STRUCTURALISM: This was propounded by Wilhelm Wundt and was later coined by

Wilhelm's student, Edward B. Titchner. This focuses on the use of introspection (an
internal examination of one's sensations, feelings, thoughts and perceptions after
being presented with a stimulus). For example, if a group of individuals were taken
to the cliff that overlooked the sea, Wundt would want them to individually record
their feelings, thoughts and sensations about their experiences and each would give
different responses: some may say they feel cold cause of the wind on the cliff,
others may say the wind is refreshing and salty cause of the sea below and some may
say they feel scared because they are afraid of heights.
Hence, because people are different, they may not have same responses even
though the stimulus is exactly the same.

Criticism: Psychology is an objective subject but this theory is largely subjective

and isn't so feasible; it doesn't give a general truth.

FUNCTIONALISM: This was propounded by William James. It focuses on observable

behaviors rather than on internal mechanisms. This was influenced by Charles
Darwin's theory of Natural Selection (every Organism adapts to their environment by
developing traits that help them survive and reproduce in their environment; traits
that are beneficial to our survival get passed on and those that aren't die off).
This emphasizes the function of human consciousness rather than its structure.

GESTALT THEORY: This is a school of thought based on perception and organization.

Our minds perceive things as part of a whole. We have predisposed ways of
organizing information. It was developed by 3 German Psychologists-- Wertheimer,
Köhler and Koffka. It entails the phi-phenomenon (optical illusion of apparent
motion with alternating stimuli) as well.
'Gestalt' is a German word which closely equates to patterns, forms or a unified
whole. It posits that the whole of an object is more important than its individual
parts. Our minds tend to perceive objects as part of something larger and more
complex. It has some principles like: ground and order, similarity, closure, etc.
(see picture below).

PSYCHOANALYSIS: This is a theory that was propounded by Sigmund Freud. It divided

the mind into 3 parts:

A. THE CONSCIOUS: This contains the information that someone is thinking right now;
what they are aware of right this moment.

B. THE PRE-CONSCIOUS: This contains the pieces of information that are retrievable
but not in the conscious awareness; information that one can readily access but is
not going through the mind right now.

C. THE UNCONCIOUS: This contains the most information. It is the largest

'compartment' of the mind. It contains pieces of information such as frightful
experiences, painful experiences or/and drives and urges that aren't acceptable to
society.
The pieces of information here are not directly retrievable; the individual is
not aware of what is stored here. Here, all symptoms come from unresolved
unconscious conflicts.

THE PSYCHE: This is divided into three (3).

• ID: This contains basic needs, no regard for consequences; thinks like a child.
Thrives on instant gratification. It is divided into two (2): Eros: life instinct.
Survival such as eating, breathing and having sex. The second one is Phantos: death
instinct. This is focused on self-destruction--violence and aggression.
Freud states that the Eros is more powerful in most people than the Phantos, hence,
people move in a positive direction (towards survival).

• EGO: This serves as the mediator between the Id and the Superego. It is the
reality principle. It tries to balance the basic needs (of the Id) with morality.
When the ego fails, it has defense mechanisms, which are strategies used to lower
anxiety. They help protect the ego. These include: denial, sublimation, regression,
repression, rationalization etc. When over used though, these could pose serious
problems.

• SUPEREGO: When a child is up to 5years, he develops the Superego. This is the

'judge'. It is our moral principle or moral compass. It asks, 'what's the right
thing to do?' It is our conscience; it makes sure we live up to societal standards.
We internalize the voices of our authority figures (parents, Imams, Pastors, etc)
these are like our 'Guardian Angel'. This strives for all things that are right.
When we don't live up to the standard of the Superego, we develop guilt, shame,
etc.

*Below are images of the principles of Gestalt psychology, as well as a highlight

of the defense mechanisms of the Ego.
Introduction to Psychology
What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. This
means it examines what we do (behavior) and how we think or feel (mental
processes). Psychologists study not just how people are different but also how we
are similar.

For example:

Behavior: How you react when you’re scared, happy, or angry.

Mental Process: How you remember where you placed your keys or why you feel
motivated to study.
The word psychology comes from the Greek words "psyche" (soul or mind) and "logos"
(study).

Why Study Psychology?

Here are some reasons why psychology is worth studying:

Evaluate beliefs and misconceptions: It helps us understand why some “common-sense”

ideas about behavior are wrong.
Example: People say, "Opposites attract", but psychological studies show people
often prefer partners with similar interests.

Learn what’s already known: Psychology builds on existing research so we don’t

waste time reinventing the wheel.

Understand theoretical developments: Ideas evolve through competition and critique.

Think creatively and critically: Psychology teaches you to question assumptions and
seek evidence.

Scientific application: Knowledge from psychology can improve education, health,

and relationships.

