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Masters Theses Student Theses and Dissertations

1974

Electrical cable design and applications

Robert William Buente

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 ELECTRICAL CABLE DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS

BY

ROBERT WILLIAM BUENTE, 1945-

A THESIS

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the

UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI - ROLLA

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1974
T2958
128 p
Approved by c.l

za73S2
 ii

ABSTRACT

The materials available for constructing various

electrical cables are discussed, along with remarks/ per-
taining to the attributes and limitations of each. The
installation and maintenance considerations are discussed
in detail. Electrical considerations involved with de-
signing a cable system are outlined with references to
their specific application. Special cable constructions,
their applications, and their typical modes of instal-
lation are reviewed. The conclusion explains an overall
cable system design approach along with miscellaneous
information.
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ABSTRA.CT • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .•...•••.•.•.•.••..•••.•.•...•.•..• vii
LIST OF TABLES •••••.•..•.•••••.•...•.•.•.•...•.•...•.•. viii
I. INTRODUCTION •.•••••.•.••••.••.•.•.•••...•.•.••••.•.. 1
A. Basic Cable Construction and Hi~cory .•...•.••• l

B. Conductors .•.••.•...•.•...••••••..•.•...••..•• 4
c. Insulating and Jacketing Materials ..•.•.•••.• 14
1. Thermoplastic Materials ••••....••.•.•.•.• 16
a. Polyvinylchloride •.•••.•...•.••..•.•. l6
b. Low-Density Polyethylene .•••.....•••. l6
c. High-Density Polyethylene ..•....••... l7
d. Polypropylene ••••••••.•.•••••••••..•• 18
e. Nylon •••.•.•.•••.•••••••...•••••••••• 18
2. Thermosett~ng Materials .••••..••..••••••. l9
a. Natural Rubber ••••••.•.•...•••••.•.•. 19
b. Styrene-Butadine Rubber ..•.•.•••.•.•• 20
c. Chloroprene Rubber .•..••...•.••..•.•• 20
d. Butyl Rubber . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . • . . . . . • . 24
e. Silicone Rubber ....•.•.•.•.•.•.•••••. 2 4
f. Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene •.•.•.•• 25
g. Ethylene Propylene Rubber .•••...•.•.. 26
h. Cross-Linked Polyolefins ••.••••••...• 26
3. Films ••••••..•••...••••••••.•..••••.•.••• 2 8

4. Fibers .•••••••••••••••••••.•••.•••••••••• 28
 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

5. Paper Insulation •.•. .29

:6. Varnish Cambric (VC) .30

D. Shielding •.•••.•.•.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

E. Jackets and Outer Sheaths. 36

II. TECHNICAL C0N~I-DEMT l®NS.. .37

A. A-C/D-C Resistance. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

B. Inductance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

c. Capacitance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

D. Reactance ••• • 42

E. Voltage Regulat.ion. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .44

F. D-C Insulation Resistance. .45

G. Dielectric Loss •••. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

H. Charging Currents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

I. Absorption Current .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

J. Leakage Current. .48

K. Total Current .••...•••...•.•••••••.•••.•.• .48

L. Shield/Sheath Losses •••..•.•.•••.•.....•.. .49

III. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS •.•••• 52

A. Ampacity Rating. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .52

B. Conduit Sizing •• .54

c. Pulling Tensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • ••• 56

D. Bending Radii. .58

E. Direct Burial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .59

F. Sag ·a nd Tension.· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

G. Splicing •••••••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

 v

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page
H. Terminations .•••••.........•.•.•...•••.•...•. 67
I. High Potential Proof Testing .•...•.•..••...•. 71
J. Fault Location ••.•••••.•.•.•.•••.•.•••.•.•••. 75
1. Insulation Resistance Ratio .•••••.•••..•• 76
2. Voltage Drop Method •...•.•••.•.•.•••.•.•• 7 7
3. Resistance Loop Balance .••••..•••..•..•.• 78
4. Burn Down Process .•.••.•.•••.•..••••.•... 78
5. Capacitance Impulse Method •••.•••.•.••••• 79
6. A-C Methods ••.••.••••.•.•••.•.••••••••••. 7 9
7. D-C Tracer Method •••• f ••••••••••••••••••• 80
IV. SPECIFIC CABLE CONSTRUCTIONS~ AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS ••.•.•••••••.••.••.•.••.••.••••.••.•. 81
A. Power Cables ••.•••.•••••••.•••••••••.•••••.•• 81
B. Control and Instrumentation Cables ••.•••••••. 94
1. Control Cable •••.••.••.•••••.•.••••..•.•. 94
2. Instrumentation Cables .•.•••...•.....•••. 97
c. Mining Cable ••.••..•.•••••...••.•.••.••.•.••• 99
D. Miscellaneous Cables .•••.••••.•.....••••••.• l03
V• C 0 NC L US I 0 N • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 0 9

A. System Design Information •••.••..•••...•••.• l09

B. Ground Conductors ....•••••.•.•••.•.•.•.•...• 113
1. Power Cable •.•.•...•.•.•.••..•••.•••.•.• 113
2. Mining Cable ••.•••.•..••.•••.•••.•••.••• 114
3. Metallic Sheathed Cab1es ••••••••••••••.• l14
c. Flame Resistance and Testing •••••••••••••••• l14
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page
D. Manufactur ers Identification .•.•...••.••.••. l15
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
VITA ••.•••••. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 120
 vii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures Page
1. Stress Cone Design . . . . • . . . • . • . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 69
2. Circuit Induction Relationships . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
 viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
I. Basic Cable Constructions ....•.........•.....•.•.. 2
II. Relative Electrical Conductivity of Metals ••.•.•.. s
III. Ampaci ty Ratings ..•.••....•....•..•..•.•.•...•.... 7
IV. Conductor Diameters •.•.•.••..•.....•...•.......•. 11
V. Typical Properties of Elastomeric Compositions ..• 21
VI. A-C/D-C Eesistance Ratios for Insulated
Aluminum and Copper Conductors at
50 Cycles and 65oc ••.••.•....•.....•..•.....•.. 38
VII. Typical Values of SIC ...•.•...•.....•.•.•.•...... 4 2
VIII. Corrections for Multiconductor Cables(lg) ......•. 44

IX. Typical Values for Insulation Resistance

Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6

x. Typical Values of Shield/Sheath Resistivity . . . . . . so

XI. Maximum Allowable Continuous Lengths for Single
Copper Conductor Cables Having Their Shields
or Sheaths Grounded at One Point ••••..•.•.•...• Sl
XII. Percent Allowable Internal Area Fill of Conduit
or Tubing •..•......•.•.....•.•••••.•.•.•....••. 54

XIII. Allowable % Internal Diameter Fill of Conduit

or Tubing ••.•.....•.•.......•.•.•.•.....•...... 55

XIV. Maximum Allowable Diameter {in inches) of

Individual Cables of the Same Size in a
Given Size of Conduit •..•........•......•..•.•. ss
XV. (l 9 ) Non-Metallic Sheathed Non-Shielded Cables
Bending Radii Relationships •.•...........•...•. 58
XVI. Typical Breaking Strengths of Messengers ........• 60
XVII. (19) NEC Load1ng
.
Factors ...•.•.•.•...•.•...•.•.•.....• 61
.
XVIII. (33) D~mens1ons
· · Norma 11 y Use d 1n
. T erm1na
. t '1ng •....••.•. 69

XIX. IPCEA Recommended Insulation Thicknesses

References ••.••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••.••. 84

XX. Nom~nal Voltage/Rated Circuit Voltage

R~lationships •••••••••••••••••.•••.••...... __ - 1 o 9
 1

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Basic Cable Construction and History

As long as there has been electricity, there has been
a need for cable to convey this power. In the late 1800's
10,000 volt concentric cables of Ferranti were installed
in London, and early proved the success of underground
power transmission(!). Pr~or to this time insulated cable
designs were limited to the manufacturing of telephone
and telegraph cables for communication purposes. Paper
insulation was the primary type used during the early
underground cable years. Most often the paper insulated
cables were lead or steel sheathed for mechanical and
environmental protection.
The demand for higher and higher rated voltages for
underground cables originates from both technical and
economic considerations. The transmission of power for
a given voltage from a large generating station by an
insulated cable is limited by the amount of current it
can safely carry without overloading the insulation. This
problem has resulted in reducing the current by raising the
transmission voltage, allowing a smaller amount of con-
ductor current for a given amount of power.
It appears that the cost of a cable system is largely
proportional to the amount of conductor metal employed
and therefore to some extent inversely proportional to the

voltage. It must be kept in mind however, that the saving

 2

is not directly proportional to the voltage, as the higher

voltage involves increased thickness of dielectric, and

protective jacketing materials which partially offset the

saving due to reducing the size of the conductor.
The basic construction of a cable involves many
processes and materials. A brief explanation of the
various types of construction for cables will be helpful

in the understanding of the subject of this paper. Table I

shows the three basic cable constructions.

Table I. Basic Cable Constructions

Low Voltage Non-shielded Shielded

600-2000v 2001-5000v 5000v and above

1. Conductor 1. Conductor 1. Conductor

2. Phase-coded 2. Strand shielding 2. Strand shielding

insulation

3. Assembly tape 3. Phase-coded 3. Insulation

and fillers insulation

4. Jacket Sheath 4. Assembly tape 4. Insulation

and fillers Shielding-Phase
Identification

5. Jacket, Sheath 5. Metallic

or Armor Insulation
Shielding
6. Assembly tape
and fillers

7. Jacket, Sheath
or Armor
 3

Natural rubber, varnish cambric, butyl rubber,

polyethylene, styrene-butadiene rubber, cross linked
polyethylene, and ethylene propylene have largely replaced
oil impregnated paper insulation. The thermoplastics and
thermosetting materials have likewise increased in use for
jacketing materials.
Electrical cables are extremely critical to the
distribution and control of power, and in recent years
many innovations have been introduced in cable design.
Improved dielectrics have resulted in better performance
in addition to, in many cases, reduced costs.
In researching this subject it was alarming to note
the sparse amount of articles and books written on the
overall subject of cable. There is an endless number of
books and articles written on specific cable subject areas.
It is for this reason that the need for a paper on the
overall topic of electrical cable seemed apparent. This
paper attempts to take from these sources the salient
points and combine them in a logical presentation.
It is the explicit intent of this paper to provide a
good reference for people interested in cable and its

design. So often an engineer must be involved with many

specialties, and it is impossible to be an expert in

everyone.
There are many descriptive words in the cable industry
as defined by the various associations that issue industry

standards. The principal bodies that issue these standards,

 4

codes, or approved listings applying to the materials, are

as follows: American Society for Testing and Metals (ASTM),
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (U/L), Insulated Power Cable
Engineers Association (IPCEA), Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE), Edison Electric Institute (EEI),
Association of Edison Illuminating Companies (AEIC),
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) , and
The National Fire Pr0tection Association that issues the
National Electric Code {NEC).

B. Conductors
The definition of conductor as used in the wire and
cable industry is: A wire or combination of wires not
insulated from one another, suitable for carrying a single
electric current< 4 >.
Copper and A~uminum are the two basic types of con-
ductors used in the transmission and distribution of
electrical power. Hollow tubes, copperweld, square and
rectangular bars, aluminum conductor steel reinforced
(ACSR), and other special designs for particular require-
ments comprise the list of conductors, but the most exten-
sive use of conductors is in the form of round solid wires.
Copper is the most widely used metal for conductors,
due to its outstanding electrical conductivity and ver-
satility. Because copper is malleable and ductile it
can readily be worked cold by any process involving

rolling or wire drawing.

 5

The acceptance of aluminum conductors is also

expanding rapidly due to its excellent conductivity,

availability, light weight, ease of handling, and

reasonable price. Table II shows the conductivity of
various metals, with aluminum equal to 62% of that of

copper.

Table II. Relative Electrical Conductivity of Metals

Metal Relative Conductivity

Silver 106

Copper 100

Aluminum 62

Magnesium 38.4

Iron 12.4

The specific gravity of aluminum is 2.7 compared to

8.9 for copper. This weight differential is a favorable

plus for aluminum conductors but i t also follows that the

overall diameter of an aluminum conductor must be about

25% greater than that of a copper conductor, in order to

carry the copper equivalent current. From this fact it

then can be stated that the greater diameter of aluminum

necessitates a greater volume of insulation needed, for

the same voltage rating of the cable.

The controversy in the use of copper versus aluminum

as a conductor continues but a few more comparative facts

 6

will help in determining the most suitable conductor metal

for a particular application.
Aluminum oxidizes readily in air, which results in the
formation of a hard inert oxide coat on the surface of the
conductor. which is impermeable and protective in character.
This oxide film is a good insulator and it must be removed
during splicing and termination of the conductor.
Due to its larger volume the aluminum conductor can
store about 16% more heat than a copper conductor of equal
resistance, which for a given temperature rise allows it
to carry somewhat larger short-circuit currents than
copper. In this same frame work of thinking, it must be
mentioned that the melting point of aluminum is much
lower than that of copper and will therefore burn off
at correspondingly lower temperature when short circuits
occur.
The thermal linear expansion coefficient of aluminum
is considerably larger than that of copper, indicating that
aluminum conductors will elongate somewhat more than copper
with a given temperature rise.
The tensil strength of aluminum is also lower than that
of copper. For example the breaking strengths of a #12 AWG
aluminum conductor is equal to that of a #14 AWG copper

conductor.
The flexibility of annealed copper and that of an EC
grade aluminum conductor are comparable, however, the fatigue
resistance of copper is far greater. This is important
 7

where continuous flexibility is necessary.

Table III gives a comparison of equivalent conductor

sizes based on equal voltage drop.

Table III. Ampacity Ratings

COEEer Conductors Aluminum Conductors

Size Voltage Drop Current Size Voltage Drop Current

AWG or per phase per AWG or per phase per
MCM arnE Eer lOOOft MCM arnE Eer lOOOft
14 4.67 15 12 4.75 17

12 3.00 20 10 3.02 25

10 1.86 30 8 1.90 38

8 1.21 45 6 1.21 55

6 0.793 65 4 0.790 71

4 0.514 85 2 0.509 97

2 0.341 115 1/0 0.336 126

1/0 0.232 150 3/0 0.228 168

2/0 0.193 175 4/0 0.190 193

3/0 0.163 200 250 MCM 0.169 214

4/0 0.138 230 350 MCM 0.134 260

250 MCM 0.126 255 400 MCM 0.124 282

350 MCM 0.104 310 500 MCM 0.108 319

400 MCM 0.097 335 600 MCM 0.098 353

500 MC~~ 0.088 380 750 MCM 0.089 399

600 MCM 0.083 420 900 MCM 0.082 437

750 MCM 0.075 475 1000 MCM 0.080 458

 8

The ampacities shown in Table III are based on three

single conductors in a magnetic conduit, 80% power factor,
75°C copper temperature and corresponding current carrying
capacities at 30°C ambient< 5 >. Any change in one or more
of these parameters would change the current rating of
the conductors. This table was provided for a comparison
of copper cenductor size to aluminum conductor size. This
comparison yields the rule of thumb, that an aluminum
conductor be about two AWG sizes larger than copper for
equal conductivity.
The prior discussion of copper versus aluminum
involved the use of wire sizes. In the United States, the
American Wire Gage (AWG) is used for classifying wire size.
The American Wire Gage, also known as the Brown & Sharpe
Gage, was devised in 1857 by J.R. Brown< 4 >. This term is
usually abbrev±ated AWG. These gage numbers follow a
mathematical law upon which this page was founded.
The gage is formed by the specification of two
diameters and the law that a given number of intermediate
diameters are formed by geometrical progression{ 4 ). Each
gage size larger represents an increase of 20% in area and
roughly a 10% increase in diameter. The diameter of
No. 0000 is 0.460 in. and No. 36 is 0.0050 in. There are
38 sizes between these two. The ratio of any diameter to
the diameter of the next greater size is 1.123. Thus the
ratio of one size wire to the Nth larger size is 1.123n
times the diameter of the known smaller size.
 9

The wire sizes beyond No. 0000 are expressed in cir-

cular mil area. The definition of circular mil is: A

unit of area equal to the area of a circle one thousandth

of an inch in diameter( 4 ). The 4/0 size of wire possesses
a cross-sect~onal area of 211,600 circular mils. Therefore
the next wire size is 250,000 circular mils and is
abbreviated 250MCM. The wire sizes then proceed with
250MCM all the way to 2500MCM in conventional steps.
With the wire sizes properly defined the next con-
sideration is that of conductor stranding.
There are various types of strandings such as con-
centric rope, bunch, compact, segmental, annular and com-
binations of each. The most often used stranding is con-
centric.
The reason for stranding is to increase flexibility.
The concentric stranded c0nductor consists of a geometric
arrangement laying six wires around one, then twelve wires
around six, followed by eighteen and etc. The diameter
over the Nth layer in inches (where d = diameter . of each
wire in inches), is (1 + 2n)d.
Bunched stranding consists of twisting a group of
wires of any given number together, all at once, in a
bunching machine.
Rope stranding consists of twisted groups of
stranded conductors. Each group may be bunched or con-

centrically stranded.
 10

Concentric, bunched and rope stranding are the three

basic types.

