Physics….Er.

Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS :-

SUBSTANCES, DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUIT.

Que. Define the following:-
(1) Valence electron (2) Bounded electrons (3) Energy band
(4) Valence band (5) Conduction band (6) Forbidden energy gap

Ans. (1) Valence electron:- The electrons are filled in different energy levels of any atom in
different orbits according to Pauli exclusion principle. First of
all electrons are filled in low energy levels and then in high
energy levels. The electrons belonging to the outer most
energy level are called valence electrons and this energy
levels are called valence energy level. The outer most
electrons are loosly bound due to more distance from the
nucleus. These electrons free due to thermal energy. These
electrons are called free electron.

(2) Bounded electrons:- The attractive force of nucleus is more on the inner electrons of atom.
As a result of it, they are revolving in the definite orbits. These electrons are called bounded
electrons. Example:- There are 32 electrons in the atom of Germanium. There electronic
configuration is as follows:- 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p2
The electrons belonging to first three orbits are called bounded electrons and the
electrons belonging to the fourth orbit are called valence electrons.

(3) Energy band:- When two atoms of any substance are brought closer, then there is
interaction between the valence electrons of these two atoms. This interaction causes a splitting
of each individual energy level into two sightly different energy levels. The energy of one level
is less than corresponding level of isolated atom and the another energy level is greater than
corresponding level of isolated atom. The valence energy levels of both the atoms are common
and the electrons of both the atoms are transacted from one atom to another.
Similarly, most of the solids including metals with which we are familiar occur in
crystalline form. As we know a crystal is a regular periodic arrangement of atoms separated
from each other by very small distance. Due to it, they begin to influence each other. Due to
this interatomic interaction, the splitting of energy levels of individual atoms takes place. That
is for example in the system of N interacting atoms considered here, there will be a group of N
closely spaced levels corresponding to any energy of the individual atom. These closely spaced
levels are reffered as energy bands. The spacing between various levels with in a band is
therefore very small. So energy levels corresponding to 1 s energy levels is called 1s band.
2s energy levels is called 2s band, 2p energy levels is call 2p band etc.

(4) Valence band:- The energy band occupied by the valence electrons is called valence band.

(5) Conduction band:- The energy band of higher energy levels which is either empty (at 0K)
or partially filled (at room temperature) above the valence band is called conduction band.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
(6) Forbidden energy gap:- The valence band and-conduction max.
band in a solid are usually separated by a definite energy gap. C.B.
min.
Electrons cannot have energy corresponding to this energy gap
and hence it is known as forbidden energy gap. It is denoted by Eg
max.
 Eg. V.B.
min.
The lowest energy level in the conduction band is shown
as EC and highest energy level in the valence band is shown as
EV in the above figure. The forbidden energy gap is equal to the difference between these levels.
 Eg = EC – EV
The minimum energy is required for shifting electrons from valence band to conduction
band. Its value is equal to the forbidden energy gap.

Que. Distinguish between conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of band
theory of solids, explain.
Ans. 1. Metals (conductors):- The energy band diagram
for a metal is such that the conduction band and valence
band partly overlap each other and there is no forbidden
energy band gap in between i.e.  Eg=0. e.g.-
Magnesium atom, zinc etc. However, during the process
of crystal formation, the splitting of energy levels take
place in such a manner that the 3p band overlaps with 3s
band. In the hybrid band so formed now electrons have
sufficient number of unfilled levels for transition. In such
situation, 3s band is called valence band and 3p band is
called conduction band and the two bands overlap.
In spite of it, the energy band diagram for a metal
is such that the conduction band is partially filled with
electrons. e.g.:- sodium. In which 3s contains only one electron against its capacity of
accommodating two electrons. Thus the conduction properties of sodium are due to this
partially filled band. The lower half portion of this band is called valence band and upper half
portion is called conduction band. Above both the
substances are called conductors.

2. Insulators:- In the insulators, the valence band is

completely filled while the conduction band is
completely empty and energy gap is quite large
i.e.  Eg > 3eV. The diamond is an example of insulator
and the forbidden energy gap is of 6eV. Due to large
energy gap, no electron is able to go from the valence
band to the conduction band. Hence electrical
conduction in these materials is impossible-and they behave as
insulators.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
3. Semiconductor:- In semiconductor, the valence band
is totally filled and the conductor band is empty but the
energy gap between conduction band and valence band
is quite small. It is less than 3eV. For example, the
energy gap for germanium is of 0.72eV and for silicon it
is of 1.1 eV. At zero kelvin temperature, electrons are not
able to cross even this small energy gap and hence the
conduction band remains totally empty. Therefore, the
semiconductor at zero kelvin behaves as insulator.
However at room temperature, some electrons in the valence band acquire thermal energy and
jump over to the conduction band where they are free to move. As a result of it, the
semiconductor acquires small conductivity at room temperature. The resistance of
semiconductor would not be as high as that of insulator
Classification of solids on the basis of conductivity:-
1. Conductors:- The solid which have high value of conductivity
varies from 102 S/m to 108 S/m and very low value of resistivity
from 10–8 to 10–2 ohm×metre are called conductors. The basic
unit of conductance is the Siemens (S).
2. Insulators:- The solids which have low value of conductivity
and very high value of resistivity are called insulators. The
value of conductivity for insulators is less than 10–8 S/m and
resistivity is more than 108 ohm × metre.
3. Semiconductors:- These are those solids which have conductivity and resistivity
between conductors and insulators. The value of conductivity for
semiconductors lies in between 10–5 S/m to 100 S/m and of
resistivity between 100 to 105 ohm×metre.

