom Environment

Inspirational and thought provoking atmosphere

An idealist approach to education seeks to create an inspirational and

thought provoking classroom environment. This involves fostering a sense of
wonder and curiosity about the world and encouraging the students to
engage with profound question about existence, knowledge and ethics.
Classroom are design to be intellectually stimulating spaces where ideas are
explored and debated . This environment support the development of deep
love for learning and an appreciation for intellectual life.

Respect for individual potential

Idealism also emphasis the unique potential of each individual student.
Educator are encourage to recognize and nurture innate talent abilities of
their students helping them to realize their full potential. This respect for
individual potential translate into personalized teaching methods and
supportive classroom environment that encourage self expression and
personal growth.

Role of Teacher

Teacher as moral and intellectual role model

In idealist, teacher is view as moral and intellectual role model who

embodies the virtues and knowledge that students should aspire to. Teacher
are expected to demonstrate ethical behavior, intellectual curiosity, Their
role is extend beyond transmission of knowledge to include mentoring,
moral development of their students , By modeling virtuous behavior and
intellectual engagement teacher inspire student to develop similar qualities.

Guidance and Mentorship

Rigidity and Elitism

One of the criticisms of idealism in education is that it can lead to rigid and
elitist approach. The emphasis on classical education and the pursuit of the
universal truths may overlook the diverse background and experiences of
the students critics argue that this approach can marginalized non western
perspective fail to address practical needs and interest of all students . The
challenge is to balance idealist focus on intellectual and moral development
with a more inclusive and flexible educational approach.

Lack of practical Relevance

Another challenge of idealist in education is lack of practical Relevance . The

focus on abstract ideas and philosophical inquiry may not adequately
prepare students for practical demands of modern life and the workforce.
Critics argue that education should include practical skills and vocational
training to ensure that all students well equipped for their future career.

Q.3 Define and explain “Pragmatism’’ as a modern philosophy which

has reshaped educational Policy and practices ?

Answer:
Pragmatism, a philosophical tradition that originated in late 19 th and 20th
centuries has profoundly influenced modern educational Policy and practices.
Emphasizing action , experience and practicality , Pragmatism rejects the
notion of absolute truth and instead focus on ideas and beliefs that work in
real world context. This philosophy which includes notable thinker such as
Charles Sanders, Peirce , William James and John Dewey promote dynamic
and student centered approach to education.

Foundations of Pragmatism

Origins and Key Philosophers

Pragmatism emerged in the United States during the late 19 th century as a

response to a abstract and theoretical nature of traditional philosophy.
Charles Sanders Peirce introduced the concept of “Pragmatic Maxim’’ which
suggest that the meaning of that an idea or proposition lies in it’s observable
practical consequences. William James expanded on pierce ideas
emphasizing the role of experience and utility beliefs in guiding action. John
Dewey perhaps the most influential Pragmatist in the field of education
applied these principles to educational theory and practice advocating for
experiential learning and the development of critical thinking skills.

Core principles

Pragmatism is characterized by several core principles

 Experience and experimentations: learning is seen as an active

process involving experimentation and reflection . Knowledge is gain
through interaction with environment and consequences of actions.
 Practicality and Utility: ideas and beliefs are valued based on their
practical application and usefulness in solving real world problem.
 Continuity and Growth: Education is viewed as continuous process
of growth and development with an emphasis on a adapting changing
circumstances and needs.
 Democracy and Social interaction: Pragmatism promote
democratic value in education, encourage collaboration ,
communication and participation in diverse society.

Impact on Educational Policy

Student – Centered learning:
One of most significant impact of Pragmatism on educational Policy is
the shift towards students Centered learning . Traditional education
focus on rote memorization and passive reception of knowledge .
Pragmatism however the active role of students in their own learning
process . This approach encourage educators to design curricula that
are relevant to student lives ,interest, fostering engagement and
motivation .
Experiential learning:
John Dewey work on the importance of experience in education has
inspired Policy that integrate hands on activities, real world problem
solving and reflective thinking into curriculum . Experiential learning
policies advocate for the inclusion of field trip , internship, community
services, and other activities that connect classroom learning to
practical experience . These policies aims to develop students critical
thinking , creativity and ability to apply knowledge in various context.