Most conventional power and control cables employ a

class B or class C stranding.
Class B stranding is a designation by the American
Society for Testing and Metals (ASTM). As the letter
designation progresses, the stranding becomes finer. Class
B stranding is the simplest form of concentric stranding
used. Class C is a finer concentric stranding than Class
B.
When copper wires are twisted together, as in a
concentric stranding process, a circle drawn through the
centers of the wires of a layer is known as the pitch
circle and its diameter as the pitch diameter for the
layer(G). The length of lay of the wires in a stranded

conductor is usually expressed as a multiple of the pitch

diameter. The shorter the length of lay, the tighter and
more flexible the conductor, but the ohmic resistance
increases due to the greater length of wire used in the

stranding process.
The lay of a strand is the lateral direction in which
the individual wires run over the top of a cable as they
recede from the eye. Right-hand lay recedes in a clockwise
rotation and the left-hand lay is just the opposite.
Many cables are now being designed using a concentric
stranding but compacting the strands. This provides the
 11

same circular mil area with a smaller overall diameter

and thus reduced materials cost. Table IV shows the
comparison of diameters of a Class B concentric stranded
regular round, compact, and solid conductors.

Table IV. Conductor Diameters

Size (AWG) 'Ee:~ru:l·ar ComE act Solid

.292 .266

.332 .299

.373 .336
.528 .475

The compacting of conductors can be done to bunch

and shape conductors, as well as the concentric stranded
conductor •.
Shaped conductors are usually used in cables rated
at 5 KV and above where shaping results in reducing cable
dimensions, weight, and cost.
The segmental conductor arrangement is single con-
ductors composed of either three or four segments which
are electrically separated. Each strand of the individual
sections is transposed between the inner and outer
positions in order to maintain its concentric lay in its
respective segment. This construction reduces the skin
effect ratio, and is used mainly where high current carrying
capacity must be combined with a small diameter.
 12

The ohmic resistance of a solid straight conductor

is directly proportional to its length (L) but varies
inversely as the sectional area (A) (G).

Resistance = p ~ ohms
A

The DC ohmic resistance for a copper annealed conductor is

given by:
R = 0.008144
copper area (in 2 ) ohms/1000 ft. at 20°c

It should be merit~oned that the heating effect produced by

load current increases the resistance value above the
standard at 20°C.

Alternating currents in a conductor create induced

effects and cause eddy-current losses which result in an
increased heating of the conductor. "Skin Effect" is the
tendancy for the current to travel near the circumference
of a conductor instead of spreading itself uniformly over
the total cross-section, thereby increasing the conductor
resistance(G). When other conductors are present in the
immediate vicinity, a further increase in the conductor
resistance is experienced from the uneven current dis-
tribution caused by the other current carrying conductors.
This is called the "Proximity Effect" and usually is quite
small. This effect increases with conductor diameter and
is at a maximum when the insulated conductors are in con-
tact. Therefore, the correction in resistance for this
effect is usually only necessary for cables of cross-
 13

sectional area above 0.40 in 2 .

Conductor resistance and reactance are discussed in
another section of this paper.
Quite often the strands of a copper conductor are
coated to decrease the oxidation of the conductor. This
oxidation and other corrosive actions are accelerated by
the presence of heat and moisture. With sulfur cured
insulations used years ago the conductor was coated to
prevent interaction between i t and the insulating material.
The most often used coating for power cable conductors is
tin or lead while nidkel and silver is used only in
specific constructionsr such as high temperature wires.
The thickness of the coating does not appreciably affect
the conductor diameter and adds about a 4% increase in
the resistance on sizes 24 and larger.
Power cables with a voluage · rating above 2 KV usually
have a semiconducting material placed between the conductor
and the insulation. This semiconducting material is
usually abbreviated and referred to as "semicon". This
semiconducting material is placed at the interface to
control or eliminate voltage stresses on voids which could
exist between the conductor and insulation. This semi-
conducting material is made by adding carbon black to
regular insulating compound, thus giving the conducting
property. It may be in the form of a helically applied

tape or an extruded covering.

 14

It has been realized that satisfactory performance

of a high voltage extruded type cable depends greatly on
both the semiconducting conductor and insulation shields.
In order to avoid corona discharges between these shields
and the insulation, both shields must be in intimate contact
with the insulation. Extruded strand and insulation
shields are super~or to tape shields in that they provide
practically void-free contact with the insulation.

C. Insulating and Jacketing Materials

Many materials can be used both as insulations and
jackets, ~epending on, voltage rating, temperature rating,
chemical and physical requirements, etc. Therefore this
section will deal with all types of materials and indicate
the various applications each has along with their
attributes and limitations.
Over the last fifty years, the materials available for
use as insulation and jackets for wire and cable con-
structions have vastly increased. This section will
present the characteristics of only the most prominent types

of those materials.
There are two fundamental types of insulations and
jackets under which there are many various specific types.
The first fundamental type is thermoplastic materials and
the second is thermosetting materials.
'iThermoplastic" is the term applied to those materials
which soften and enter the plastic state with the application
of heat. "Thermosetting" is the term applied to those
 15

materials which require a curing process to create the

molecular bonds. This curing process is commonly referred
to as "Vulcanization" of the material. Primarily,
vulcanizing allows a material to maintain its dielectric
properties and structural stability at higher temperatures
and thus allows the ent~re cable system to carry higher
currents without deformation of the insulation.
It must be ·remembered that the basic polymer, in both
thermoplastic and thermosetting materials, is extensively
compounded to impart specific properties pertinent to the
cable application. The additives to the elastomer may
include one or more of the following: fillers, plasti-
cizers, vulcanizing agents, extrusion aids, accelerators,
antioxidants, and antiozonants, just to mention a few.
Thus the finished compounds may contain as little as
20% of the actual elastomer to perhaps as much as 90%
elastomer, depending on cost and desired properties.
It is obvious that an infinite number of combinations
of compounds exist which display different electrical,
mechanical, and chemical properties. Since this article
is not intended to be a treatise on compounding of
elastomers, it will be confined to only the most prominent

types of those materials.

The first group to be discussed are thermoplastic

materials.
 16

1. Thermoplastic Materials
a. Polyvinylchloride
This material is most often referred to as
"PVC". There are many variations of PVC com-
pounds with the operating temperature rating
ranging from 60°C to 105°C maximum. Only just
in the last year have additives been developed
to create a new PVC rated at 125°C operating
temperature. Historically PVC has been used
as an insulation, only on low voltage cables.
Its most common application has been as a
jacketing material.
PVC has very good mechanical characteristics
and is fairly resistant to oils, paraffinic
hydrocarbons, and mineral acids. PVC does
experience swelling in ketones, chlorinated
hydrocarbons and ~~ters. PVC can be made to
be "flame retardant" but in general has poor
~tability in the presence of heat and flame.
The dielectric properties of PVC vary with the
different types of compounds but as mentioned
before are not considered for primary insul-
ations requiring a low loss dielectric material.
b. Low-Density Polyethylene
Low-density polyethylene generally has a
0
maximum operating temperature of 75 c. It is
flammable but can be compounded so as to be
 17

"flame retardant .. at the sacrifice of some

physical and electrical properties(l 2 ). The
mechanical properties of this material are
poor and usually a nylon or other jacketing
material is used as an outer covering to
improve its abrasion and cut-through resistance.
The electrical properties of low-density
polyethylene are outstanding as it is a low
loss material. Low-density polyethylene is the
type of high molecular weight polyethylene
most often used for insulating conductors
when polyethylene is the desired material.
c. High-Density Polyethylene
High-density polyethylene possesses much
better mechanical properties with better
abrasion and cut-through resistance, than its
low-density counterpart. Their chemical
and electrical properties are similar. Both
are outstanding in the presence of oils,
paraffinic hydrocarbons, acids, alcohols,
ketones, fixed alkalies, and esters. Only in
a halogenated hydrocarbon environment do they
have lesser resistance. High-density polyethylene
is a little more stable in the presence of heat
and can have a maximum operating temperature
of 90°c. High-density polyethylene is the
high molecular weight polyethylene most often
 18

used for jacketing when polyethylene is the

desired material. In isolated cases high-den-
sity polyethylene is used as insulating material,
as in the case of telephone cable insulation.
d. Polypropylene
The chemical and electrical properties of
polypropylene are similar to those of the
polyethylenes. Its melting point is higher than
either of the polyethylenes and generally is
rated at 90°C. The main difference between
polypropylene is that it is harder and stiffer
than high-density polyethylene and for that
reason its abrasion and cut-through resistance
is superior. Its pr&mary use is as a jacket
material, or as an insulation for the ground
check conductor for mining cable, where
mechanical strength is a necessity. Like the
polyethylenes it is flammable but can be made
"flame retardant".
e. Nylon
Where polyethylenes, and polypropylene
were of the "polyolefin" family, nylon is from
the polyamide resins. Nylon generally is rated
at 90°C for continuous service. It is most
often used as a jacketing material due to its
excellent mechanical characteristics. It is
widely used as a protective jacket over
polyvinylchloride insulations in control cable
 19

constructions. Nylon is just as flammable as

the polyethylenes, when applied in the thin wall
jackets as is most often done, even though
characteristically nylon is slower burning than
most plastics.

2. Thermosetting Materials
The second group of insulation and jacketing
materials to consider are the thermosetting elastomers.
Thermosetting means that the material cannot be re-
formed or melted. As stated in the preface of this
section, these materials are subjected to a heating
cycle which causes them to "vulcanize" into their
final state.

a. Natural Rubber
The physical and electrical properties of
natural rubber are excellent. Natural rubber
has a maximum operating temperature of 75°C,
and exhibits good resistance to water but does
not have good resistance to liquid fuels and

oils. Its heat aging, resistance to oxidation

and ozone resistance is poor when compared to
those qualities in the synthetic elastomers.
Natural rubber has been used as an insulation
for power cables, portable cords, control cable
and some types of building wire. The use of
 20

natural rubber as an insulation material has

become almost obsolete due to the outstanding
synthetic insulations developed in recent years.
Table V further outlines the properties of this
material and offers a good comparison in relation
to the other thermosetting insulating materials.
b. Styrene-Butadine Rubber
The most common ratio is approximately 75/25
butadine/styrene, with a normal maximum operating
temperature rating of 75°C. Compounds can be
prepared to allow a maximum operating temperature
of 90°C~ The electrical properties of SBR are
better than those of natural rubber, but is
somewhat inferior in mechanical properties. SBR
is used for the same applications as natural
rubber and is further outlined in Table v.
c. Chloroprene Rubber
The elastomers of this variety are most
commonly known by DuPont's name of "neoprene".
The electrical properties of neoprene are poorer
than natural rubber, SBR, and butyl rubber.
The real strong point of neoprene is its oil
resistance, flame resistance, ozone resistance,
weathering properties, and outstanding mechanical
toughness. For these reasons, neoprene is seldom
used as an insulation and most often used as a
jacketing materiaL. Neoprene can be formulated
 Table V. Typical Properties of Elastomeric Compositions

Base Silicone Fluoro-

Polymer Natural SBR Neoprene Butyl Silicone Fluor'ated !!l£alon EPR carbon
-
Specific
Gravity 1.3-1.7 1.15- 1.40- 1.15- 1.10- 1.40- 1.35- 1.25- 1.90-
1.55 1.65 1.50 1.55 1.80 1.70 1.45 2.00

Ult1mate
Tensile 1500- 800- 1200- 500- 500- 500- 1200- 1000- 1000-
Strength,
psi 4000 2500 2700 1500 1500 1500 2200 2500 2000

Ultimate
Elonga-
tion, % 300- 350- 300- 300- 100- 100- 300- 350- 200-
700 650 700 800 600 250 600 600 400

Rated Max
Use Temp,
oc 75 90 90 90 200 200 90 90 200

Rated Min
Use Temp,
oc -55 -55 -55 -55 -100 -55 -55 -55 -30

Volume Re-
sistivity
ohm-em 1013_ 1012_ 1011_ 1013_ 1013_ 1012_ 1012_ 10 1 ~- 1012_

1015 1015 1013 1016 1016 1014 1014 1016 1014 tv

t-'
Table V. (Continued)

Base Silicone Fluoro-

Polymer Natural SBR Neoprene Butyl Silicone Fluor'ated Hypalon EPR carbon
--
Dielec-
tric Con-
stant,
1kHz 3.3-5 3.5-5 5-7 3.2-5 2.9-3.5 6-7.5 9-11 3.2-5 7-9

DJ.SSJ.-
pat ion
Factor
1kHz 0.01- .006- 0.02- .008- .002- 0.03- 0.05- .007- 0.02-
.035 .035 0.05 .035 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.035 0.05

ResJ.stance to:

Water Ab-
sorption great great good great good good good good good

Oil & Gas-

aline poor poor good poor poor good good poor great

Chlori-
nated
Hydro-
carbon poor poor poor poor poor good poor poor great

Weather-
ing poor poor good great great great great great great
1:\.)
1:\.)
Table v. (Continued)
Base Silicone Fluoro-
Polymer Natural SBR Neoprene Butyl Silicone Fluor'ated !!Y£alon EPR carbon
--
Ozone poor fair good · great great great great great great
Flame poor poor good poor fair fair good poor good
Radiation fair fair poor poor good good fair fair fair

tv
w
 24

to permit a maximum operating temperature of

90°C. Further data on neoprene is presented in
Table V.
d. Butyl Rubber
Butyl elastomers are copolymers of iso-
butylene and small amounts of isoprene< 12 ).
Some compounds have excellent electrical pro-
perties and have been used as insulating
material on high voltage cable rated as high
as 35 KV. The mechanical properties of butyl
are no.t as good as neoprene or natural rubber
and ther~fore butyl has limited use as a
jacketing material and .i s most often used as
an insulating material with a maximum operating
0
temperature of 90 C. Further descriptive infer-
mation is given in Table v.
e. Silicone Rubber
The silicone elastomers have the widest
thermal operating temperature range of the elas-
tomers, ranging from -100°C to 200°C. Fluo~inated
silicone differs from the standard silicone in
that it is more oil resistant. All silicones
are flammable but contain the unique property
that a nonconductive ash remains after burning,
thereby inhibiting further propagation of flame
travel. The practice of using silicone as an
insulatin~ material covered by .a glass or
 25

asbestos braid, provides a good insulator for

high ambient temperature locations.
While the electrical properties of the sili-
cones are very good, their mechanical properties
are not exceptional. The abrasion and cut-
through resistance of silicone is inferior to many
of the other elastomers. Silicones are used
primarily as insulating materials and can be
used as high voltage insulation when temperature
requirements rule out the use of other insulations.
Both standard silicone and fluorinated silicone
are further described in Table V.
f. Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene
These elastomers are more commonly known by
DuPont~s trade name of "Hypal.on". These compounds
are character~zed by their excellent resistance
to ozone, common oils, liquid fuels, weathering,
flame and corona.
Hypalon has good physical characteristics and
in appearance resembles neoprene. Hypalong has
adequate electrical properties to allow it to be
used as low voltage insulation but is most
commonly used as a jacketing material. Hypalon
can be colored more readily than neoprene and
therefore is used in place of neoprene when
coloring is required. Further properties of
Hypalon are outlined in Table v.
 26

g. Ethylene Propylene Rubber

These elastomers are copolymers of ethylene
and propylene or more recently, terpolymers of
ethylene, propylene, and a diene. The latter
offers vulcanization with more conventional
.
cur1ng systems (12) • Compoun d s made from these
elastomers offer outstanding electrical pro-
perties and have a maximum operating temperature
rating of 90°C. The mechanical properties of
EPR are good but due to its outstanding electrical
properties it is most often used an an insulating
material. High voltage power cables can be
insulated with EPR up to and including 69 KV.
Further descriptive properties of EPR are
outlined in Table v~