Que. What is intrinsic semiconductor? Explain with examples. Describe the crystal structure
and charge carriers of intrinsic semiconductor.
Ans. Intrinsic semiconductor:- A Pure semiconductor’s called intrinsic conductor. Pure
Silicon and Germanium are the examples of an intrinsic semiconductor. Both are members of
the group IV of periodic table of elements.
Crystal structure:- The electronic configuration of Silicon and Germanium are as follows
Si(14) ls22s22p63s23p2
Ge(32) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p2

Both the atoms have thus four valence electrons. Four extra electrons are needed to
complete the outermost orbit of each atom. To obtain these four electrons each atom forms four
covalent bonds by sharing its four valence electrons with the neighbouring four atoms. As a
result of it, the valence orbit complete.
The crystal structure for Germanium is shown in figure:-

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

At 0K (absolute temperature) all the covalent bonds are complete. Hence no free
electrons is available in the crystal for the conduction of current. Hence intrinsic
semiconductors behaves as an insulator at 0K.

Charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductor:-

No free electrons is available in the crystal for the conduction of current. At room temperature,
the electrons have sufficient thermal energy to break the covalent bond. When a covalent bond
breaks, the electrons becomes free. The electron which leaves the bond is called free electrons
and the vacancy created in the covalent bond due temperature release of the electron is called
a hole. The hole is equivalent to a positive charge +e.
The number of free electrons in conduction and holes in valence band is exactly equal in
an intrinsic conductor
ne = nh = ni
nenh = ni2
Where ni is the number density of intrinsic charge
carrier density.
At room temperature, the free electrons in
conduction band and holes in valence band are in
random motion in the absence of electric field. The
random motion of holes in valence band can be
represented as follows:-
Let due to thermal energy an electron is set free from the
covalent bond at site A thereby a hole is created at this
site An electron from the covalent bond of
neighbouring atom site B may jump to vacant site A
then bond is completed at A but a hole is created at
B. As shown in figure when an electron jumps from
C to B a hole is created at C and so on. The
movement of free electrons equal to the movement
of holes but opposite direction in a semiconductor.
Thus in a semiconductor both electrons and holes act
as charge carriers and contribute in electric
conduction.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
When a semiconductor is connected to a battery, then electric field is set up across
the semiconductor. The holes move in the direction of the electric field in the valence band
and the electrons in the conduction band move in the direction opposite to the direction of
the field as shown in figure. Thus, electric current flows in the semiconductor.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
Que. Derive expression for conductivity and resistivity of
semiconductor.
Ans. Consider an intrinsic semiconductor of length and
area of cross section A connected to a battery of potential
difference V. The electric field set up across the
semiconductor is given by E = V/ . Due to the electric field,
both electrons and holes in this semiconductor move
in mutually opposite direction with drift velocities ve
and vh and contribute current Ie and Ih in the same
direction in the semiconductor. Therefore, the total
current in the semiconductor is the sum of electric
current due to the flow of electrons (Ie) and due to the
flow of holes (Ih).
I = Ie + Ih ...(1)
If ne be the number density of electrons in the semiconductor and drift velocity is ve then
the electronic current is given by Ie = neAeve
Similarly nh be the number density of holes in the semiconductor and drift velocity of
holes is vh then the current is given by Ih = nhAevh
Substituting the values of le and Ih in eqn. ...(1) If electric field intensity is increased
I = neAeve + nhAevh the electrons are accelerated more
rapidly towards positive potential
I = Ae(neve + nhvh)
after each collision. Consequently
= Ae(neµeE + nhµhE) the electrons gain more
I = AeE(neµe + nhµh) ...(2) average drift velocity towards
positive potential i.e. in the direction
From the microscopic form of Ohm's law opposite to the applied electric field.
If ν is the drift velocity and E is the
J=  E
applied electric field.
I
  E  I  A E Then, v= µeE
A
Substituting the value of I Where, μe is referred
AeE(neµe+ nhµh) = A  E as electron mobility.
 = e(neµe + nhµh)
1 1
resistivity     
 e(ne µe  nh µh )
In case of intrinsic semiconductor:- ne = nh = ni
  nie(µe  µh )
1
ρ=
n ie(µ e + µ h )