Influence on Educational Practices

Collaborative Learning Environment
Pragmatism emphasis on social interaction and democracy has
reshape educational practices by promoting collaborative learning
environment. Classroom are increasingly design to group work,
discussion and cooperative . This approach not only help students
develop interpersonal skills but also foster a deeper understanding of
content through peer interaction and diverse perspectives . Teacher
are encourage to create inclusive environment where students can
engage in meaningful dialogue and collective problem solving.
Inquiry Based Learning
Inquiry base learning is direct application of pragmatic principles in
classroom. This educational practices encourage students to ask
questions , conduct investigation, develop solution to real world
problem . Rather than simply imparting facts teacher guide through the
process of discovery and exploration. This approach helps students
develop critical thinking and research skills, foster a sense of curiosity
and lifelong love of learning .
Pragmatism and Curriculum Development
Interdisciplinary Approach
Pragmatism advocates for an interdisciplinary approach to curriculum
development, recognizing real world problem are not confined to single
subjects areas . This perspectives encourages the integration of
multiple discipline allowing students to make connections between
different field of knowledge . Policies STEM ( science, technology,
engineering and mathematics) education.
Relevance and Context
Another key aspect of Pragmatism is curriculum development is the
focus on relevance and context. Pragmatic education emphasis the
importance of connecting learning material to student lives and future
career . This approach is led to the development of curricula that
address contemporary issues such as environmental sustainability,
digital literacy and global citizenship .
Assessment and Evaluation
Formative Assessment
Pragmatism has influenced assessment practices by promoting
formative assessment methods. Unlike traditional summative
assessment which evaluate students learning at the end of an
instructional period, formative assessment provide ongoing feedback
that helps students to improve throughout the learning process . This
approach is align with pragmatic principles by emphasizing continuous
growth and development. Formative assessment ,such as self
assessment,peer reviews and teacher feedback , support a more
dynamic and responsive educational experience .
Performance Based Assessment
Performance based assessment is another practices shaped by
Pragmatism.
This type of assessment evaluate students ability about knowledge
and skills in real world. Examples includes presentation, projects,
portfolios which require student to demonstrate their Understanding
through practical application . performance based assessment align
with pragmatic emphasis on practicality and Utility providing a more
comprehensive measure of students learning and competencies.

Challenges and Critiques

Balancing Practicality with Academic Rigor
While Pragmatism has brought many positive changes to education it
also faces challenges and criticism . One concern is the potential for an
overemphasis on practicality at the expense of academic rigor. Critics
argue that focusing too heavily on real world application and learning
might neglect the importance of foundational knowledge theoretical
understanding .
Implementation and Equity
Another challenge is the equitable implementation of pragmatic
educational practices. Ensuring that all students have access to
experiential learning opportunity, personalized instructions, and
collaborative environment require resources and support . Disparities
in funding , infrastructure and teacher training can result in unequal
educational experiences . Addressing these equity is crucial for
realizing of full potential of Pragmatism in education.