ASTM refers to ethylene propylene as the

M family where both EPM, a copolymer, and EPDM,
a diene-monomer are used as an insulating material.
h. Cross-Linked Polyolefins
"Cross-linked" describes the process of
tieing together individual polymer molecules
into a network structure. This cross-linking
process can be effected by two means: (1) by
irradiation and (2) chemical means.
In 1954 General Electric offered an irrathene-
irradiated polyethylene developed by the electron
irradiation of special polyethylene films. The
 27

source of this radiation was a modified resonant-

transformer electron-beam generator. This pro-
cess was very costly even in view of the advan-
tages of cross-linking. This cross-linked
polyethylene insulating material is commonly
referred to as "XLP".
It was not until the advent of peroxide
cross-linking techniques that the XLP, as we
know it today, became a major source for low,
medium, and high voltage insulation.
The electrical properties of the cross-
linked polyolefins are greatly improved along
with increased flow resistance at elevated tern-
peratures. Maximum operating temperatures of
. 0
XLP insulations are normally 90 c. In general
only the polyethylene resins have been success-
fully cross-linked commercially.
XLP is most commonly used as an insulating
material but can serve as both insulation and
jacketing in low and medium voltage applications.
XLP has been used as high voltage insulation

up to 69 KV.
One criticism of XLP has been its susceptibility

to "treeing". "Treeing" is the term used to

describe the minute branching which develops
within the insulation, where it is under electrical
stress and a combination of voids, contaminants,
 28

or moisture exist in the insulation. The

branches extend generally in the direction of
the conductor and shield. If the treeing con-
tinues it is only a matter of time before elec-
trical breakdown of the dielectric occurs.
Except in the cases where paper insulation is
still necessary, EPR and XLP are the two primary
high voltage insulations.

3. Films
Film can be defined as sheeting less than 10
mils in thickness(l 2 ). The application of films is
usually in the form of a tape wrapping followed by
an operation to hold the wrap in place. Heat sealing
is the mest often used .form of sealing the films.
Cellulostics, polyesters, fluorocarbons and
polymide are the most commonly used films.
The use of films permits the incorporation of the
film properties with that of the primary insulation
thereby reducing the insulation wall thickness. Most
films possess a specific mechanical or electrical
property that is desired in the construction of a
cable for specific applications.

4. Fibers
The primary use of fibers in the wire and cable
indu~try is in the form of reinforcements, filters,
 29

and protective coverings providing improved overall

mechanical characteristics.
Cotton, rayon, nylon, polyester, glass, asbestos
and fiber combinations are the most often used fibers
in the wire and cable industry. Fibers, like films,
provide a specific electrical or mechanical property
to the final product that is desirable in its appli-
cation.

5. Paper Insulation
In the early 1900's almost all high voltage cable
was insulated by impregnated paper. Although in some
applications paper insulated cables are still used,
this type of insulation has been replaced through the
years by the rubber, butyl, and more recently EPR
and XLP compounds.
Paper when dried at high temperature easily soaks
up impregnating materials. It is the impregnating
material, containing organic mineral oils, resin and
grease, that gives the paper insulation its superior
dielectric strength. This impregnation material must
possess a high electric strength, it must be as dry
as possible, and flow easily, especially at low

temperatures.
In making paper cable the paper is cut into narrow
strips and wound spirally around the conductor. It is
important that the layers not be compacted so as to
keep the cable flexible and allow room for the
 30

impregnating material.
Since moisture and mechanical damage are two
problem areas for paper insulation, lead sheaths
are the most common type of sheaths applied over
paper insulation. It is important to note that even
a small amount of moisture present in a paper
impregnated insulation can decrease its dielectric
strength significantly. Therefore in underground
paper cables the lead sheath provides outstanding
protection for the insulation. Many people are of
the opinion that if the lead sheath is not penetrated
through to the insulation, · either by mechanical or
chemical damage, and the cable is not electrically
overloaded, the cable has an almost infinite life
span.

6. Varnish Cambric {VC)

Varnish Cambric {VC) insulation is a cloth
which consists of a closely woven cotton sheeting
both sides of which have been coated with an asphalt
base and a linseed oil varnish. It is the varnish
film that acts as the dielectric. This insulation
is helically applied in tape form.
Varnish cambric insulated cables were introduced
in the early 1900's shortly after the high voltage
paper insulated cables. Varnish cambric is not
affected by moisture or oil migration, where a
difference in elevation is involved, as much as
paper insulation and originally was used at higher
 31

voltages than paper and in vertical riser instal-

lations. In the early years of rubber dielectrics,
varnish cambric was rated at 85°C as compared to
0 0
60 C or 70 C for rubber and thus allowed for greater
ampacity ratings.
Due to its high power factor and greater dielectric
loss, varnish cambric insulation is not recommended
for voltages above 15 KV. With the development of
many solid dielectrics VC insulation is seldom used
except for some industrial and commercial power
cables having a lead or inter-locked armor sheath.

D. Shielding
Semiconducting strand shielding has already been dis-
cussed. This section deals with insulation shielding.
Shielding of an electric power cable is the practice of
confining the electric field to the insulation of the
conductor or conductors(?). The combination of strand
semiconduct~ng material, insulation semiconducting material,
and a metallic shield make this confinement possible.
The insulation semiconducting material is constructed
similar to that of the strand semiconducting material as
described in Section I-B and is applied over the insulation.
It is referred to as the insulation "semicon". Like the
strand screen, the insulation semicon layer is made by
adding carbon black to regular insulating compound. The
insulation semiconducting shield is applied to eliminate
air spaces between the ~nsulation and the metallic shield
 32

and to maintain the surface at an equipotential voltage.

Voids at this interface, under voltage stress, can result
in "corona" as described later.
The insulation semiconducting material may be applied
in the form of semiconducting tape or an extruded layer.
Only in the voltages above 35 KV does it become important
to consider using an extruded insulation semicon.
There are many reasons for employing an insulation
shield system. Some of these are:

a) Safety
b) Distribute symmetrical voltage stress
within the dielectric
c) Protect the cable from induced potentials
d) Reduce radio interference
e) Provide a positive path for short circuit
current to follow to ground

By using an insulation shield and grounding it, the

electric field is indeed confined to the dielectric. Where
there is no metallic shielding or covering over the insul-
ation, the electric fLeld is between the conductor and the

nearest ground point. Thus the possibility of shock be-

comes greater. It is also possible and likely that a

non-shielded power cable will generate a surface discharge

and convert the air into ozone which may be destructive to
the cable jacket and insulation. This ionization of the
 33

air is commonly referred to as "corona". It is for these

two reasons that IPCEA recommends that non-metallic covered
power cables operating above 2000 volts for single con-
ductor cables, and 5000 volts for assembled conductors with
a common overall jacket, have a metallic shield. Above
5 KV all power conductors must be sh~elded. Using an insul-
ation semiconducting shield, a strand semiconducting shield
and a metallic insulation shield, the voltage stress is
distributed symmetrically within the dielectric. This
eliminates excess voltage stress in a particular portion
of the dielectric and enhances the life of the insulation.
For certain applications i t is desirable to shield
against all possible induced potentials and it is a fact
that shielded cables are effected less than non-shielded
cables in the presence of an external magnetic field. In
power cables but more importantly in control cables,
shielding helps · prevent voltage pick-up by the conductor
when transient currents tend to induce voltage into a cir-
cuit by virtue of surges on the adjacent power transmission
lines. Another source of interference on control cables
comes from the sparking and arcing of switch or relay con-
tacts in the power transmission circuits. These low-level
signal cables can usually be sufficiently protected by

shielding.
Finally a common use of shielding is to provide a
positive path for current to follow to ground if a fault
occurs in ·the cable insulation. Under this fault condition,
 34

the short circuit capacity of the shield must be adequate

to conduct the fault current prior to protective interrupt,
without damage to the peripheral equipment. There are many
types of insulation shields and various ways to apply them.
Some o£ the more popular types of shielding are:

a) Non-magnetic uapes-usually copper

b) Concentric wires-usually copper
c) Lead sheaths and other metallic non-magnetic
outer coverings
d) Corrugated non-magnetic sheaths
e) Non-magnetic braids

The most often used shield in a power cable is a

copper tape helically wrapped around the core. The thick-
ness and number of tapes is determined by the fault current
magnitude and duration. Usually· these copper tapes range
from .003" to .005" thick. Where unusually high fault
currents may exist, a combination of copper tape and con-
centric wires can provide the cross-sectional area of

copper required.
Concentric wires are used in shielding as mentioned
before, but more often are found in the underground resi-
dential distribution (URD) cables. In the URD cables
the concentric wires provide a shield as well as act as a
conductor and in the case of a single phase operation, must

have the same arnpacity as the insulated conductor.

 35

Lead sheaths and other metallic non-magnetic outer

coverings usually provide a good shielding system if the
ampacity rating of the sheath is sufficient to carry
predicted fault currents.
Corrugated non-magnetic shields usually have been
confined to control and telephone cable constructions. The
corrugated shield is usually longitudinally applied and has
greater flexibility, greater resistance to crushing, less
possibility of gouging into the insulation, and improved
electrical conductive properties when compared to the
traditional helically wrapped tape shields. It is for these
reasons that much support is being gained for corrugated
longitudinally applied shields in other areas such as power
cable shields.
Finally, a most popular type o£ shielding is that of a
woven braid. This braid which can be copper, or a copper-
nylon combination consists of many ends of fine wire to give
85% to 96% surface coverage. Probably the greatest attribute
of a shielding braid is that it is the most flexible type
of shield available. A braid is used almost exclusively
in the construction of portable shielded mining cables.
The material used in insulation shields is most often

copper. Aluminum is another metal used as in an aluminum/

mylar tape. Bronze is another type of metal used along

with some bimetallic constructions; but where conductivity
is important, the copper insulation shield is the one used.
 36

E. Jackets and outer Sheaths

Contained in the section on insulation was references
to the types of materials most often used in outer jacket-
ing of cables. Other than the plastic and thermosetting
materials used in the jacketing of cables, there is a
category containing metallic sheaths.
Probably the oldest type of sheath known is the lead
sheath. A~most all power cables in the early 1900's were
insulated with paper and sheathed in lead. Lead provides
an outstanding jacket for a cable with almost the ultimate
in protection for the cable core. The disadvantages of lead
are: expense, flexibility, and splicing and termination
time required.
Another metallic jacket gaining popularity is the
inter-locked armor sheath. The inter-locked armor is a
helically wrappeo Lnter-locking armor applied over the cable
core. The armor material is usually steel, aluminum, or

copper.
Another type of sheath is the continuously corrugated
metallic sheath. The advantage of this construction is that
it provides a completely impervious sheath like the lead and
unlike the -inter-locked armor construction. The materials
used in these sheaths is also copper, aluminum, or steel.
Almost all of these metallic sheaths can have a PVC
or polyethylene jacket applied over their exterior, for
added corrosion resistance and ease of pulling.
 37

II. TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

A. A-C/D-C Resistance

The formula for the ohmic resistance of a solid con-

ductor was given in Section I-B. Conductor D-C resistance
values are usually listed in ohms per 1000 feet at 20°c.
Due to the "Skin Effects" and "Proximity Effects" created
by alternating currents, it is necessary to have an A-C/D-C
resistance ratio for converting known D-C values into A-C
values. Table VI shows this relationship.
Table VI, assumes standard concentric stranding in
all stranded conductors. Values in columns A & B include
skin effect only, whereas values in columns C & D include
skin effect, proximity effect and all other A-C inductive
losses. A-C/D-C resistance ratios for frequencies other
than 60 hz can be derived from using a combination of for-
mulas and graphs. These formulas and graphs will not be
shown in this article but can be found in electrical engi-

neers handbooks.

B. Inductance

There are two types of inductance associated with a

conductor carrying an alternating current. The inductance
within the conductor is termed the series or internal
inductance and designated by (Li). The inductance in the
space between one or more conductors is termed external
 38

Table VI. A-C/D-C Resistance Ratios for Insulated

Aluminum and CoEEer Conductors
at 50 Cycles and 65°c

Conductor Size A B c c
(AWG or MCM) Aluminum CopEer Aluminum CoEper
up to 3 1.000 1.000 1.00 1.00

2 1.000 1.000 1.00 1. 01

1 1.000 1.000 1.00 1.01

1/0 1.000 1.000 1.00 1.02

2/0 1.001 1.000 1.00 1.03

3/0 1.001 1.000 1.01 1.04

4/0 1.001 1.000 1.01 1.05

250 1.002 1.005 1.02 1.06

300 1.003 1.006 1.02 1.07

350 1.004 1.009 1.03 1.08

400 1.005 1.011 1.04 1.10

500 1 .• 007 1.018 1.06 1.13

600 1.010 1.025 1.08 1.16

700 1.013 1.034 1.11 1.19

750 1.015 1.039 1.12 1.21

800 1.017 1.044 1.14 1.22

1000 1.026 1.067 1.19 1.30

1250 1.040 1.102 1.27 1.41

1500 1.058 1.142 1.36 1.53

1750 1.079 1.185 1.46 1.67

2000 1.100 1.233 1.56 1.82

 39

Table VI. (Continued)

Use Columns A & B for the following:

1. Single or multi-conductor non-metallic sheathed
cables in air or in non-metallic conduit.
2. Single conductor non-magnetic metallic-sheathed
cables installed with sheaths insulated in air
or in separate non-metallic conduits.

Use Columns C. & D for the following:

1. Multi-conductor non-magnetic metallic-sheathed

cables.
2. Multi-conductor non-metallic sheathed cables
in non-magnetic metal conduit.
3. Two or more single conductor non-metallic
sheathed cables in same non-magnetic metallic

conduit.
 40

inductance (Le). The total inductance (L) is the sum

total of these two values.

L = L e + L.1

Le is a funct~on
of the geometry of the circuit and
given by the equation: <25 )

L
e = .1404 [log(b/a)] x 10 -3 henries to neutral/MFT
b = spacing between centers of conductors (in.)
a =radius of conductors (in.)

L.1 is a function of the diameter of the conductor and

the operating frequency. Conductors under 1.5'' in diameter,
which incorporates almost all of them, can use the constant
value of .015 x 10- 3 henries to neutral/MFT., L ..
1

The inductance of multi-conductor cable depends

principally on the thickness of the insulation in as much
as they are normally in a concentric configuration which
places each conductor in contact with an adjacent conductor.
Mutual inductance is discussed in Section II-L,
concerning shield and sheath losses.
The inductance of two-conductor concentric or coaxial
cables consists of three inductance values and is the sum
total of the three.

L = Le + L ~
1
+ Lo
 41

Le and L 1, are as described previously, but Lo is the

value of internal inductance of the outer conductor. This
value of L is usually negligible for all non-magnetic
0

materials and may be ignored. Only when magnetic conductors

are used or extreme accuracy is needed must one consider
the value L as being significant enough to include in
0

the total inductance calculation.

c. Capacitance

The electrostatic capacitance of an insulated con-

ductor is given by: {2 S)

C = .00736 (SIC) in farads/MFT

l0g (D/d)

where SIC = dielectric constant (specific

inductive capacity) of insulating
material
D = Outside diameter of the insulation (in)
d =Diameter of conductor (in.)

