Chapter 14.

1
RNA
Vocabulary Words:
 RNA (Ribonucleic acid): single stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose,
contains long strands of nucleotides.
 Messenger RNA (mRNA): type of RNA that carries copies of instructions for the
assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell.
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): combines with proteins to form ribosomes.
 Transfer RNA (tRNA): carries each amino acid to a ribosome during protein
synthesis.
 Transcription: synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template.
 RNA polymerase: enzyme that links together the growing chain of RNA nucleotides
during transcription using a DNA strand as a template.
 Promoter: specific region of a gene where RNA polymerase can bind and begin
transcription.
 Intron: sequence of DNA that is not involved in coding for a protein.
 Exon: expressed sequence of DNA codes for protein.

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

 We need DNA to make RNA, DNA sends the instructions to RNA to make proteins.
RNA: The first step in decoding these genetic instructions is to copy part of the base
sequence from DNA into RNA. RNA then uses these instructions to direct the production of
proteins, which help to determine an organism’s characteristics.

DNA RNA
Sugar Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose
Thymine Uracil
Double stranded or single Generally single stranded
Stores genetic information Stores info about protein structure
Can self-replicate Can’t self-replicate
Read by polymerase Read by ribosomes
Is read 3’-5’ Is formed 5’-3’
Last for a long time doesn’t last for a long time

Both
Made up of nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
base. (A, G, C)

These chemical differences make it easy for enzymes in the cell to tell DNA and RNA apart.
 Types of RNA

 RNA controls the assembly of amino acids into proteins. In protein synthesis.

3 Types of RNA:

Messenger RNA (mRNA): Linear singles stranded, Molecule that carries the instruction for
what it is supposed to build, goes from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Ferrical, Proteins are assembled on ribosomes, which are small
organelles composed of two subunits. The subunits are made of several (rRNA) molecules
and as many as 80 different proteins. It facilitates the integration of the MRNA into the
ribosome.

Transfer RNA (tRNA): carries amino acids (code) to the ribosome and matches them to the
coded mRNA message, is going to make a polypeptide bond.

 Process of transcription and translation to create new proteins. A gene needs to

make hundreds of molecules for protein synthesis, proteins must be continuously
synthesized.
RNA synthesis:
Transcription:
 The process of copying a base sequence from DNA to RNA
 Segments of DNA serve as templates (template strand) to produce complementary
MRNA molecules.
 It copies the DNA and transcribes it to MRNA.
 Transcription is carried out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase.
 Transcription begins when RNA polymerase binds to a promoter. RNA polymerase
first binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands. It then uses one strand of DNA
as a template to assemble nucleotides into a complementary strand of RNA.

Promoters:
 Guideline of where is going to be a specific part of where is going to start copying
the DNA and binds.
 RNA is going to build the bases (promoters: a region of DNA where RNA
polymerase begins to transcribe a gene.)

DNA to RNA: Transcribed

- ATCGATAC
- UAGCUAUG
 The template strand is transcribed.

Pre-mRNA: molecules have bits and pieces cut out of them before they can go into action.
 The portions that are cut out and discarded are called introns, in the nucleus.
 The remaining pieces, known as exons, are then spliced back together to form the
final mRNA.
Final RNA, splicing (connect), Intros are removed.
- Spliceosomes enzyme: removes intros.
 Questions:

1. How are RNA and DNA similar? How do they differ?

-Both DNA and RNA have four nitrogenous bases each—three of which they share
(Cytosine, Adenine, and Guanine) and one that differs between the two (RNA has Uracil
while DNA has Thymine).

2. How is the information in DNA passed to a molecule of mRNA? Describe this process.
- During transcription, the enzyme RNA polymerase (green) uses DNA as a template to
produce a pre-mRNA transcript (pink). The pre-mRNA is processed to form a mature
mRNA molecule that can be translated to build the protein molecule (polypeptide)
encoded by the original gene.

3. How does the cell use both DNA and RNA to direct protein synthesis?
-The cell stores genetic information in DNA and transports it to the ribosome through the
mRNA. Transcription is the process by which mRNA is synthesized from DNA template
while translation is the process by which protein are synthesized from mRNA. This reveals
that the cell synthesizes proteins from mRNA and subsequently from DNA.

4. Why are regions called promoters essential to RNA transcription?

-Because they are a guideline that tells the polymerase where to start binding.