Goals of Scientific Psychology

Psychology has 4 key goals:

Describe: Observe and describe behavior accurately.

Example: A psychologist may describe the behaviors of children during playtime.
Explain: Understand why a behavior occurs.
Example: Why do people bite their nails when nervous?
Predict: Anticipate future behavior based on patterns.
Example: If a student is always late to class, they might also struggle with
deadlines.
Change/Control: Influence behavior for positive outcomes.
Example: Therapists help people manage anxiety through relaxation techniques.
The Scientific Method in Psychology
Psychology relies on evidence-based methods. Researchers don’t just guess; they
follow the scientific method:

Identify a problem.
Form a hypothesis (a testable prediction).
Conduct an experiment.
Collect and analyze data.
Draw conclusions.
Share results.
Example: If you want to test whether sleep affects memory, you might:
Split participants into 2 groups (one sleeps 8 hours, the other sleeps 4 hours).
Give them a memory test.
Compare results.
Critical Thinking is essential in psychology and involves:

Asking questions: Why do we behave this way?

Examining evidence: “I think exercise boosts mood, but does research support this?”
Avoiding emotional reasoning: “Just because I feel it’s true doesn’t mean it is.”
Brief History of Psychology
The roots of psychology go back to ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato,
and Aristotle:

Aristotle: He was one of the first to study human behavior. He explored topics like
memory, motivation, and personality.
Example: Aristotle described memory as a “storehouse” where we keep information.
In the Renaissance (14th-16th centuries), science began to challenge religion as a
way to understand the world.

René Descartes (1596-1650): Suggested the idea of dualism—the mind and body are
separate.
Example: The body is physical (like a machine), but the mind is spiritual and
harder to study scientifically.
The Birth of Psychology as a Science
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is known as the “Father of Experimental Psychology”. He
established the first psychology lab in Germany in 1879.
Example: Wundt studied how long it took people to hear and respond to sounds.
Structuralism (Wundt’s approach): Psychology should analyze consciousness by
breaking it into basic elements like sensations and feelings.

Introspection: A method where people describe their thoughts and feelings while
experiencing something.
Example: When given a flower, a person describes its color, texture, and how it
makes them feel.
Major Schools of Thought in Psychology
Functionalism (William James)
Focused on why we think and behave the way we do (the function of behavior).
Influenced by Charles Darwin’s idea of natural selection.
Example: A functionalist might study how our memory helps us adapt to challenges in
school or work.
Comparison:

Structuralists studied the parts of consciousness (like ingredients in a recipe).

Functionalists studied how consciousness works (like why we need the recipe).
Psychoanalytic Perspective (Sigmund Freud)

Freud focused on the unconscious mind, which contains hidden thoughts and memories
influencing behavior.
He believed conflicts in the unconscious (like childhood trauma) shape personality.
Example: A person afraid of water may have a forgotten memory of nearly drowning as
a child.
Freud developed techniques like dream interpretation to uncover hidden conflicts.

Behaviorism (John B. Watson & B.F. Skinner)

Behaviorists believed psychology should only study observable behavior, not
thoughts or feelings.
They emphasized the stimulus-response relationship: Behavior is shaped by rewards
and punishments.
Example:
Ivan Pavlov: Showed dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell.
B.F. Skinner: Trained pigeons to perform tasks by rewarding them with food.
This led to behavior modification techniques used in schools, therapy, and prisons.

Humanistic Psychology (Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow)

Focuses on free will, self-growth, and achieving one’s potential.
Humanists believed people are naturally good and capable of growth.
Example: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs—to reach your full potential (self-
actualization), you first need basic needs like food, safety, and love.

Cognitive Perspective
Focuses on mental processes like memory, thinking, and problem-solving.
Example: Studying how students solve math problems helps understand how the brain
processes information.
Biopsychological Perspective
Studies how biology (brain, genetics, hormones) influences behavior.
Example: How brain injuries affect memory or how dopamine affects happiness.
Social Psychological Perspective
Examines how social forces influence behavior.
Example: Why do people conform to peer pressure? Why do groups behave differently
than individuals?
Conclusion
Psychology is a vast and evolving field that uses scientific methods to study human
behavior and mental processes. From the early Greeks to modern research on the
brain, psychology helps us understand ourselves, improve our lives, and solve real-
world problems.

Key Takeaways
Psychology started as part of philosophy and became a science in the 19th century.
There are multiple perspectives in psychology: structuralism, functionalism,
psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism, and more.
Psychology uses evidence and critical thinking to study behavior and help people
live better lives.

Introduction: Why the Ego and Self Matter

At the core of human existence is a constant struggle between who we are, what we
want, and what the world expects from us. Think about it:

You want to do what makes you happy, but there are rules and expectations.
You’re aware of your life and death, which forces you to think about what really
matters.
This tension between our desires, rationality, and purpose has been studied by two
major thinkers:

Sigmund Freud – who focused on the mind’s balance (id, ego, superego).
Martin Heidegger – who focused on existence, authenticity, and finding meaning.
Let’s unpack their ideas step-by-step and see how they apply to everyday life.