The SIC of an insulating material is the ratio of the

capacitance of a capacitor insulated with that material,
to the capacitance of the same capacitor insulated with a

vacuum< 25 ). The capacitance of a multi-conductor cable

can be approximated in terms of c 1 and c 2 where;

c 1 = Capacitance of one conductor relative

to the other
c 2 = Capacitance between all conductors and
overall sheath
 42

Mutual capacitance is usually associated with twisted

pairs as used in communication and instrumentation cables.
This value is usually between 30 and 50 percent of the values
of one conductors cap~citance to ground and can be
approximated by:

. 00221 (SIC) uf/MFT

=
log (D/d)
D = P.d. of cable (in.)
d = o.d. of conductor (in ~ )

The capacitance of a coaxial cable is defined by its

relationship between the i~ner and outer conductors.

.00736 (SIC)
cm = log 0/d uf/MFT

where: D = I.D. of outer conductor

d = O.D. of inner conductor

Table VII lists some typical values of SIC.

Table VII. Typical Values of SIC

Material SIC
PVC • . • . . . • . • . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . 0-- 8 . 0

Oil Base, Butyl and EPM ...•...•...•..... 3.5

Polyethylene .••..•.•.••••. · •.......•.• · • 2. 3

D. Reactance

Reactance is the sum of inductive reactance and

capacitive reactance, and is usually given in ohms/MFT.
 43

X = 1
wL ·- we

Where L and C are the inductance and capacitance as

described in the previous two sections.
The inductance reactance is given by the formula
below:

x 1 = 2Tif [.1404 log (s/r) + .0153] x 10- 3

where xl = Reactance ---ohms/MFT

r = Radius of conductor (in.)
f = Frequency {hz)
s = Spacing between the centers {in.)
where s = 3/AxBxC

The above re&ctance is the inductive reactance of a

conductor and pertinent when calculating the voltage drop
of a feeder. In this calculation the capacitive reactance
is negligible. The only effect that the capacitance of an
insulated conductor has is on the charging current. The
subject of charging current is discussed in a later section.
It must also be stated at this point that the above
reactance is for a single insulated conductor. There are
correction factors for single conductors in conduit. Non-
magnetic conduit increases the reactance 20% for single
conductor random lay cables. Magnetic conduit increases
the reactance 50% for random lay cables. There are slight
correction factors for multi-conductor cables as listed in
Table VIII. There is no increase in reactance for multi-
conductor cables installed in non-magnetic conduits but
 44

when they are installed in magnetic conduits, the cor-

rection factor for round conductors with magnetic binders
must be used, as listed in Table VIII.

Table VIII. Corrections for Multiconductor Cables(l 9 )

Conductor Size Non-Ma~netic Binder Ma~netic Binder

MCM Round Sector Round Sector
u:e to MultiEl~in~ Factor

250 1.000 .975 1.149 1.230

300 1.000 .970 1.145 1.225
350 1.000 .965 1.140 1.220
400 1.000 .960 1.134 1.216
500 1.000 .950 1.122 1.208

600 1.000 .940 1.111 1.199

700 1.000 .930 1.100 1.191

750 1.000 .925 1.095 1.186

E. Voltage Regulation

The formula for voltage drop o£ a feeder is: (l 9 )

where,

=
v Voltage drop in percent
v1 = Voltage across the load

e = ~s the angle by which the load current lags

the voltage across the load
 45

cos e = Power factor of load

R = Total A-C resistance of feeder

X = Total reactance of feeder
I = Total load current

The above formulas apply for single phase lines where

resistance and reactance are loop values and voltage is the
voltage between lines.

For a 3-phase circuit use voltage to neutral and

resistance and reactance of each conductor to neutral. This
will results in the voltage drop to neutral. By multiplying
the voltage drop to neutral by 13, voltage drop line-to-line
may be obtained.

F. D-C !nsulation Resistance

Measuring the D-C insulation resistance, following

installation of a cable, can be a maintenance aid. This
is often done by using a megohmmeter or the voltage-ammeter
method. By doing this after installation, possible
weaknesses may be detected by subsequent measurements, and
their comparison to previous measurements. It is also
helpful in fault location to know the normal insulation
resistance of a cable. The formula for calculating the
D-C resistance of an insulation is:

R = K log {D/d) where,

R = D-C insulation resistance (megohms/mft at 60°F)
K = Insulat~on resistance constant {megohms/mft
at 60°F)
 46

D = Average O.D. of the insulated conductor (mils)

d = Average O.D. of the bare conductor (mils)

Table IX. Typical Values for Insulation Resistance Constant

Polyethylene ...•.••..••..................... so,ooo

PVC . • • . . • • • • • • • • • • . • . • . • • • . • • • • • ~ • . • • • • • . . . • • 2 , 000

Rubber • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 000

Butyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000

~]? •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 20' 000

G. Dielectric Loss

Most of the energy which flows into the insulation in

the form of charging current is returned to the system as
the voltage alternates. There is however, a small portion
of energy loss in the dielectric. This dielectric loss is
the heat dissipated in the insulation, that is generated
due to the resistance of the dielectric. In general, at
60 hz/second this can be ignored except at voltages of 69 KV
and above. The formula for calculating the dielectric

power loss is:

PL = I c X PF x E where,
PL = Power Loss (watts)
PF = Power factor of the insulation
I
0
= Charging current in phase with the capacitive

element
 47

E = Impressed voltage

The power factor of the dielectric is determined by the

molecular make-up of the insulating compound. From the
formula for power loss in a dielectric, it is apparent that
a low power factor is the most desirable.

H. Charging Currents

Cable is like any other capacitor, when it is subjected

to an alternating voltage, a charging current is proportional
to the capacitance of the insulation. Because of this, a
low dielectr~c constant (SIC) is the most desirable to lower
the charging current. The charging current I 0 of a single
conductor insulated power cable cari be obtained from the
formula below:

I = 2TIFCE x l0- 13 milliamperes/MFT, where,

0

C = Capacitance--picofarads/ft
E = Voltage to neutral--kilo--volts
F = Frequency

I. Absorption Current

Absorption current is caused by various polarizations

and accumulation of electrical charge which can be released
after the removal of the applied voltage. If insufficient

discharge time is allowed, the effect of the absorption

current would be to build up a possibly dangerous voltage

when the short circuit is removed.

 48

J. Leakage Current

The leakage or conduction current is the third and

most important component comprising the tot.a l current flow
in a conductor. In a high voltage D-C test the leakage
current can be determined by r
1
= E/R, where,

E = Voltage
R = Insulation Reststance
r1 = Leakage current

With the application of a D-C voltage, the charging

current and absorption current decrease almost to zero
within a short time interval. In high voltage D-C testing
the leakage current is observed closely, hoping for it to
reach a constant value after a short time interval. Con-
stantly increasing leakage current with respect to time
with a constant voltage applied usually indicates faulty
insulation, splice or terminations. This will be discussed
in a later section concerning high voltage testing.

K. Total Current

The total current flow caused by the application of a

voltage across an insulation material is made up of three

components: (1) charging current, (2) absorption current,
and (3) leakage current. All of these have been discussed

in detail in the previous sections.

 49

L. Shield/Sheath Losses

When a shielded cable is installed, the metallic shield

must be solidly connected to ground. For the most effective
operation and maximum safety, the shield should be grounded
at both ends and at each splice. All grounding connections
should be made in a way so as to provide the lowest resis-
tance path to ground. No matter how well the shield is
attached to ground, metallic shields or sheaths grounded
at more than one point will create current flow in the
shield or sheath due to induced voltage. This current
flow will cause heating in the shield or sheath and thus
reduce the overall current rating of the cable. The value
of circulating current flowing depends on the mutual
inductance of other cables, the currents in these conductors,
and the resistance of the shield or sheath.
The current rating should be corrected by the factor
determined by the following formula:

F ;/Rc ~ R
0
where,

F = Current rating correction factor

Rc = A-C resistance of conductor, including
all skin and proximity effects (ohms/mft
at operating temperature)
R
0
= Increment of increased resistance due
to heating of shield (ohms/mft)
 50

For tape or tubed shields or sheaths, and cables in a

triangular configuration, R0 is calculated as follows:

R
0
ohms/MFT, where,

Xm = .053log S/Rm ohms/MFT

R = ~ X 10- 3 ohms/MFT
s 8~t

p = Resistivity of shield or sheath (ohms/cir-

cular mil ft)
R
m = Mean radius of shield or sheath (in.)
t = Thickness of shield or sheath (in.·)
s = Spacing between conductors

Table X. Typical Values of Shield/Sheath Resistivity

Overlapped tinned copper tape ..••. 30 ohms/cir mil ft

Overlapped monel tape •.•••.•.... 2500 ohms/cir mil ft
Overlapped Ambrac tape •...•.••.•. 350 ohms/cir mil ft
Lead sheath .•....••.•••.•.•...•.• lSO ohms/cir mil ft
Aluminum sheath •..•.•.•.•.•..••... 20 ohms/cir mil ft
Aluminum Interlocked Armor .•.•.... 28 ohms/cir mil ft
Galvanized Steel Armor Wire ...... l02 ohms/cir mil ft
 51

Where shield or sheath losses become prohibitive,

it is possible to ground the sheath or shield at one point
only, thus cutting down on circulating currents. There
then becomes a new problem which is the voltage build-up
in the sheath or sh~eld. This voltage buildwup is due to
the mutual inductance to other cables, the current in the
other cables, and the distance to the ground point. This
voltage build-up can become unsafe and the value of 25 volts
is used as the maximum permissible voltage build-up. With
this value in m~nd the following table lists the maximum
allowable continuous lengths for single copper conductor
cables having their shields or sheaths grounded at one point.

Table XI. Maximum Allowable Continuous Lengths for

Single Copper Conductor Cables Having
Their Shield$ or Sheaths
Grounded at One Point

Size Conductor One Cable Per Duct Three Cables Per

Duct

1/0 1250 9550

2/0 865 3000

350 710 2260

500 580 1870

750 510 1500

1000 450

2000 340
 52

III. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS

A. Ampacity Rating

There are many factors that determine the ampacity

rating of a cable. The voltage, whether it is A-C or D-C,
along with frequency if A-C, and the ~oad factor, are all
circuit factors that should be known to determine ampacity.
The conductor type, size and number in the same cable,
along with the kind of insulation, shielding and jacket
material, also effect the ampacity rating. One should also
know the type of installation he is to place this cable.
Ambient temperature of earth, number of ducts, spacing of
ducts, material of ducts are all important factors when
considering a duct installation.
All these factors mentioned above contribute to the
overall ampacity rating of a specific cable, and should be
known before going to an ampacity table to determine the
rating of a cable and its conductor. Probably the best
recognized source of information for determining the
ampacity rating of a cable is the National Electrical Code
(NEC), Section 310, Tables 310-12 thru 310-15 on Pages
70-113 thru 70-120. These tables cover ampacities for
cables having a voltage rating up to and including 600 volts.
For circuits having a voltage rating above 600 volts, the
best source ·f ior determining the ampacity of a conductor is
the AIEE-IPCEA "Power Cable Ampacities" joint publication
 53

S-135-1 and P-46-426.

Since it is assumed that both of these sources should

be readily available to the reader, the tables mentioned
will not be included in this treatise.
The ampacities listed in the NEC and AIEE-IPCEA tables
are based on the maximum operating temperature. There
are three classifications of conductor temperature. These
are listed below and are a result of a study of the
Insulated Power Cable Engineers Association (IPCEA) and are
recognized throughout the industry.

Maximum Conductor Temperature--Ope~ating---The

highest conductor temperature attained by any

part of the cable line under operating current
load( 3 0).

Maximum Conductor Temperature--Emergency Overload

The highest conductor temperature attained by any
part of the cable line during emergency overload
of specified time, magnitude, and frequency of
application( 3 0).
Maximum Conductor Temperature--Short Circuit
The highest conductor temperature attained by any
part of the cable line during a short circuit of
spec~
. f.~e d t .~e an d magn~
"t u d e (JO) .

The operating temperature of an insulation is a func-

2
tion of the ambient temperature, the r R losses, dielectric
losses, and losses due to induced voltages in the cables
metallic coveri.ng or 1ts metal surroundings ~uch as conduit.
 54

It is imperative to the cable life that the insulation not

be heated above the determined maximum operating temperature

for long periods of time.

It should be noted that even though the "Power Cable

Ampacities" publication by AIEE-IPCEA might not be as
accessible as the NEC, certainly the more reliable sources
of ampacity tables for the above 600 volt cable class are
usually taken from this publication. Also make certain
that all correction factors and notes accompanying these

tables are considered in the final determined value of

ampacity.

B. Conduit Sizing

The NEC in Chapter 10 Table I outlines the following

allowable percent of conduit and tubing fill:

Table XII. Percent Allowable Internal

Area Fill of Conduit or T-ubing

No. of Conductors 1 2 3 4 over 4

All conductors ex-

cept lead covered 53 31 40 40 40

Lead covered 55 30 40 38 35

When these figures are converted to percent of internal

diameter of the conduit or tubing, Table XIII results.

 55

Table XIII. Allowable % Internal Diameter Fill

of Conduit or Tubing

No. of·. Conductors 1 2 3 4 over 4

All conductors ex-
cept lead covered 72.8 39.3 36.5 31.6
Lead covered 74.2 38.7 36.5 30.8

Table XIV outlines the maximum allowable diameter

(in inches) of individual cables of the same size in a
given size conduit.

Table XIV. Maximum Allowable Diameter (in inches) of

Individual Cables of the Same S~ze in a
Given Size of Condu~t

Nominal Size Number of Cables Having the Same O.D. of Conduit

1 2 3 4

1/2 0.453 0.244 0.227 0.197

3/4 0.600 0.324 0.301 0.260

1 0.763 0.421 0.383 0.332

1 1/4 1.010 0.542 0.504 0.436

1 1/2 1.173 0.633 0.588 0.509

2 1.505 0.812 0.754 0.653

2 1/2 1.797 0.970 0.901 0.780

3 2.234 1.206 1.128 0.970

3 1/2 2.234 2.306 1.128 0.970

4 2.930 1.583 1.470 1.273

5 3.675 1.984 1.844 1.595

6 4.416 2.385 2.215 1.916

 56

To determine the size of conduit required for a group

of cables having different outside diameters the following
procedure and formulas can be used.
First determine the equivalent diameter "D" by using
the following formula: (l 9 )

+ •••••••••••••n d 2
m m
D where,

nl = Number of cables having diameters dl

n2 = Number of cables having diameters d2
n m = Number of cables having diameters d m

After determining the value of "D" then use the Table XIV,
to determine the s i ze of conduit required for m amount of
cables.
To determine the size of conduit required for any
number (m) cables in excess of four, multiply the diameter
of one cable by l:ffi74. This will yield the equival ent
diameter for four such cables. Then use the column for
four cables to obtain the correct conduit size required.

C. Pulling Tensions

The definition of pulling tension is that force

required to pull a cable into a duct. Rule-of-thumb is

that the maximum stress on a cable shall not exceed .008

times the circular mil area of the conductor.

 57

The pulling tension in a given duct section having

no bends may be calculated by the following formula.

T = L w f where,
T = Total pulling tension ( lhs.)
L = Length of the duct run in ft.
w = Weight of cable in #/ft.
f = Coefficient of friction = 0.5

Forduct runs having a curved section the following

formula applies:

where,

T2 = Tension for a straight section at pulling end

Tl = Tension for a straight section at feeding end

f = Coefficient of friction = 0.5

e = Naperian logarithim base= 2.718

a =Angle of bend in radians (1 radian= 57.3
degrees)

From this formula it is easy to see that the minimum

tension is obtained if the feeding end of the cable is

nearest to the bend.

Although conduits are generally filled according to
code, Which allows only a maximum of 53% fill, it is still
wise to aid yourself during the pulling process. A soap or
lubricant solution applied to the cable surface will ease
the friction during the pulling process. Always feed the
 58

cable straight into the conduit. When coming into a

junction box where sharp angles are involved, allow a slack
to develop rather than feeding from one duct abruptly into
the other. It is always wise to swab and clean the duct
before beginning the pulling process.

D. Bending Radii

Minimum recommended values of bending radii to which

cables may be bent during installation are given by the
table below. These values are expressed in terms of the
outside diameter of the cable in question.