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
Que. What is an extrinsic semiconductor? Explain how an intrinsic semiconductor can be
converted into N-type and P-type semiconductor?
Ans. Extrinsic semiconductor:- Intrinsic semiconductor has thermally generated current
carriers holes and electrons. These current carriers are small in number at room temperature
and hence the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is low. So to increase the conductivity
of an intrinsic semiconductor, some suitable impurities can be added in it. Small amount of
impurity atoms added in a semiconductor considerably increase the conductivity of the
semiconductor. The process of adding impurities in the intrinsic semiconductor is called
dopping and a semiconductor obtained after adding impurity atoms in the intrinsic
semiconductor is called extrinsic or dopped semiconductor. The impurities atoms added are
called dopants. The impurity added may be one part per million. In a doping, it is required that
the presence of the dopant atom should not distort the crystal lattice and the size of the dopant
atom should be almost the same as that of the crystal atom.
Impurity
Intrinsic Extrinsic

semiconductor
+ semiconductor

Types of impurities:- There are two types of impurities that can be added in the intrinsic
semiconductor to increase its conductivity:-

A) Pentavalent impurities:- The elements whose each atom has five valence electrons
r are called pentavalent impurities. For examples:- Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb),
Phosphorous (P) etc. These impurities are also known as donor impurities.

B) Trivalent impurities:- The elements whose each atom has three valence electrons
are called trivalent impurities. For examples:- Indium (In), Gallium (Ga), I
Aluminium (Al) etc. These impurities are also known as acceptor impurities.

Types of extrinsic semiconductor :-

Depending upon the type of impurity added in the intrinsic semiconductor, extrinsic
semiconductor is classified into two categories:-
1. N-type semiconductor 2. P-type semiconductor
1. N-type semiconductor:- When pentavalent impurity atoms like:- As, Sb etc. are added to
pure Germanium or Silicon crystal, we get an extrinsic semiconductor known as N-type . .
semiconductor.

Intrinsic + N-type

S.C. Pentavalent S.C.

impurity
Pentavalent impurity atom, say Arsenic has
five valence electrons. When arsenic atom is added into
the germanium crystal, it replaces one of the germanium
atom and settles in the lattice site of replaced
germanium atom. This germanium atom forms four covalent bonds by sharing its four electrons
with the neighbouring germanium atoms. The fifth valence electron of arsenic remains un-

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
accomdated (viz;qDr). Even room temperature provides the sufficient thermal energy to the free
electron to jump to the conduction band. This electron is work as charge carrier.
So a large amount of free electrons are
available in the crystal when a small amount of Ge Ge Ge
arsenic is added to the germanium. Besides of it, at Donor

room temperature, some of the covalent bonds get electron

ruptured, producing there by free electrons and an
equal number of holes. In this doped Ge As Ge

semiconductor there are many more free electrons Valence

than holes, the electrons are called majority electrons
carriers and the holes are called minority carriers.
Ge Ge Ge
The crystal of this type has excess number of
electrons or negatively charges carriers and hence
it is known as N-type or negative type semiconductor. Since each impurity pentavalent atom
add donates one free electron to the crystal structure. These impurity atoms which donate free
electrons for conduction are called donor impurities.
On giving up their fifth electron, the donor atoms become positively charged ion.
However, the matter remains electrically neutral.positive ions remains at their place in the
crysyal ,because their remaining electrons remaines bonded with the other atoms.So they do
not contribute in electrical conductance . It is shown as below:-

Energy band diagrain of N-type semiconductor:- The energy band diagram of N-type
semiconductor is shown in figure. The fifth free electron
in N-type semiconductor occupies a discrete energy_ level
known as donor level just below the conduction band of
the semiconductor crystal. The energy gap between
donor level and the condtiction band is very small. Even
room temperature provides the sufficient thermal energy
to the free electron at donor level to jump to the conduction
band. This electron in the conduction band is responsible
for the conduction of current in the N-type semiconductor.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

2. P-type semiconductor:- When trivalent impurity is added to pure germanium crystal, we

get extrinsic semiconductor known as P-type semiconducto r. Trivalent impurity atom say
indium has three valence electrons. When an atom of indium is added into the germanium
crystal, this atom replaces one of the germanium atom and settles in the lattice site of replaced
germanium atom.