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, explained that the mind works like a
battlefield. The id, ego, and superego constantly “argue” inside us to decide what
we think, feel, and do.

1. The Id (The Pleasure Seeker)

The id is like a demanding child—it wants pleasure right now.
It’s driven by instincts: hunger, sex, anger, or anything that brings instant
gratification.
The id doesn’t care about consequences, morals, or logic.
Example:
You’re craving pizza during class.

Id says: “Forget the teacher! Walk out and eat pizza now!”
2. The Superego (The Moral Judge)
The superego is like your inner teacher or strict parent.
It tells you what’s “right” and “wrong” based on what you’ve learned from society,
parents, and culture.
When you ignore it, it punishes you with guilt.
Example:
The superego reminds you: “Skipping class is irresponsible. What would your parents
think?”

3. The Ego (The Rational Mediator)

The ego is like a wise negotiator. It balances the id and superego while dealing
with reality.
The ego’s job is to find a realistic solution—a way to satisfy your needs without
breaking the rules.
Example:
Your ego steps in: “I’ll finish class first, then grab pizza after.”

How They Interact in Real Life

Imagine you’re in a store and see a cool gadget you can’t afford:

Id: “Steal it! You’ll have it right now!”

Superego: “Stealing is wrong. You’ll feel ashamed.”
Ego: “Let’s save money and buy it later.”
The ego is like the referee who keeps the game (your mind) under control.

Defense Mechanisms: The Ego’s Tools

Sometimes, the id and superego overwhelm the ego, causing anxiety. To protect
itself, the ego uses defense mechanisms—unconscious strategies to reduce stress.

1. Repression
Pushing painful thoughts into the unconscious.
Example: Forgetting a breakup because it’s too painful.
2. Denial
Refusing to accept an uncomfortable truth.
Example: A smoker saying, “I’m not addicted. I can quit anytime.”
3. Displacement
Shifting your feelings to a safer target.
Example: You’re angry at your boss but yell at your sibling instead.
These mechanisms protect us, but they can also hold us back if overused.

Heidegger’s Philosophy: Being and Authenticity

While Freud studied the mind’s conflicts, Martin Heidegger focused on a deeper
question:

What does it mean to exist?

Heidegger didn’t care about pleasure or guilt. Instead, he asked:

Are you living a meaningful life?

Are you being true to yourself?
Let’s explore his key ideas:
1. Dasein (Being-in-the-World)
Heidegger introduced the term “Dasein”, which means “being there” or “being-in-the-
world”.
Humans are unique because we’re aware of our existence.
We constantly reflect on: “Who am I? What’s my purpose?”
Example:
You might sit alone and wonder: “Am I just working to survive, or am I doing
something meaningful?”

2. Authenticity vs. Inauthenticity

Heidegger believed most people live inauthentic lives—blindly following what
society expects without thinking for themselves.
Living authentically means staying true to your values and purpose, even if it’s
difficult.
Example:
Imagine you’re passionate about music, but everyone tells you to become a doctor.

Living inauthentically: Choosing medicine to please others.

Living authentically: Pursuing music because it’s what you love.
3. Being-Towards-Death
Heidegger argued that awareness of death gives life meaning.
Knowing you have limited time forces you to ask: “Am I spending my life wisely?”
Example:
People often change after a near-death experience. They stop wasting time and focus
on what matters most—like family, passion, or purpose.

Connecting Freud and Heidegger: Understanding Ourselves

Both Freud and Heidegger help us understand human behavior in different ways:

Freud shows us the battle inside our minds (id, ego, superego).
Heidegger reminds us to look at the bigger picture—how we live and why we exist.
Why It Matters in Real Life
Balancing Your Desires and Morals (Freud):

Learn to listen to your ego. Don’t let your impulses (id) control you, but don’t
let guilt (superego) overwhelm you either.
Example: If you want success, your ego might say: “Work hard, but take breaks to
avoid burnout.”
Living Authentically (Heidegger):

Ask yourself: “Am I living for myself or others?”

Pursue goals that make you feel alive—not just what society expects.
Facing Death and Finding Meaning:

Knowing life is short can motivate you to stop procrastinating and take action.
Conclusion: Finding Balance and Purpose
Freud and Heidegger may seem like opposites—one explores the mind, and the other
explores existence. But both teach us this:

To live fully, you need to balance your inner conflicts and stay true to yourself.

So, next time you face a decision, remember:

Don’t act purely on impulse (id).

Don’t let guilt or fear control you (superego).
Let your ego guide you wisely.
And most importantly—live a life that’s true, meaningful, and authentic.