Table XV. (l 9 ) Non-Metallic Sheathed Non-Shielded Cables

Bending Radii Relationships

Insulation Overall Diameter

Thickness 1.000 & Less 1.001 to 2.000 2.001 & Over

10/64 and less 4 5 6

11/64 to 20/64 5 6 7

21/64 and over 7 8

Power Cables with Metallic Shielding or Armor

Wire shielded, Tape shielded, and Armored

Cables . . . .. .. . . . . . . •••.•.•.•...•...•...•.•... 12 times

Interlocked Armor non-shielded ....•.•......... ? times

Control and Portable Cables

control cables 19/c and larger .•.•.•..•..•.•.• 8 times

Portable cables 0-5 KV • • • • • • • • • • · • • • • · • · · · • · • · 6 times

5 K.V and above • • • • • . • · • · • • • ·. • . 8 times
 59

It must be remembered that these values are minimum

bending radii that must be adhered to during both instal-
lation and the permanent installed state. These values
are not the only criteria that must be followed during
installation. One must be careful not to exceed the
maximum allowable sidewall pressure. Sidewall pressure
is the radial force exerted on the insulation and sheath
of a cable at a bend point when the cable is under tension( 25 >.

The normally accepted value of maximum allowable sidewall

pressure is 300 pounds per foot.

E. Direct Burial

Regardless of the type of sheath being installed, care

should be taken dUring the installation. Keep stones and
sharp objects away from the immediate area of the cable
where possible. Soft fill should be used around the cable
which not only keeps the sheath intact but also improves the
heat dissiaption. Allow .at least 24" between the cable
and the surface of the trench. Try to provide a soft
bedding for the cable to lay on and do not pull the cable
taut as it is laid in the trench; rather, allow it to

slacken. If these few helpful hints are followed, many

problems with direct burial may be avoided.

F. Sag and Tension

The values of sag and tension are important when

considering ~nstallation of an aerial cable. The formula

 60

for determining the amount of sag is:

2
s w
t = ---scr where,

t = Horizontal tension in messenger (lbs)

w = Weight of complete cable including

messenger (lbs/ft)
d = Sag (ft)
s = Span length (ft)

Normally 50% of the messenger breaking strength is

used when calculating for heavy loading and 25% of
breaking strength for a normal loading condition.
While it is recognized that the total tension in the
messeriger is due to both horizontal and vertical components,
the vertical component has been neglected as it is
negligible. Some typical breaking strengths of messengers
are shown in Table XVI along with their weights per foot.

Table XVI. Typical Breaking Strengths of Messengers

Messenger Copperweld Stainless Steel Galvanized

Size WTLFT-Stren9:th WT/FT-Stren~th WT/FT-Strength

5/16" .204 9,196 Lb. .208 11,900 Lb. .205 11,200 Lb.

3/8" .324 13,890 Lb. .278 16,200 Lb. • 273 15,400 Lb .

1/2" .515 20,460 Lb. • 525 27,000 Lb . . 517 26,900 Lb .

9/16" .649 24,650 Lb. .617 35,000 Lb.

 61

With this table, the tension can be determined. The

span length should be known; which then leaves the weight
of the complete cable to be determined before the value of
sag can be calculated.
The ice and wind loading on a cable must be taken into
account when calculating the resultant weight of a cable.
The National Electrical Code divides the country into three
geographic districts and then designates the loading
constants according to district. These values are g i ven
in Table XVII(lg).

Table XVII. (19) NEC Loading Factors

District Heavl Medium Light

Radial Thickness of Ice
(in.) 1/2 1/4 0
Horizontal Wind Pressure
(lbs/ft~) 4 4 9

Temperature (F) 0 15 30

Constant--K (lbs/ft) 0.31 0.22 0.05

The resultant weight is then calculated using the

9
above values and the following formulas(l ).

i =Weight of ice loading (lb/ft), i = 1.24t(D + t)

t =Thickness of ice (in.)
D = Diameter of cable (in~)

h =Force due to wind (lbs/ft), h = P(D + 2t)/12

2
p = Horizontal wind pressure (lbs/ft )

w' =· Weight of unloaded cable

 62

w'' =Vertical weight of loaded cable w 1 1 = w1 + i

1
w' ' = Resultant weight of loaded cable
w'' 'I= (w' + i)2 + h2 + k2

Using the values and formulas on Page 61, most sag

calculations can be determined for aerial cables having a
messenger.

With the modulus of elasticity and the coefficients

of expansion of both the steel and aluminum, ACSR sag and
tension may be calculated using the formulas list on
Page 61.

G. Splicing

When splicing two cables together the principle

objective is to join the conductor ends so that the
connection provides conductivity equivalent to that o£ the
conductors. Splicing o£ cables rated 2000 volts and below
usually involves designing adequate mechanical strength in
the splice. Crimp type connectors are the type most often
used. The process of replacing the insulation with the use
of tape has not changed much through the years. Rubber
and thermoplastic insulating tapes are used on cables
insulated with rubber and thermoplastic respectively. The
amount of build-up is usually one and a half to two times
the normal insulation thickness. A jacketing tape of
neoprene or thermoplastic is usually applied to provide

adequate jacke-t ing and mechanical protection. A rubber

cement can be applied between the insulation and jacketing
 63

materials if adhesion is a problem.

In splices of cables rated above 2000 volts the

connector must have a smooth surface with no abrupt changes
in shape so as to avoid excessive electrical stresses in the
insulat~on applied over it. Hand applied insulation tape
of a type compatible with the cable insulation is wrapped
to a thickness so that the cable and splice will withstand
test, normal, and emergency operating voltages. In the
early years of high voltage cable installations, paper or
varnish cambric insulated lead covered cables were the most
prevalent. This situation has changed considerably in
recent years and also has the splicing materials and
techniques.
Shielded cables are used mostly in the voltage range
above 2 KV, but there are some installationsusing non-
shielded cables. Non-shielded cables with a neoprene or
thermoplastic jacket are spl~ced in much the same manner as
that described for low voltage cables except where a strand
semicon is present, wherein it must be replaced by a

semicon tape.
It is also a good practice to overlap the factory

insulation by about three inches.

Shielded cables are spliced in much the same manner as
low voltage cables except at the point of the shielding and
strand semicon. As mentioned before, the strand semicon
must be replaced by a tape sem±con applied over the cleaned
 64

conductor. After the insulation build-up has been completed,

the insulation semicon must be replaced with a hand applied
tape semicon. A tinned or bare copper mesh braid is usually
used to replace the shield in the area of the splice. The
hand applied braid shield should be soldered at both ends
to the factory shielding. Care must be taken at these
points to provide a smooth transition from the uniform
cable diameter to the increased diameter of the splice joint
to avoid excessive longitudinal stresses in the insulation.
The jacket can be replaced with a neoprene or thermoplastic
tape which should overlap the fac b ory jacket at least one
inch along with a rubber cement applied to provide good

adhesion.
Lead covered cables in general are protected at the
splicing point by a lead sleeve wiped to the cable sheath
and filled with a compound. This sleeve provides a
continuous path for fault current. A compatible insulating
tape is used such as rubber tape on rubber insulation and
varnished cambric tape on varnished-cambric and paper
insulations. It is usually a good practice to wrap the tape
insulation with two layers o£ friction tape to prevent
damage from the heat of the compound when the joint is filled.
The method of splicing multi-conductor cables is the

same as that for a single conductor cable.

In splicing a portable cable or cord extra care must
be taken to maintain, throughout the splice, the flexibility

originally designed in the cable. There are two types of

 65

splices used on portable cables and cords; one is termed a

temporary splice and the other is termed a permanent splice.
The temporary splices are usually made in the field and
employs a connector, insulating tapes, cement, shielding
braid if needed, and jacketing tapes. The amount of
temporary splices is usually determined by the governing
body of the industry. It must be mentioned that within the
last couple years there has been many new temporary splice
kits marketed employing various types of jacketing sleeves.
Some splice kits employ heat shrinkable tubing, while others
use zipper or pre-stretched tubings. Almost all kits
contain connectors, sleeves, tape, spacing inserts termed

spiders, and outer sleeves. s~nce most of the portable

cables and cords are used in the mines, all kits must be
approved by the United States Bureau of Mines.
A permanent splice is usually made in a cable repair
shop operated ei.ther by the company or an independent source.
This splice usually employs a soldered strand connection or
in the case of a rope stranding can be rewoven without the

use of solder or connector. In the case of multi-conductor

cables the splices are stepped and placed at alternate

positions within the splice to insure flexibility. The

insulation is replaced by wrapping alternate layers of

cured and non-cured tapes. The shield and semicons are
replaced in an identical manner as that used for power cables
previously described. The jacket is replaced by a non-cured

vulcanizer jacketing tape. The entire assembly is then

 66

inserted into a heated die and cured by heat until the

insulation and jacketing tapes flow into their respective
materials that they have been applied to and become one
homogenous mass.

There are many variations to the basic types of splices

described; in addition to there being specific dimensions
and instructions that must be followed with respect to the
voltage and individual requirements of a splice. There will
be no attempt here to include all the instructions that must
be followed during the mqny types of splicing encountered··
Most manufacturers include instructions in their splice
kits as do many manufacturers of cables. One point that
should be remembered is that tapes most often are applied
in half-lapped ~·~ers with sufficient tension applied to
obtain good homogenous insulation without over-stretching

the tape.
In the case of aluminum conductors the splicing
technique is identical to that of a copper conductor except
for the connection procedure. The splicing of aluminum
cables has always been difficult. The conductor has a
tendency to creep and oxidize. When aluminum is exposed to
air, a thin film of high dielectric strength forms. This
film must be completely removed before aluminum conductors
can be satisfactorily joined. The method of autogenous
welding appears to be the best method of connection, but due
to simplicity pressure cQnneotion LS usually preferred.
 67

When copper and aluminum conductors are to be joined,

special techniques must be used to prevent direct contact.
If the two metals touch, any moisture present would initiate
severe electrolytic corrosion of the aluminum.
One point should be remembered, as the operating
voltage of the cable to be spliced increases, the care and
cleanliness required to make that splice should also
increase.

H. Terminations

There are three categories of terminations: 1) Low

voltage (600 v to 5000 v) non-shielded and non-lead
sheathed cables, 2) Low and medium voltage (600 v to
15,000 v) leaded and sh~elded cables, 3) Medium and high
voltage (15,000 v to 69,000 v) . leaded and shielded cables.
The termination of a low voltage non-shielded and
non-lead sheathed cable ~s generally a simple matter. The
primary objectives are mechanical support, electrical
connection and physical protection of the cable insulation.
In exposed locations, the insulation is penciled and
wrapped with suitable insulating and protective tapes
overlapping the connector. The cab~e should not be
supported or touch a grounded surface anywhere within the
minimum leakage distance. This distance is 5 inches for
600 volt non-shielded cables and 8 inches for cables rated

to 5000 volts.
The termination of ~bw and medium voltage cables
 68

(600 volts to 15,000 volts) leaded and shielded cables is

more complicated, because of the shield or lead sheath.
As mentioned in the section on shielding, it is very
important to ground the shield. Within this class of
terminations are three distinct groups: non-pothead type
termination, compartment-type termination, and pothead-
type terminations.
The non-pothead type termination usually involves a
shielded non-leaded cable. The rubber or plastic insulated
cables may be terminated indoors or outdoors with some
modif~aation in their construction. The termination of the
shielding of a cable results in a considerable change of
the dielectric field resulting in the combination of radial
and longitudinal stress in the · area of termination.
This concentrated stress is a result of the shield
being at ground potential and the insulation surface being
at a voltage above ground. It is due to this area of
concentra~ed stress that a stress relief cone must be
constructed. This stress cone is constructed by increasing
the insulation thickness at the termination gradually by
applying insulating tape and forming the shape of a cone.
The cable shield is then carried up the cone surface and
terminated at a point of greater insulation thickness that

that of the cable.

The voltage gradient at the end of the conductor and
shield terminus is extremely non-linear. This cone shaped
build-up provides a gradual transition from the grounded
shield to the insulation. The stress €One design factors
 69

for a given voltage have been adopted, based on field

experience and many laboratory tests.

Table XVIII. ( 33 ) Dimensions Normally Used in Terminating

Creepage Distance 8KV 15 KV 25 KV

Dry Location "A"

(i.nches) 10 10 15 25

"A" Wet Location 10 14 20 33

Stress Relief Cone 2 times factory applied

Thickness insulation thickness

Length of Cone Base

"C" 10 times cone thickness "b"

Figure 1. Stress Cone Design

 70

It must be remembered that the stress relief cone

does not completely eliminate the stress but does reduce it
to a value to allow for trouble-free cable operation.
Additional insulation tape and jacketing tape are
usually applied to provide added dielectric strength to the
area that is subjected to water, direct, and other likely
outdoor contaminats.

Compartment-type terminations may be used on almost

apy type of cable. The stress relief cones are constructed
in the same manner as described in the previous s ection.
It is generally recommended that stress relief cones be
constructed on all leaded and non-leaded cables having a
shielding tape over the insulation. Many compartments are
filled with insulating compounds which allow for shorter
creepage and spacing distances. Often times the sheath on
a single conductor lead sheathed cable can be " l;J el l ~d '' to
form an effective stress relief cone when filling compound

is used. Stress relief cones are generally not used on

"bel ted-'' multi-conductor leaded cables. It is only necessary
to leave an inch of the belt insulation beyond the "belled"

end of the lead sheath.

Pothead-type terminations can be used on almost all
types of high voltage cables. The cables are prepared in
like manner to that described in the section on compartment-
type terminations. The pothead is filled with high dielectric
strength compounds to allow _for reduction of length re-
quired to terminate the cable. The pothead also provides

physi~al protection and support of the cable insulation and

 71

conductors. The pothead-type of termination is recommended

for most outdoor terminations of shielded cables, especially

in contaminated, industrial, or extreme weather atmospheres.

Medium and high-voltage {15,000 volts to 69,000 volts)

leaded and shielded cables require similar techniques as

described in the section on low and medium-voltage ter-

minations; but extra care and attention must be given to

electrical and physical requirements due to the more severe

electrical stresses brought about by the higher voltages.

Almost all outdoor terminations in this voltage category

are terminated in potheads. Those not terminated in pot-

heads should follow the same procedures as described in the

previous sections, incorporating the larger creepage, cone

thickness, and c~ne le~~th due to the higher potentials.

It is interesting to note that mathematical calculation

of the ideal contour of the stress relief cone construction

will result in a log-log curve. It is questionable how

much additional relief is gained by this calculation and,

since it is time consuming, straight shield tapers made up

of two or more slopes are recommended in applying the

insulation in the field.

Exact materials and instructions, like the splice kits,

appear in most termination kits. Therefore no special

mention of detailed terminating will be discussed in this

paper.

I. High Pote.n tial Proof Testing

Basically a .high potent~al dielectric test is a

 72

deliberate application of a pre-determined over-voltage to

determine if the insulation contains defects that might
affect voltage breakdown of the insulation. This type of
test many times finds mechanical weaknesses along with
impurities that may later lead to chemical deterioration,
cracks, and voids.
In most cases the high voltage test consists of the
application of higher than normal operating voltage for a
specific time, between mutually insulated circuits, or
between an insulated circuit and a nearby grounded surface.
The invention of the "Kenetron" rectifier tube in the
1930's led to the rapid development of direct current high
voltage supplies. Durrng the 1930's and 1940's alternating
current was predominantly used while D-C became more popular
where fie :ld mobility was requ.ired. As a rule alternating
current is used for insulat.ion resistance tests. The D-C
test oan give more information than is normally obtainable
with alternating current. The high ca9acitive currents
frequently associated with alternating currents are not
present to interfere with the determination of actual

leaka~e currents.
As mentioned previously, the total current caused by
the application of a high potential direct current across
an insulation material is made up of three components:
1) charging currents, 2) absorption currents, and 3) leakage
currents. Both the charging and absorption currents usually
become negligible after a short period of time and therefore
 73

the leakage current is the quantity measured after the

circuit stabilizes. The leakage current is that value of
current that flows through the volume of insulation, or
over leakage surfaces such as terminations.
While there are many ways to perform a D-C high
potential test, there are three basic tests that are the
most significant: 1) Leakage current vs Voltage, 2) Leakage
current vs Time, and 3) Go/no-go Test.
The leakag~ current vs voltage test is made by raising
the test voltage in discrete steps, waiting for the leakage
current to stabilize at each step, and then plotting that
value as a function of the test voltage. As long as the
plot remains linear, the test may continue. When the value
of leakage current rtses ~ at a faster rate than the ~o ltage,

it is usually an indication that breakdown is near.