5. Why is it important for a single gene to be able to produce hundreds or thousands of

the same RNA molecules?
-Because protein must continuously be synthesized.
 Chapter 14.2
Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis

Vocabulary Words:
 Polypeptide: Long chain of amino acids that makes proteins. 20 different amino
acids are commonly found in polypeptides.
 Codon: A group of 3 nucleotide bases in mRNA. (AUC, CGU, AGC, etc.) They specify
a particular amino acid.
 Genetic code: Collection of codons of mRNA each of which directs the
incorporation of a particular amino acid into a protein during protein synthesis.
 Translation: Process in which the sequence of bases of an mRNA is converted into
the sequence of amino acids of a protein.
 Anticodon: Group of 3 bases in a tRNA molecule that are complementary to the 3
bases of a codon of mRNA.

Proteins:
 Proteins are made by joining amino acids together into chains called polypeptides.
 The message to make proteins is carried in the mRNA.
 biomolecule, composed of by a grip of amino acid.
 The building block of the cell.
 Growth and development of the cell.
 Repairs the cell.
 There are 20 different amino acids found in a polypeptide chain.
 Big molecule, 1 protein can have up to 300 amino acids.
 The essential we get it from the outside like from food, and inessential we made it.
 The protein in the amino acids need to constantly be replaced.
 The body has a harder time breaking down proteins.

The Genetic Code:

The specific order in which amino acids are joined together in a polypeptide chain
determines the shape, chemical properties, and ultimately, function of a protein.

 The genetic code is read three bases at a time. Each “word” of the code is three
bases long and corresponds to a single amino acid. This three-base “word” is
known as a codon.
 A codon consists of three consecutive bases that specify a single amino acid to be
added to the polypeptide chain.
 mRNA codons  amino acids.
 The role of proteins is to supply energy and they use amino acids to sustain
muscles and generate new proteins in our bodies by protein synthesis.
  There are 64 possible three-base codons in the genetic code.

Start and Stop codons:

START: The methionine codon AUG also serves as the initiation, or “start,” codon for
protein synthesis.
STOP: 3 codons UAA, UAG, UGA, when you see the first one it ends.
Anticodon: each tRNA molecule has three unpaired bases that are together
Codons are read 5’-3’.

Translation:
The decoding of an mRNA message into a protein.
Ribosomes use the sequence of codons in mRNA to assemble amino acids into polypeptide
chains.

Initiation:
When a ribosome attaches to an mRNA molecule in the cytoplasm. As each codon passes
through the ribosome, several molecules of tRNA bring the proper amino acids into the
ribosome. One at a time, the ribosome then attaches these amino acids to the growing
chain.
 They form covalent bonds, called a peptide bond.
Elongation:
 The mRNA molecule carries the coded message that directs the process.
 tRNA molecules deliver the amino acids, enabling the ribosome to “read” the
mRNA’s message and to get translation just right. Is going to produce the
anticodons.
 These rRNA molecules hold ribosomal proteins in place and carry out the
chemical reactions that join amino acids together.
 3 parts:
E P A
Leaves Anticodons, jumps to Arrives the tRNA
the E side

Termination:
Stop codon, the polypeptide is going to merge with a protein.

Molecular Genetics:
Molecular biology provides a way to understand the links between genes and the
characteristics they influence.
 The DOGMA in science us that information is transferred from DNA to RNA to
protein.
 Retrovirus: disrupts the line RNA-DNA-RNA-Protein

Gene Expression: when a gene of DNA is used to build protein, that gene has been
expressed.
 Questions:
1. How does the cell interpret the genetic code?
-By groups of 3 called codons.

2. How do ribosomes use mRNA and tRNA to assemble proteins?

-mRNA gives the translated message, and tRNA gives anticodons and amino acids.

3. How are proteins and genes related?

-Genes contain the information to make proteins.

4. Why can the same tRNA and rRNA molecules be used to synthesize a wide variety
of polypeptides?
-Because there are 20 different amino acids that can be translated until the stop codon.

5. How does the genetic code show a shared history among all organisms?
-Because the same codon has the same amino acid in all organisms.

6. How do proteins determine the traits of an organism?

-You put the protein inside the cell we have gene expression. Gene determinates the traits.

Structures:
Primary: sequence
Secondary: shetts and spirals
Tertiary: r group bonds
Quaternary: multiple proteins