Q.4 Briefly discuss different sources of knowledge from

prehistoric to modern day world?
Answer:
Different sources of knowledge have emerged and transform over the
millennia reflecting changes in human societies, technologies and
world views . This essay explore the evolution of these sources of
knowledge.
Prehistoric sources of knowledge:
Oral Tradition and Mythology:
In prehistoric times knowledge was primarily transmitted through oral
traditions and mythology . Stories ,legend and myth served as the
main vehicle for preserving and conveying information about the world
, human origins, moral values and practical skills .Elder and Shamans
played crucial role as the custodian of this knowledge passing it down
through generation . These narrative were not just entertainment but
essential tool for survival technique, social norms and cultural identity.
Observational knowledge:
Early human relied heavily on observational knowledge which they
acquired through direct interaction with their environment . This
included understanding, animal behavior, seasonal changes, plant
properties and whether patterns . Such knowledge for crucial for
hunting, gathering and eventually , agriculture . Observation and
hands on experience were the primary methods for learning and
adapting to the natural world.
Ancient Civilizations
Written Record and Literature:
The invention of writing marked a significant milestone in the history
of knowledge . Ancient civilizations such as Sumerian, Egyptian and
Chinese develop writing system that allowed them to record
information more accurately preserve it over long periods, written
record , including religious text, legal codes and literature became a
vital sources of knowledge .
Philosophical Inquiry :
In ancient Greece and India , philosophical inquiry emerged as a critical
sources of knowledge . Philosophers like Socrates, Plato , Aristotle in
Greece and the sages of the Upanishads in India sought to understand
the nature of reality, knowledge and human existence through
reasoned arguments and critical thinking . This period saw the
development of foundational concept in logic , ethics, metaphysics,
and epistemology many of which to continue to influence modern
thought.
The Middle Ages
Religious and Scholastic knowledge :
During the middle ages religious institution became the primary
sources of knowledge in many parts of the world. In Europe Catholic
church played a central role in education and scholarship. Monasteries
preserved and copied ancient text , while theologian like Thomas
Aquinas integrated Christian doctrine with Aristotelian philosophy . In
the Islamic world, scholars translated and expanded upon Greek,
Persian and Indian work making significant advancement in science,
medicine and philosophy.
Practical and Technological knowledge:
The Middle Ages also saw the growth of practical and Technological
knowledge . Craft guild apprenticeship system ensure the transmission
of specialized skills in areas like blacksmithing , carpentry, medicine .
Innovation such as the water wheel windmill and improve the
agricultural technique reflecting a deepening understanding of
mechanical principles and natural process.
The Renaissance and Enlightenment
Humanism and Scientific Revolution
The Renaissance heralded a revival of interest in classical knowledge
and focus on humanism , emphasizing human potential achievement .
This period saw the flourishing of art, literature and science with figure
like Leonardo da Vinci exemplifying the polymath ideal. The scientific
revolution of 16th and 17th centuries further transformed sources of
knowledge with pioneers like Galileo , Newton and Kepler developing
the scientific method.
Printing Press and Dissemination of knowledge:
The invention of the printing press by John Gutenberg in the mid 15 th
century revolutionized the dissemination of the knowledge. Books
became more accessible, leading to the spread of literacy, and the
rapid exchange of ideas. The printing press facilitated the distribution
of scientific work, religious text, and literacy master places significantly
impacting education and intellectual life.
The Modern Era
Industrial Revolution and Technological Advancement :
The industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th century brought about
significant technological advancement and new sources of knowledge .
Innovation in machinery, transportation and communication
transformed economies and societies. The development of
engineering, chemistry and physics during this period laid the
groundwork for industrial modern technological knowledge.
Formal Education System:
The establishment of formal Education System of the 19 th and 20th
centuries institutionalized the transmission of knowledge . Public
schools, universities and research institutions became central sources
of education and intellectual development. Standardized curricula and
degree ensured that knowledge was systematically organized and
disseminated preparing individuals for professional and civic life.
Contemporary Sources of knowledge
Scientific Research and Innovation :
In the modern world, scientific research and innovation are the primary
sources of new knowledge . Universities, research institutions and
private companies conduct extensive research across various fields
from biology and medicine to physics and engineering . The peer
reviewed publication process ensure that new findings are rigorously
evaluated and shared with the global scientific community, driving
continuous advancement in knowledge.
Digital information and Internet:
The advent of digital age and internet has revolutionized access to
knowledge. The internet provides a vast repository information
accessible to anyone with connection online database, libraries, and
educational program offer unprecedented opportunities for learning
and research.
Interdisciplinary and Global Collaboration:
Contemporary knowledge production increasingly involves
interdisciplinary and Global Collaboration .complex problem such as
climate change, public health and Technological innovation require
insight from multiple fields and cooperation across national borders.
Collaborative projects, international conferences, and digital
communicative platforms enable researcher and practitioner to share
knowledge and work together towards common goals.