The increased potent~al breaks down the dielectric
and provides a more formidable path to ground. Surges
in the applied voltage therefore could bring about a

fault condit &on.

The leakage current vs time test is a plot of initial
peak value obtained at the time of application of the
voltage step and its decay with time. If the leakage
current decreases with time, the insulation is considered

to be good. If however, the leakage current increases with

time, the insulation is faulty and the test should be

discontinued.
For the Go/no-ge test~ the voltage is slowly raised to

the p~edetermined test value with the rate of rise determined

 74

by the time required to keep the charging current below the

capabilities of the eest set. When the final ~est voltage
is reached, it is held for a predetermined length of time
or until the leakage current stabilizes. As long as the
leakage current stabilizes and reaches a steady state value,
the equipment is considered to have passed the test. Failure
of the current to reach a steady state value or in fact having
the leakage current increase with time indicates the failure
of the cable to pass the test.
The dielectric strength of an insulation material is
the breakdown voltage d±vided by the sample thickness,
usually expressed in volts per mil. The breakdown voltage
of a solid insulation generally increases at a less than
linear rate for increasing. thickness of material. As a
result, the dielect~ ~ c strength is higher for a thin sample
than a thick sample. Dielectric strength is also reduced
by elevated temperatures or frequency.
Dielectric strength is strongly dependent upon time
and is much higher for a short time of application than for

a long term test.

The use of a high voltage proof test is functional
both as a check after installation and just before final
energizing of equipment to insure that no damage or incorrect
methods were used during the installation of the cable. The
proof test also is an aid in preventive maintenance to
indicate possible weak spots or trouble areas. D-C voltage
has no harmful or cumulative effect on the insulation as
 75

long as the voltage applied does not exceed the breakdown

strength of the insulation. Applied D-C proof test

voltages are a function of the insulation thickness, and

given in volts/mil. These values are usually furnished by

the cable manufacturer and should be obtained from him.

In general the D-C proof test voltage should be at

least equal to 3 times the A-C peak voltage .of the phase-
to-ground circuit voltage.

In summary, high voltage D-C proof testing is a very

necessary test both at tbme of installation and as a

maintenance aid. Frequency of proof testing is left to the

individual to decide, with the importance of the circuit

usually determining the frequency of testing. Remember that

the trend of a leakage curve is more important than its

magnitude. Temperature and moisture changes can make a

perfectly good cable yield different magnitudes of leakage

current from one d~y to the next. Always consult the cable
manufacturer for recommended values and duration of proof

test voltages.

J. Fault Location

Faults in power cables occur because of damage to the

conductor, insulation, or both. Usually one or more of the

following situations exist when a cable experiences a fault:

1) High series resistance fault, 2) An open conductor,

3) A grounded conductor, 4) A conductor to conductor fault.

An open circuit or resistive conductor are both classified

 76

as series faults and can be detected by measuring any change

from the normal conductor resistance.
The larger percentage of faults are classified as
shunt faults and include the phase-to-phase, and the grounded
circuit conditions. These too can be detected by measuring
any change from normal conductor resistance.
There are many different types of fault locating
equipment, methods, and techniques. In general there are
two distinct methods of fault location: 1) Terminal
measurement, and 2) Tracer signal. The use of a megohmeter
can usually classify the fault as ekther ser1es or shunt and
therefore is a good test to begin with.
1. Insulation Resistance Rat1o
The distance to an open in the conductor from a
particular terminal can be found by comparing the
insulation resistance to the open, to that of the
insulation resistance of a known length of unfaulted
cable. This can be effected using a wheatstone bridge
or a megohmeter. That is the ratio of the known
insulation resistance R1 , to that of the insulation
resistance to the open circuit R2 , multiplied by the
length of unfaulted cable d 1 , will yield the length to

the open circuit d 2 :

 77

This method depends upon the fact that the cable or

conductor has a uniform insulation resistance per unit
length.

2. Voltage Drop Method

This method is useful in determining the location of

shunt faults. The drstance to a shorted or grounded

section can be found from measuring the voltage drop

of the conductors when a constant current is applied

and the distance between terminals is known. A con-
stant current should be applied to one terminal of a

loop formed by connecting the faulted conductor to a

good conductor at the opposite terminal and then

measuring the voltage with a sensitive voltmeter. In

the case of a short circuit:

vl
=- -(d2)' where,
2V 1

dl = Distance to the fault

d2 = Length of known conductor

vl = Voltage between shorted conductors

In the case of a grounded conductor:

where,

d = Distance to the fault

1
d = Length of known conductor
2
v = Voltage between one terminal of
1
the grounded conductor with respect

to ground
 78

v2 = v1 + voltage between the other

terminal with respect to ground

3. Resistance Loop Balance

The distance of a short circuit or a ground fault
from a terminal can be determined by comparing the
resistance of the faulted section to a resistance of a
known loop made by joining the faulted conductor to
a good conductor at the opposite terminal. This is
known as the Murray loop method and can be effected
by using a Murray loop bridge:

X
dl = (d2) ' where,
s
dl = Distance of shunt faul-t
d2 = Total distance of loop . including joing cable
X = Resistance required to balance bridge

s = Total resistance of bridge

Where larger resistances are present in the smaller

conductors, a known resistance is inserted in the loop
and this method is known as the Varley loop method.

4. Burn Down Process

When the fault resistance is sufficiently high,
some faults will never be detected by low voltage

methods. It may be necessary to overcome this problem

by application of sufficient voltage to burn down the

insulation at its weakest point, being careful to not
over stress the good ins~lation. This process
 79

carbonizes the insulation until the resistance is

reduced so as to enable one to use one of the pre-
viously described tests. As one might assume, this
is only necessary on shunt faults. The high voltage,
high current D-C supply is connected between the
faulted conductor and solidly grounqed shield or
sheath. Careful use of this method must be employed.

5. Capacitance Impulse Method

This method has been used for many years by both
utilities and mining companies. This method uses a
series of high voltage surges transmitted along the
faulted cable until they reach the fault and discharge
~o the return path. The fault may be detected by
detector circuitry or using one's four senses when
scanning the length of cable in question. The risk
to good insulation is ntil in this meth0d and it has
gained popularity due to the impulse generator being
so light and portable to carry during field testing.
The generator is connected between the faulted
conductor and the solidly grounded sheath or shield.

6. A-C Methods
This A~C method is particularly useful on locating

faults on non-shielded cable. An A-C audio frequency

is transmitted along the faulted conductor and is
returned at the fault via the solidly grounded shield
 80

or sheath. The applied signal can be measured by

sen~ing the electromagnetic field using an electro-
magnetic field detector, or using a voltage gradient
detector and probes. The fault resistance should not
exceed SOKohms for electromagnetic detection and not
over SOOKohms for earth gradient detection.

7. D-C Tracer Method

In this method a modulated D-C signal is employed.
The D-C generator is connected between the faulted
conductor and the solidly grounded shield or sheath.
Although there is no audio sound w~th n-c, these
tracing signals offer the advantage that they can
reveal the magnitude and di~ection of the signal.
The detection of · the fault can be done with the
same instruments as described in the previous A-C
method. With this method, unshielded direct buried
cables having faults, can be detected better using
the voltage gradient detector and earth probes.
 81

IV. SPECIFIC CABLE CONSTRUCTIONS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

The basic designs for all types of cables were

discussed in section one. This section will concentrate
on specific designs and their applications. The four groups
to be discussed are power, control, mining, and miscellaneous

cables.

A. Power Cables

There are many different types of cable that fall

under this category. Presently the voltage range of
insulated power cables is from 600 volts to 69kvolts,
and 35 KV to 500 KV for pipe type cables and ACSR.
Almost · all of the insulated cables included in this
section can be constructed using both aluminum and copper

conductors.
The following symbols apply to the common 600 volt
cables used for power transmission in the building wire

category.
T = Thermoplastic

R = Rubber or thermosetting

X = XLP insulation

H = Heat resistant

w = Water resistant

N = Nylon

Probably the simplest form of a 600 volt power cable

is t}+e TW and T~. These cables have simple extruded PVC
 82

that serves as both the insulation and the jacket. The

difference between the two is merely that the THW has a
thicker PVC insulation/jacket, and the THW is rated 75°c
where the TW is generally rated at 60°c. Both the THW
and TW are usually installed in conduits and trays for
general purpose power circuits. The THHN-THWN is a 600 volt
cable having a 90°C temperature rating. This cable
incorporates a PVC insulation with a thin nylon jacket
applied over the insulation. In addition to having a
higher temperature rating, THHN-THWN has excellent chemical
and weather resistance. This cable is usually installed
in conduit or trays and is used as a building and
industrial wire where hydrocarbon conta~inants might be
present. XHHW is also a 90°C rated 600 volt power cable
having a cross-linked polyethylene material serving as both
the insulation and jacket. This cable is recommended for
general applications and is usually installed in duct or
tray.
The RHH-RHW-USE rated cables are 600 volt cables
which can be used in a direct burial application.
Cross-linked polyethylene can be used and is identical to
the XHHW except that the insulation/jacket wall thickness
is greater. There are other constructions having this
rating with one having a low voltage insulation and a
neoprene jacket. Depending on the type of insulation used,
the cable may be rated either 75°C or 90°C. All RHH-RHW-USE
cables as stated before are most often used on 600 volt
 83

circuits that require the cable to be direct buried.

The next category of power cables is the 5 KV
non-shielded cables. Most cables above 600 volts have
either an ethylene propylene (EP) or cross-linked poly-
ethylene (XLP) insulation. At 5 KV and above a conductor
semiconducting material is applied between the conductor
and its insulation. Since there is no shielding, an
insulation semicon is not needed. The EP insulated 5 KV
non-shielded cable usually has a PVC jacket applied over
it, while an XLP insulated non-shielded 5 KV cable has
only the XLP to serve as both the insulation and jacket.
The Insulated Power Conductors Association (IPCEA), does
not recognize the use of non-shielded cables above 2 KV
unless they are assembled as a three conductor cable and
have an overall covering, such as PVC or metal. This
edict has caused a decrease in the use of 5 KV non-shielded
power cables. The 5 KV non-shielded cable is usually
installed in a conduit or duct and is not recommended for
direct burial.
The next category is 5 KV shielded cables. Again, the
XLP and EP insulations are the most often used in this
category. The EP insulated cable usually has a copper tape
shield of .003" or greater thickness, helically applied and
contains both a strand and insulation semicon. The XLP
insulated cables usually have a wire shielding which is also
recognized by the IPCEA as an acceptable method of shielding.
 84

This wire shielding consists of small copper wires

concentrically wrapped around the insulation semicon and

held in place by a nylon tape. The reason for using a wire
shielding on cables insulated with XLP is that the
coefficient of expansion ind1cates considerable increase o£
the O.D. as the ambient rises. Both EP and XLP shielded
cables have PVC outer jackets. Unlike the non-shielded
5 KV cables, a shielded 5 KV cable can be direct buried,
but most often is installed in a conduit, tray, or duct~

There are cables rated at 15 KV, 25 KV, and 35 KV,

that are constructed identical to the 5 KV shielded cables

described previously. The only difference in these

cables is that each higher voltage range requires a
greater insulation thickness. Table XIX outlines the
minimum insulation thickness recommended by IPCEA.

Table XIX. IPCEA Recommended Insulation

Thicknesses References

Voltage EP Insulated XLP Insulated

grounded ungrounded grounded ungrounded

5 KV (shielded .090 .090 . 090 (shielded) . 090

or non-
shielded)
.175 .220 .175 .220
15 KV
.260 .345 .260 .345
25 KV
.345 .420 .345 .420
35 KV
.445 .445
46 KV*
.650 .650
69 KV*
 85

Table XIX. (Continued)

*These thicknesses are not covered by the IPCEA.

Above 35 KV the manufacturers are on their own to determine
the thickness most su±table for a particular voltage.

Another popular construction used primarily by the

utilities is the underground residential distribution (URD)
cable. This cable is basically a 2/C cable using either a
copper or aluminum conductor. The most popular conductor is
aluminum but regardless of the insulated conductor used,
both normally have copper coated concentric wires. The
construction employs a strand semicon between the inner
conductor and the insulation. O~er the insulation, an
extruded semiconducting material is applied. Then the
copper coated concentric wires are . wrapped around this
outer semicon. The number and size are dictated by the
size of the inner conductor, in as much as the outer
conductor must have the same ampacity rating as the
insulated inner conductor. In the case of a three phase

system, the outer concentric wires may be 1/3 the inner

conductor ampacity rating considering that the three
concentric wires of the three ph~ses will be connected
together. The URD cable can be used at 600 volts to

35 KV. In this type of cable, high molecular weight

polyethylene (HMWP) and XLP are the most popular

insulations used. The XLP insulated cables have a 90°C

 86

rating where as the HMWP have a 75°c rating. The reason

for using these types of insulation is the desire for
mechanical strength. URD cables can be installed in ducts
but most often are direct buried.
In years past a 69 KV insulated cable was only thought
of as being available as a pipe type cable. Recent
improvements in dielectrics have caused some manufacturers
to produce a 46 KV and 69 KV solid dielectric cable using
EP, XLP, or HMWP as the insulation. Due to the popularity
of these types of cables, many experiments and tests are
being conducted using insulations as described above at
voltage levels of 115 KV and 138 KV.
As mentioned in section one, paper impregnated with
oil is a very fine insulation and usually has a lead outer
sheath. , Cables of this type are extremely popular where
contaminants that would attack EP, XLP and PVC, are
present. These cables are generally used from 5 KV to 35 KV.
A system that is used in the voltage range of 35 KV
thru 161 KV is oil-filled cables. The insulation used is
paper and the conductor copper. This type of cable has
oil channels in the interstices of a three conductor
cable and in the center of a single conductor cable to
allow for longitudinal and lateral flow of the oil. The
sheath is usually lead and the oil is keptat a pressure of
15 psi with the use of reservoirs that allow for temperature

fluctuati0n.
 87

A cable of similar design is the gas-filled cable.

This resembles the oil-filled cables in appearance except
the oil is replaced by nitrogen gas keptat a pressure of
15 psi. This type of cable is usually a three conductor
and one of the three tubes in the interstices is solid to
allow the gas to flow through the entire length of cable
and alleviate drops in pressure should the other tubes
become clogged with impregnant. The strength of the outer
sheath determines the pressure that the nitrogen can be
kept. A pressure of 15 psi will handle voltages from
15 KV to 46 KV but a p~essure of 40 psi must be maintained
to handle voltages of 69 KV. The gas pressure is maintained
by the integrity of the outer sheath • .
While the use of oil-filled cables has been very
successful, they have been superseded by pipe type cables.
Pipe type cables a~e three copper conductors, paper
insulated, shielded, and enclosed in a steel pipe. The
three conductors are shielded with n0n-magnetic tape and
have copper skid wires wrapped around each conductor to
separate them and provide an easier means of pulling the
cables into the pipe. The pipe is usually coated with a

mastic coating to prevent corrosion.

The principle of pipe type cable is the same as that
of an oil filled, which is elimination of ionization by
eliminating all gas. The pipe type cable is usually
installed for voltages of 69 KV to 500 KV. The oil static
cable system is more economic than the oil-filled cables
 88

and can be constructed to handle higher voltages. The

mass impregnation process of an oil static system allows
a reduction of manholes and joints when compared to an oil
filled cable system. This plus the fact that the oil
static system has no lead sheath, thus it is lighter,
allows it to be installed in lengths of a mile or more.
The pipe is of sufficient size to allow snakelike movement
within the conductors during load cycling. The pressure of
200 psi is maintained by a terminal pumping station which
operates responsively to oil pressure changes in the pipe.
Another type of pipe cable is a gas filled system.
This system has nitrogen gas instead of oil as the pressure
medium and requires no terminal reservoirs or pumping
equipment. The tightness of the pipe is relied upon to
maintain the pressure. There are two types of cables used
in this system: sheathed and non-sheathed. The sheathed
conductors are termed "gas compression cables". In the
United States, this type of cable is more widely used, and
has a polyethylene sheath enclosed by two bronze ·t apes.
The other type of gas system is non-sheathed or "high

pressure gas filled cable". It operates on the principle

that insulation containing gas will not ionize permanently

if the gas is kept under pressure. The construction of the
individual conductors is the same as that of a gas filled
cable. The gas pressure of this system is 200 psi for both

the sheathed and non-sheathed types.

 89

A consideration when designing pipe type cables is the

component losses in the pipe material. These losses are in
the form of hysteresis and eddy currents flowing in the
pipe wall. Due to the extra strength of the magnetic field
when cables are installed in a steel pipe, the losses in
the component parts are increased further than those
inherent in an identical installation in a non-metallic pipe
or air.
The magnetic p~pe is a major contribution to the
increased A-C resistance of a p±pe cable system. The
multiplying factors applicable for operation in pipe have
been empirically determined and depend on the arrangement
of the conductors in the pipe. The two types of cable
configurations most often used are, close triangular and
cradled. It is assumed that the cradle arrangement is
more representative of field installations even though
losses of this configuration are greater than those
derived assuming a close triangular configuration. It
should be noted that segmental conductors are used on the
larger size conductors to reduce the skin effect ratio.
The overall losses are due to many components.
Dielectric, conductor, shield, and pipe losses all
contribute to the overall total losses of a pipe type cable
system. The multiplying factors are, as stated before,
empirically derived and are A-C/D-C resistance ratios that
can become as high as 1.75 for conductor sizes of 2500 MCM

in pipe of about 7.5" inside diameter.

 90

Other types of cables in the power cable classification

include 600 v to 15 KV ·c ables having sheaths of aluminum,
copper, and steel. The ALS 600 v cable is an aluminum
sheath cable that is used in much the same applications
as thin walled conduit, but already has the advantage of
having the conductors contained in the aluminum sheath.
Another type of cable construction used for many years is
the interlocked armor cable which employs an aluminum or
steel Lnterlocking armor as the sheath. The interlocked
armor type cable is used primarily in a tray or tray and
conduit installation. The most recent type of cable
sheath developed is a continuous corrugated outer sheath
which uses an aluminum, copper, or steel completely
imperv~ous sheath. Both the interlocked armor and
continuous corrugated sheaths are used from 600 v to 25 KV.
The continuous corrugated impervious sheath is the only

type that may be direct buried.

Another extremely popular type of cable used in power
transmission is the aluminum cable steel reinforced termed
ACSR. The ACSR conductors are generally used for high
voltage power transmission lines. The current carrying
capacity, tensil strength, and O.D. can be varied by
varying the proportions of steel and aluminum in the
conductor. Stranded copper, copperweld, and hollow copper
conductors are also used in power transmission but the
weight, cost, and flexibility yields the ACSR stranded
conductor as the most popular. It is for this reason that
 91

the ACSR cable will be thoroughly discussed.

The current rating of an ~verhead line is obtained by
equating the heat developed in the conductor, by the current
plus the heat absorbed from the sun, to the heat lost by
radiation and convection< 38 ). The factors that can effect
this current rating are, air tem~eratur, wind velocity,
maximum permissible temperature rise of the conductor, and
the thermal emissivity and thermal absorption of the
conductor.
In the calculation of sag and tension of ACSR cable,
the modulus of elasticity and coefficient of expansion of
both the steel and aluminum must be considered. These
combined values are generally available from most
manufacturers of ACSR cables. W~th these values the
strength of the ACSR can be determined and the same
formulas and considerations listed In the section on
tens~on and sag, described previously may be used.
Generally there is electro-chemical action between
the galvanized steel core and the aluminum wires. The
present practice is to coat the steel wire and inner
wires of aluminum to protect against this bi-metal action

and corrosion.
During the pulling process, running blocks are
fastened to the cross arms through which the conductor and
leads are pulled. AFter completion of the stringing
operation the cable must be tensioned properly. The
tensioning is most often done with a winch. If the cable
 92

is not pre-stressed, the cab~e can be pulled to the

calculated sag. If the cable is pre-stressed the cable
is then pulled to the pre-determined tension. After this
has been done, the insulator clamps are fitted.
Transmiss~on line towers are usually built to handle
more than one circuit since they are a considerable part
of the line cost. Special towers are built and inserted in
the support chain to allow the_ conductors of each c~rcuit

to be transposed. This phase rotation reduces the

inductive interference on telephone lines paralleling the
transmission lines. The distance between transposition
varies but is usually about 15 to 20 miles. Support
towers must be solidly grounded to drain off the induced
voltages produced by electrically dharged clouds drifting
over the transmission line. Two overhead ground wires
placed approx~mately over each conductor on the tower

help transmit this lightning type surge.

In the case of polyphase circuits, the sum of the
currents in the conductors must, at any given instant, be
equal to zero. In the case of a three phase circuit the
current flowing out through any one wire, can be considered
as returning a~ong the two remaining conductors. Using
this criteria the ~nduced EMF in any conductor may be

calculated by:
 93

wnere, e = Induced voltage (volts/mile)

I = The conductor current (AMPS)
D = The distance between the two
conductors in question (inches)
R = The radius of the conductor
effect (inches)

I
n

Figure 2. Circuit Induction Relationships

With an unsymmetrical arrangement of conductors, the

unbalancing effect is due to the mutual induction between
loops formed by pairs of wires. It is for this reason that
transposition is so important. Where circuits are neither
transposed or in an equilateral triangle configuration, this
dis-symmetry must be included in computing the reactance.
In the early days of high voltage transmission corona
was assumed to be detrimental due to the energy loss
associated with it. In recent years, the radio interference
(RI) aspect ' of corona has become more important. At a qiven
 94

voltage, corona is determined by conductor diameter, l i n e

configuration, type of conductor, conductor surface, and

the weather. Therefore in areas where RI must be considered,

the evaluation of the RI must be extensively explored. This

could be a l ~miting factor in the choide of the voltage and

system to be used.

B. Control and Instrumentation Cables

1. Control Cable
Almost all systems contain control circuits wh i c h

control the operation of processes and equipment. The

entire performance of a plant is contingent upon the

reliability of the control system and its cable.

The basic des i gn of a control cable con sist of a

conductor, insulation, and jacket. There are two

categories of these cables: thermoplastic and

thermosetting. The s i zes of the conductor range

from size 22 AWG through size 9 AWG of annealed

copper. To i nsure flexib i lity the conductor is class

B or class C stranded .
The thermosetting control cables can be insulated

with SBR, Butyl, XLP, EPR, and silicone. SBR insul-

ation has a .
max~mum opera t ~ng
' t empera t ure of 75°C,

where as silicone is used for extremely high temperatures

and · has a maximum rating of 200°C. The butyl, XLP,

and EPR compounds usually are rated at 90°C.

The most popular thermosetting insulations are XLP

and EPR w.ith voltage ratings of 2 KV maximum.

 95

and polyvinylchloride are the most often used jacketing

materials. Unlike the thermoplastic insulations, EPR
and XLP can be used with or without individual conductor
jacketing. Silicone requires a glass or asbestos
braid jacketing over the individual conductors to
insure its electrical properties at the extremely high
operating temperatures that it is designed to be
operated. One of the most reliable control cable
designs incorporates a class B stranding, an EPR
insulation, a neoprene jacket over the individual
conductors and a neoprene jacket overall. The
flame resistance, oil resistance, abrasion resistance,
and overall mechanical and thermal stability lends
this design as a most reliable one. This design is
used often for control circuits in power plants and
other critical circuitry.
The thermoplastic insulations most often used are
polyvinylchloride and polyethylene. As stated in the
section describing insulations, PVC can be formulated to
carry an operating temperature of 105°C, while poly-
ethylene has a maximum operating temperature of 90°C.
Polyethylene most often has a PVC or nylon jacket to
enhance t h e ope r a tion of the cable in the presence of

chemical contaminants and heat. PVC can be used as

an insulation and covered with a thin nylon jacket
to improve the cables physical and mechanical properties.
As with the thermosetting materials, the outer

jacket ia applied to protect the inner assembly from

 96

mechanical arlp chemical damage. The two most popular

thermoplastic constructions are: 1) Class B stranded
conductor, a polyethylene insulation, a thin nylon
jacket over the individual conductors and a PVC jacket
overall, 2) A class B stranded conductor, a poly-
ethylene insulation, a PVC jacket over the individual
conductors, and a PVC jacket overall.
Both thermosetting and thermoplastic insulated
control cables are often jacketed with a metallic
material. Lead, interlocked armor, and impervious
corrugated sheaths can all be used where extra
chemical, mechanical and flame resistance are required.
During recent years there has been increased
interest in flame retardant control cables because
of the close grouping in trays. A flame resistant
control cable is one that will retar~ the propagation
of flame along the cable and maintain the integrity
of the electrical circuit as long as possible in the

presence of flame. It is common knowledge that most

thermoplastic materials are flammable and do not

qualify as a flame resistant control cable. Probably
the most common flame retardant material used in
control cable construction is neoprene. It is for

this reason, that using a good insulation such as EP,

then jacketing the individual conductors with neoprene,
along with an overall jacket of neoprene, constitutes
the most flame resistant control cable now being

manufactured.
 97

2. Instrumentation Cables
Where control cables usually have a minimum rating
of 600 volts, an instrumentation cable usually has a
maximum voltage rating of 300 volts. Instrumentation
cables are usually used on low voltage circuits in-
volving supervisery control monitoring, or information
conveyance such as communication, , telmetering, temperature,
pressure, flow, etc. With the continuing growth of com-
puters, computer cables are extremely important and
also fall into this category.
Since these cables are used on low voltage circuits,
less importance is paid to the electrical properties of
the cable and more attention is paid to the physical
properties. The two important design factors to be
considered in thi~ type of cab~e are the mechanical
requirements, and the shielding from other cables of
the im~ortant signals carried in them. The conductor
size ranges from a 22 AWG to a 16 AWG annealed copper
conductor. A stranded conductor is used where flex-
ibility is an important factor, but many times in this
cable a solid conductor is used with the two con-
ductors twisted together as a pair. A thermoplastic
insulation is almost exclusively used in this type
of cable with polyethylene and PVC being the most
common. The individual conductors are not usually
i~dividually jacket~d. The shielding required can
range from a c0pper corrugated shield used for mechanical
protection and magnetic s~ie1ding, to individually
 98

shielded twisted pairs with a drain wire and an over-

all shield over the core. The type of shield used over
the individual pairs is us.ually an aluminum/mylar tape.
The outer shie~d can be as light as aluminum/mylar or
as sturdy as a corrugated bronze or copper. The most
often used outer jackets are po1yethylene and PVC.
The individually shielded pairs that include a drain
wire are constructed in a manner so as to provide the
ultimate in protection from induced voltages from
surrounding power cables and/or high voltage contact
movements. The shield and drain wire construction can
bleed off to ground the high induced voltages that often
are present in an industrial environment. When instru-
mentation cable is to be installed in tray or direct
buried, a double jacket should be used with a corrugated
armor installed between the two jackets which allows

for mechanical protection.

The~e are two types of noise associated with instru-
mentation cables. The flow of currents in adjacent
cables which in turn produces a magnetic field, can
produce a magnetic noise that interferes with the signal
conveyed in an instrumentation cable. The voltage
applied to the conductor gives rise to an electrostatic
field in the surrounding medium. If a second conductor
is within this field, it will be affected by that of
,
the space ~t ~ s
occup~e • Where two conductors are present

in this field they occupy different positions in the

 99

field and current will flow from one to the other if

paths are provided.
The effects of these two phenomena upon a communi-
cation or instrumentation circuit is to cause currents
to flow through connected equipment in proportion to
the difference in electric potential between them. It
is for this reason that shie~ding which is grounded is
used to neutralize this field and lower the voltage in-
duced in other circuits. As with a telephone cable,
most instrumentation cable twists the two conductors for
a circuit into a pair so that each conductor can be
subjected as equally as possible to the two types of noise.

C. Mining Cable
Almost all portable equipment used 1n the mining of
coal is powered by electricity. It is for this reason that
mining cable must be designed to provide reliable service
and be able to withstand the hazards present ~n the m1n1ng

operation.
Because of the portable nature of mining equipment, the
cable for this use must be designed with flexibility in
mind. To aid with this requirement, class G and class H
stranded conductors are usually used, employing more strands
of smaller diameter. These strands are usually coated with
a tin or zinc to aid the corrosion resistance of the
strands. Thermosetting insulations such as SBR, EP, and
XLP are the ' most commonly used insulations. SBR is used
mainl¥ for low voltage cables and has a temperature rating
 100

of 75°C. EP is used both at low voltage and at high voltages.

It posseses good electrical qualities, a 90°C rating, and a
better flexibility than XLP wh~ch is the other high voltage
insulation normally used. XLP has good electrical charac-
teristics, a 90°C rating, and is the most mechanically
rugged insulation available. The shielding on most mining
cables is a braid type using small copper wires to form the
braid. The outer jacket can be hypa~on, neoprene, or
nitrile-butadiene/polyvinyl-chloride (NBR/PVC). Neoprene
has excellent physical and chemical properties in addition
to being quite flame resistant. Neoprene probably is the
best overall jacket for mining cables, but cannot be
colored. There has been an increased interest in colored
mining cable jackets. Co~or coding the cables according to
voltage for ease of 1dent~ficat1on; and increased light
reflection during nrght mining, are the two basic reasons
for coloring the outer jackets. Hypalon as well as NBR/PVC
can be colored quite readily.
There are two methods to cure a thermosetting material.
One way is to pass the .jacket through a long temperature
regulated tube after ex~rusion. At the end of the tube the
jacket is cured and this process is known as continuously
vulcanizing (CV) the jacket. The other method most often
used in jacketing these cables is a lead cured method. This
is done by extruding a lead sheath over the freshly extruded
jacket and then reeling it up and putting the reel in a heat
regulated vault. After a pre-determined time, the reel is
taken out of the vault· and the lead is stripped from the
 101

jacket. It is thought that this lead curing controls the

cure by keeping the jacket compressed during the curing
process thus resulting in a more dense uniform jacket than
the CV cured jacket.
There are two basic types of coal mining: underground
and strip. ~he underground mines employ high voltage cables
connecting from their outside substations to their under-
ground rectifiers where they convert to D-C for mahy of
their operations. The cables used for the transmission of
this high voltage can be done by using an SHD-GC flexible
construction as described before or using a Mine Power
Feeder CAble (MPF). The Mine Power Feeder C~ble is constructed
much like a three conductor power cable. It employs a
class B stranding, EP or XLP insulation, a copper tape
shield and a neoprene or PVE outer jacket. In an under-
ground mine, the power cable is often ~upported on hooks
and not moved often, thus not requiring the flexibility that
a strip mining power cable would require, and hence the

MPF cable was developed.

After the A-C power has been rectified in an under-
ground operation many flat type G and W cables are used on
the shuttle cars. The 600 volt A-C cables termed G-GC, are
usually used on the machines actually cutting, drilling, and
loading the coal. These can be a flat or round cable depend-
ing on what the machine reel requirements are. The term G-GC
refers to a three conductor cable having two ground wires and
a ground monitor wire cabled with the power conductors. The
subject of ground monitoring will be discussed later.
 102

The surface mine usually employs all A-C equipment

and uses SHD-GC type cables for its power distribution of
5 KV and above. The term SHD-GC refers to a three
conductor cable having individually shielded power
conductors, two ground wires and a ground check. The
strip mine usually has shovels, drag lines, and drills
which use this type of SHD-GC cables.
In 1969 the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act
was passed containing several regulations that apply to
electrical cable. In this act it was decided that high,
medium and low voltage resistance grounded systems should
have a fail safe ground check circuit to monitor con-
tinuously the grounding circuit. It was due to this
decree that cables were designed to include an insulated
ground monitor wire of size no smaller than #8 AWG.
The· inclusion of this ground monitor wire in the
600 volt cables disturbed the electrical balance of the
three ground wire construction formerly used. The ground
wires are no longer equally effected by induced voltages
from the power conductors and it now is possible to have
potential differences exist between grounded equipment.
It has been proven that a potential hazard can exist if
this potential difference, between equipment that comes in
contact with one another, can cause a spark in the gaseous
atmosphere of an underground mine. This is presently
very much a problem, with many solutions being offered,
and the Bureau is : seme~t uncertain as to which path to
 103

follow. In time there will be cable designed and/or

peripheral equipment that will alleviate this problem
and insure good grounding and good ground monitoring.