Q.5 Compare and contrast ‘empirical’ knowledge with other

sources of knowledge ?
 Answer:
This essay compare and contrast the empirical knowledge with other
major sources of knowledge such as rationalism , intuition revelation
and authoritative testimony. By examining their principles, methods,
strengths and limitations we can better understand how these different
sources contribute to overall understanding of the world.
Empirical knowledge
Definition and Principles :
Empirical knowledge is derived from sensory experience and
observation . It is based on the principle that knowledge about the
world is best gain through the direct interaction with it. This type of
knowledge is often associated with scientific method, which involves
systematic observation , experimentation and collection of data to
form conclusion about natural phenomena.
Methods and Validation:
Empirical knowledge relies on methods such as controlled
experiment , field study , observational research . Validation of
empirical knowledge comes through repeatability and verification by
independent observer. For instance scientific experiments are designed
to be reproducible so that other can confirm the findings.
Strengths:
One of the strengths of empirical knowledge is it’s grounding in
observable and measurable phenomena which provides a robust
foundation and Technological Advancement. This approach minimizes
subjective biases and allows for development of universally applicable
theories and laws. The precision and predictability of empirical
knowledge make it indispensable in field such as medicine ,
engineering and natural sciences .
Limitations:
However empirical knowledge is not without limitations. It is often
constrained by the current capabilities of observational tool and
Technologies. Additionally empirical methods may struggle to address
phenomena that are not easily observable or measurable such as
abstract concept , emotions and certain philosophical questions.
Empirical knowledge also require significant resources and time to
gather validate data.
Rationalism
Definition and Principles:
Rationalism posit that reason and logic are the primary sources of
knowledge. It emphasizes the role of intellectual and deductive
processes in understanding reality. Rationalist believe that certain truth
can be known a priori, independent of sensory experience , through
logical reasoning and mathematical deduction.
Methods and Validation:
Rational knowledge is derived from the principle of logic and
mathematics. For example , mathematical theorem and Philosophical
arguments are validated through deductive reasoning and coherence
with established logical framework . Rationalist methods involves
formulating hypothesis base logical consistency deriving conclusion
through rigorous analytical process.
Strengths:
Rationalism excel in areas where empirical observation is limited or
impractical . It provides a foundations for theoretical sciences ,
mathematics and philosophy. The clarity and rigor of rationalist method
enable the development of precise and internally consistent theories.
Rationalism is essential for understanding abstract concept and for
making sense of empirical data within broader theoretical context.
Limitations:
Rationalism reliance on abstract reasoning can be a limitation when
applied to understanding the physical world , without empirical
verification rationalist theory may remain speculative and
disconnected from practical reality.
Intuition
Definition and Principles:
Intuition refers to immediate understanding or knowledge without
conscious reasoning or empirical evidence. It is often discussed as a “
gut feeling ’’ or an instinctive insight that arises spontaneously.
Intuition is considered is form of innate knowledge that accessible
through introspection and self awareness .
Methods and Validation
Intuitive knowledge is typically validated through personal experience
and the sense of certainty it provides to the individuals . Unlike
empirical or rational methods intuitive does not rely on systematic
observation or logical deduction. Instead it emerges as a direct , often
inexplicable , awareness of truth.
Strengths:

Intuition can be valuable in situations required rapid decision making

or where empirical data is scarce. It often draws on subconscious
processing of past experience and knowledge , allowing individuals to
make informed judgment quickly. Intuitive plays a significant role in
creativity, innovation and personal growth providing insight that may
not be immediately accessible through rational analysis.
Limitations:
The subjective nature of intuition makes it difficult to validate or
generalize. Intuitive knowledge can be influenced by personal biases ,
emotions and cultural conditioning , leading to potential inaccuracies
inconsistencies . Additionally intuition lacks the systematic rigor of
empirical and rational methods , making it less reliable for scientific
and technical purposes.

Revelation
Definition and Principles :
Revelation is belief that knowledge can be directly imparted by divine
or supernatural source. It is often associated with religious and spiritual
context, where truth are reveled through sacred text , prophetic vision,
or mystical experiences. Revelation is considered to be beyond the
reach of human reason and empirical investigation.
Methods and Validation:
Revelatory knowledge is typically validated through faith, religious and
authority and communal acceptance. Sacred text such as the Quran,
Bible and Vedas are regarded as authoritative sources of revealed
knowledge. Validation often involves interpretation by religious and
alignment with established doctrine belief.
Strengths:
Revelation provides a profound sense of purpose, meaning and moral
guidance for individuals and communities. It addresses existential and
metaphysical questions that empirical and rational methods that may
not fully encompass . Revelatory knowledge can foster deep sense of
connection and belongings within religious and spiritual traditions.
Limitations:
Revelatory knowledge is inherently subjective and varies significantly
across different religious and cultural context. It reliance on faith and
authority can make it resistant to critical scrutiny empirical validation.
Conflicts between different revelatory traditions and interpretations
can also lead to doctrinal disputes and division.

Authoritative testimony
Definition and Principles :
Authoritative testimony refers to knowledge acquired through credible
account of experts , witness, or trusted sources. This form of
knowledge relies on the authority and expertise of individuals or
institution deemed knowledgeable and reliable in specific domains.
Methods and Validation:
Knowledge from authoritative testimony is validated through credibility
, expertise and reputation of course . For example, scientific knowledge
is often disseminated through peer review, journal and expert
consensus. Legal and historical knowledge relies on testimony of
witness and documented evidence.
Strengths:
Authoritative testimony allows individuals to access a vast repository
of knowledge without direct experience or specialized expertise. It
enable the dissemination of complex information efficiently and
support the accumulation of knowledge across generation. Trust in
expert testimony is crucial for function in societies as seen in areas
such as laws , medicine and education.
Limitations:
The reliance on authority can lead to propagation of misinformation if
the sources are biased , inaccurate and fraudulent. It also require
critical assessment discernment to distinguish between credible and
unreliable sources. Over dependency on authoritative testimony may
discourage independent inquiry and critical thinking.