D. Misdellaneous Cables
Another electrical cable that is installed in the
millions of feet per year is telephone cabLe. Like power
cable, telephone cable years ago had paper insulated
conductors and an overall sheath ·o f lead. Paper insulated
telephone cable is still used with both lead and steel
coverings with a polyethylene jacket usually appl~ed

over the metallic sheaths. This type is still manufactured

but the demand for this construction has diminished and
the thermoplastic insulated telephone cables have become
the most commonly used. There are two basic types--aerial
and direct burial--with many variations in the construction

of these two types.

Basically an aerial cable has soft bare solid copper
conductors in sizes 19, 22, 24, and 26, that are insulated
with a thermoplastic insulation. The conductors are
twisted in pairs in the same manner as the low level in-
strumentation cable. As mentioned, this lets each con-
auctor for a circuit be effected equally by noise. The
shield can be corrugated copper, aluminum, coated aluminum,
or steel. The shields are corrugated to add strength, and
flexibility to the construction of the cable. The aluminum
is usually .008" thick and the copper is .005" thick. The
 104

aluminum offers a weight and significant cost reduction

when compared to copper. The coated aluminum is usually
.008" thick and coated with an ethylene copolymer that
offers good moisture resistance. The coated aluminum
shield is slightly higher in price than the bare aluminum
shield. The steel shield has an aluminum inner shield of
.008" th~ckness and the steel is .006'' thick and offers
outstanding mechanical protection. All types of aerial
cable are usually jacketed with high molecu1ar weight
polyethylene. Another feature that may be included in the
construction of aerial cable is a stranded galv~nized

steel messenger. This messenger is encompassed by the

jacket and forms a figure 8 type construction.
The direct burial telephone cables are constructed in
the same manner as the aerial cables e~cept that an inner
jacket of high molecular weight polyethylene is applied
between the core and shield as well as over the shield,
forming a double jacketed cable. The copper, aluminum,
aluminum coated, and steel corrugated shields are also
available in the same thickness as the aerial cables.
In the past couple of years, there has been a new
innovation in the telephone cable industry--polyethylene/
petroleum jelly inserted in the core of the cable during
its construct~on. It is the intent that this jelly filling
will almost completely eliminate the problem of moisture
being present between the conductors. Although this cable
is extremely messy to splice and terminate, there have
been good results where this filled cable has been installed.
 105

The Rural Electrical Association (REA) is a government

bureau that offers loans to many of the independent
telephone companies. They also have specifications that
must be adhered to when installing cable on an REA funded
project. REA has recently requested mostly filled cables
on projects involving their support. The large telephone
companies usually manufacture their own cable where as
independent telephone companies are servied by independent
cable manufacturers.
The effects of noise in telephone circuits are very
similar to those experienced with instrumentation circuits
as previously described. One thing that is not a problem in
instrumentation circuits but is very prevalent in
communication circuits is cross talk. Cross talk is the
induction in a telephone circuit from an adjacent telephone
circuit; whereas, noise is the induction in a telephone
circuit from a power circuit.
Another widely used type of cable is that used by the
railroad industry. They use track wire, line wire, case wire,
and signal cable. Track wire has a solid coated conductor
in sizes 9 AWG, 8 AWG, and 6 AWG. It is usually insulated
with a good 600 volt insulation and covered with a neoprene
or polyethylene jacket. This wire is used in track circuits

and signal operations. It can be installed in tray, ducts,

or direct buried. Line wire is a hard drawn bare conductor

that ranges in size #12, 10, 8 and 6, with stranded con-

ductors offered in the larger sizes. Line wire is

 106

usually jacketed with polyethylene of minimal thickness

and used in signal and power c~rcuits installed on
insulators. This construction is similar to the weather-
proofed type cable used so often in aerial type installtions.
Case wire is a relay and control circuit wi~e used
in apparatus wiring applications. It uses a stranded
conductor and is insulated with a good 600 volt insulation
and usually jacketed with neoprene or polyethylene.
Signal cable is a:ri extremely critical cable in as much
as the reliability of the cable is essential to the
knowledge of the train engineers. A false signal could
jeopardize the lives of those on the train. Almost all
signal cables are direct buried and thus must be mechanically
rugged, P~obably the most durable construction is -the
"CMPF" construction. "CMPF ''--corrugated metal polyethylene
finish employs solid coated conductors ranging in size from
#14 AWG thru #6 AWG. Almost any number of conductors can be
assembled in this type of multi-conductor cable; but two
conductor thrti 37 conductor is the most popular range of
conductors. The insulation can be EP, XLP, polyethylene,
butyl, or a similar type of insulation. A .005" corrugated
bronze armor is then applied over the core of the cable
mainly for mechanical protection w~th a polyethylene jacket
overall. Some railroads prefer a flat metal tape rather
than the corrugated type and for that reason flat metal
polyethylene finish--"FMPF" is available frommost cable
 107

manufacturers. This cable has the same exact construction

as the "CMPF" except that a flat .010" bronze armor is used.
It is interesting to note that studies have shown the .005"
corrugated bronze tape to be mechanically superior to the
.OlO" flat bronze tape.
In installations where ~ mechanical strength is not as
important, non-armored cables are used. Their construction
is the same as the "CMPF" and .~'FMPF" except no armor is
used and a jacket of neoprene may be used in place of
polyethylene . if so desired. These cables may be installed
aerially, in duct, or direct buried. Where signal cables
are to be installed strictly aerially, a non-armored
multi~conductor cable of lesser insulation is available
and quite often used. This cable, like the non-armored
underground cable described previously, has solid coated
conductors ranging in size of #14 AWG thru #9 AWG~ The
insulation used is the same as all other signal cable and
the jacket can be neoprene or polyethylene.
There are two other types of cables used by the
railroad industry in their maintenance of locomotives. These
two types are "DEL" and "DLO". "DEL" is an extra flexible
stranded single conductor cable insulated with 600 volts
insulation and jacketed with neoprene. "DEL" is usually
used for Diesel-Electric locomotive power circuits. It can
be installed in conduits, ducts, cable troughs, or trays.
"DLO" is also a single conductor extra flexible stranded
cable insulated with hypalon, which serves as the jacket
 108

also. "DLO" is used for general purpose low voltage power

and control cir~uits on Diesel Electric locomotives. It
too can be installed in conduits, ducts, cable troughs, or
trays.
Although railroad communication circuits have become
more and more of the wireless variety, those circuits
using communication cable employ much the same type of
cable as that used in the telephone industry.
 109

V. CONCLUSION

A. System Design Information

Probably the first choice that has to be made when
engineering a cable system is the voltage to be used. Many
times there is very little choice in as much as only one
voltage is available to do the job. This is generally
dictated by the length of the circuit involved. Where
a choice is available one should look at the overall
economic picture. Switchgear, transformers, cable, motor
control, labor cost and other significant costs should be
evaluated at the voltages available and the most economic

one chosen.
The nominal voltage of a system is the value assigned
for convient designation of a given voltage class< 29 ).
The rated voltage is the voltage for which apparatus and
equipment of a voltage class is designed and tested. Table
XX outlines some typical voltages.

Table xx. Nominal Voltage/Rated Circuit Voltage Relationships

Nominal Voltage Rated Circuit Voltage

110 120

220 240

440 480

2300 2400

6900 7200
 110

Table XX. (Continued)

Nominal Voltage Rated Circuit Voltage

13200 13800
22000 23000
33000 34500
44000 46000
66000 69000
110000 115000
132000 138000
154000 161000
187000 196000
220000 230000
330000 345000

After the voltage has been selected the cable can be

chosen. The next most important decision is the type of
installation; aerial, duct, conduit, tray, direct burial,
etc. This may seem premature, but all of the following
cable ingredients are based on the type of installation.
The next choice should be what type of insulation should
be used. This decision should be based on the requirements
needed such as mechanical strength, flexibility, dielectric
strength etc. The insulation chosen will determine the
maximum operating temperature of the conductor. It is also
at this point that the insulation thickness must be chosen.
Always chose the cable that will handle the rated circuit
 111

voltage phase to phase. I f the system is grounded, the

100% insulation level will suffice. If the system is
ungrounded, the 133% insulation level must be used.
100 Per Cent Insulation Level(l 9 )---Cables in this
category may be applied where the system is provided
with relay protection such that ground faults will
be cleared as rapidly as possible, but in any case
within one minute. While these cables are applicable
to the great majority of cable installatiQnswhich
are ungrounded, they may be used also on other
systems for which the application of cables is
acceptable, provided the above clearing requirements
are met in completely de-energizing the faulted

sect i on.
133 Per Cent Insulation Level(lg) ___ This insulation

level corresponds to that formerly designated for

ungrounded systems. Cables in this category may
be appl i ed in those s i tuations where the clearing
re q uirements of the 100 per ·cent leve l category
cannot be met, and yet there is adequate assurance
that the faulted section will be de-energized in
a time not ex~ eeding one hour. Also they may be
used when additional insulation strength over the
100 per cent level category is desirable.
Since the anticipated loads in KVA should be known
at this poxnt, the current rating can be calculated. This
load current combLned with the installation design, and
 112

maximum conductor temperature will determine the conductor

size to be used, with whatever type of conductor material
is chosen. The shielding, if rated above 2 KV, is the next
choice to be made. The amount of shielding in power cables
is based on the anticipated fault currents. In the case of
instrumentation and telephone cables the shield is based on
the anticipated noise. Finally the suitable jacket must
be chosen. The jacket chosen must best suit the environment
the cable will be subjected to; chemicals, mechanical abuse,
etc. The above sequence of thoughts along with the economic
considerations should help chose the best cable design for
a particular set of system requirements.
The ahove remarks pertain primarily to cables rather
than overhead transmission lin·e s. Where there is a choice
between overhead lines versus underground cable, the
following · remarks might be helpful in favor of underground

cables.
1) Greater freedom of interruption of service and
damage due to weather and other natural hazards.
2) Short circuits and grounds due to flashover;
breaking of conductors and insulators; objects
falling across the wires always are possible
problem areas for overhead lines.
3) overhead lines always present a possible
liability of accident to the public.
 113

4) Underground cables rid the unslightly appearance

of conductors and supports in city and rural areas.
5) Underground cables alleviate much of the way-
leave encountered with overhead lines.
The above considerations often result in the installation
of underground cables in populus districts, despite the fact
that overhead line initial cost is cheaper.
Symmetrical component analysis has become an indispens-
ible tool in the analysis of power system performance. The
method of analysis using symmetrical components makes
possible the prediction of the behavior of a power system
during unbalanced short-circuit or unbalanced load con-
ditions. The symmetrical components are a group of associ-
ated unbalanced vectors that can be resolved into balanced
vectors. The resolved vectors are of equal length and
symmetrical with respect to each other. The theory of
symmetrical components is a complicated one and ·will not be

discussed further. It should be an area of concern for

those engineers who are interested in the behavior of a
power system during unbalanced short-circuit or unbalanced

load conditions.

B. Ground Conductors

1. Power Cable--Generally in all power cables the

~rounding conductor is designed for a minimum of 50%
of the cross-sectional area of one power conductor.
 114

It does not make any difference in how many ground

conductors are used, as the total must be equal to
the 50% value.

2. Mining Cable--The United States Bureau of Mines

and Federal Law states that the grounding conductor
shall be a minimum of 50% of the cross-sectional
area of one power conductor. The IP,CEA has set up
a value of about 80% and this value is followed in
most standard types of construction now furnished
from manufacturers.

3. Metallic Sheathed Cables--Underwriters Laboratories,

Inc., and the National Electrical Code recognizes
sheaths as ground wires if the total sheath resistance
is less than 2.22 times the power conductor resistance.
Beyond this value ground wires must be used equal to
the 50% cross-sectional area of one power conductor.

c. Flame Resistance and Testing

Due to many factors over the last few years, flame
resistance of insulated cables has created much discussion
and interest. It seems that the trend away from metallic
sheaths and towards the less expensive plastic jackets has
been one reason. Another reason is that there has been an
increase in control and instrumentation cables and many
of these cables are now carried in open trays. Flame
resistance requirements for cables installed in central
 115

stations, have become more stringent in recent years. All

insulatibns and ~ackets are hydrocarbons and as such will
burn. Special compounding of the dielectrics offer some
degree of flame resistance. Propagation of flame and how
long a circuit need be maintained after initiation are two
major concerns in this area.
In checking cables for flame resistance, the most
common test used is the Vertical Flame Test as described
in IPCEA specifications, such as S-61-402, section 6.5.

D. Manufacturers Identification
Almost all eable manufacturers are assigned two thread
colors by the Underwriters Laboratories for identification
purposes. This type of identification is usually found
only in single conductor cables and inserted in the strands.
Another method usually reserved for shielded cable
is an identifying tape placed between the shield and the
semiconducting tape. This way the tape does not interfere
with the bond between the jacket and the core assembly.
This tape is usually either yellow or white with black
lettering and these colors are common to all companies.
This tape usually is marked with the company's name and

date of manufacture.
The cables that do not have either o£ these types o£
identification, usually are surface printed on the outer
jacket. This is considered by UL to be a permanent means of
identification. Another method of surface printing would be
the embossing on a lead cured neoprene jacket.
 116

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Floy, Henry. High Tension Underground Electrical

Cables. New York: Electrical Publishing Co., 1909.
2. Dunsheath, P. High Voltage Cables. London:
Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, LTD, 1929.
3. Schwaiger, A. Theory of Dielectrics. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1932.
4. Fink, Donald G., and others. Standard Handbook for
Electrical Engineering, Tenth Edition. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1968.
5. Sturdevant, E.G. "Insulated 1\luminum Conductors",
presented at the Sympos~um on the Use of Aluminum
for Insulated Conductors. New York: American
Institute of Electrical Engineers, 1953.
6. Barnes, Cyril. Power Cables. London: Chapman
and Hall LTD., 1966.
7. Biskenborn, H.W. "A Historical Review of Aluminum
Appiications in Insulated Conductors". Presented at
the Symposium on the Use of AluminUm for Insulated
Conductors, New York: American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, 1953.
8. Nelson, C.E., Garrett, K.S. "Design Problems and
Operating Experience With Aluminum Distribution
Conductors in the Philadelphia Electric Company",
Presented at the Conference 6n the Electrical
Utilization of Aluminum. New York: The American
Institute of Electrical Engineers, 1955.
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10. Graham, R.C., Lowe, J.J. "Integral Insulation
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 117

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Continued)

12. Engineering Design Handbook--Electrical Wire and Cable.

Prepared by International Telephone and Telegraph corp.
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13. Javitz, Alex E. "Developments in Polyethylene
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 118

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Continued)

23. National Fire Protection Association, National

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 120

VITA

Robert William Buente was born on March 15, 1945,

in Granite City, Illinois. He received his primary and
secondary education in Granite City, Illinois; receiving
a High School Diploma from Granite City Senior High School
in January of 1964. He received his College education
from Bradley University, completing studies and acquiring
a Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering in

June of 1967.
From July of 1967 he was employed with Granite
City Steel Co., as a Project Engineer, until November
of 1971 when he began as a Sales Representative for The
Okonite co., with whom he . is still employed.
Beginning in the Fall o£ .. 1968, he began his graduate
studies at The St. Louis Graduate Engineering Center

of the University of Missouri - Rolla.

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