Intrinsic P-type
semiconductor
+
semiconductor
trivalent
impurity

This indium atom forms three covalent bonds

with the neighbouring three germanium atoms. The
fourth bond remains incomplete which has a deficiency
of one electron. This deficiency of an electron is called
hole and behaves like a positively charged particle.
This hole attracts the electron from the neighbouring
covalent bond to fill itself. Now a new hole is created
at the site from which the electron has been attracted to
fill the hole.
So, a large amount of holes are formed by adding more and more indium in the
germanium crystal. Besides of it, at room temperature, some of the covalent bonds may get
ruptured (टू टना) , producing thereby free electrons and an equal number of holes. In such doped
semiconductor there are many more holes than electrons, so the holes are called majority charge
carriers and the electrons are called minority charge carriers. The crystal of this type has excess
number of holes or positive charges carriers and hence it is known as P-type or positive type
semiconductor. Since each impurity trivalent atom added accepts one electron from the
neighbouring germanium atom, so it is known as acceptor impurities.
On accepting one electron, the acceptor atoms become negatively charged. However, the
matter remains electrically neutral as a whole. It is shown as below:-

Ge Ge Ge
Acceptor hole

Ge As Ge

Valence
electrons

Ge Ge Ge
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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
Energy band diagram of P-type semiconductor:-
The energy band diagram of P-type semiconductor is
shown in figure. The energy levels corresponding to
the holes in the P-type semiconductor lie just above
the valence band. These energy levels are known as
acceptor levels. The energy difference between the
acceptor levels and the highest energy level of
valence'band is much less than the forbidden
energy gap. At room temperature, the thermally
agitated electrons in the valence band are easily
transferred to the acceptor level and hence large
number of holes are created in the valence band.
These holes act as current carriers when P-type
semiconductor is connected across the battery.

One. What is P-N junction? Explain the formation of potential barrier and depletion region in
a P-N junction.
Ans. P-N junction:- The device formed by joining atomically a wafer of P-type semiconductor
to the wafer of N-type semiconductor is known as P-N junction diode and the term juction
refers to the boundary between N-type and P-type materials hence the name as P-N junction.
Two important processes occur during the formation of a PN-junction :-
(1) diffusion ( 2) drift .
A trivalent impurity say Indium is placed on a
thin wafer of N-type germanium slab. The system is
heated to a high temperature, indium diffused into
germanium. The impurity concentration in maximum
at surface and decreases gradually inside the
semiconductor. In this way, a P-type semiconductor
is formed on an N-type semiconductor. Such a
formation of P-region on N-region is called P-N
juction.
Another way to make a P-N junction is by diffusion of arsenic into a P-type
semiconductor.
Formation of depletion layer in a P-N juction:- A P-N junction diode is shown in above
figure. In P-N junction, the holes are majority carriers in P-region and electrons are majority
carriers in N-region. When P-N junction is formed, due to difference in concentration of
charge carriers in the two regions of P-N junction, the electrons from N-region diffuse
through the junction into P-region and holes from P-region diffuse into N-region. The

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
electrons and holes diffusing through junction from opposite sides recombine and cancel out
the charge of each other.
The negative ions in the P-region and positive ions in the N-region are immobile (स्थिर) as
these remain bounded to their respective lattice sites. Since the region around the junction has
no free charge, so this region is known as depletion region or depletion layer. The width of the
depletion layer and the magnitude of the barrier potential depend on the nature of
semiconductor and doping concentration on the two sides of P-N juction. If the doping
concentration in N-type and P-type semiconductor forming P-N junction is large, the width of
P-N junction would be small. The thickness of depletion layer is about 10–6m.
Barrier potential:- Due to positive space charge
region on N-side of junction and negative space
charge region on P-side of junction, an electric field
is set up across the juction from positive charge
towards negative charge, This electric field sets a
potential barrier at the junction which opposes further
diffusion of majority charge carriers into opposite
regions. Due to this electric field, an electron on P-
side of the junction moves to N-side and a hole on N-
side of junction moves to P-side of junction. The
motion of these charge result of it, a drift current
starts, which is opposite in direction to the diffusion
current.
In the beginning, the diffusion current is large but drift current is small. As the diffusion
process continues, the space charae regions across the juction extend. As a resullt of it, the
strength of electric field across the juction increases and thereby drift current increases. This
process continues until the diffusion current becomes equal to the drift current. When this stage
is reached, the movement of majority charge carriers across the juction stops. Now the P-N
junction is said to be in-equilibrium state and there is no current across the P-N junction. At
this stage, the potential barrier across the P-N junction has maximum value VB. Above figure
represent the potential distribution near the junction. This potential acts as a barrier, hence
known as potential barrier.
At room temperature, VB is about 0.3V for germanium and 0.7V for silicon.
The barrier electric field for silicon P-N juction is given by
V 0.7volt
 EB  B  6  7  106Volt / m
d 10 metre

1
Width of depletion layer  Dopping

Depletion is directly proportional to temperature.

Diffusion and drift current : Because of concentration difference holes/electron
try to diffuse from their side to other side. Only those holes/electrons crosses the
junction, which have high kinetic energy. This diffusion results in an electric current
from the P-side to the N-side known as diffusion current (idf)
As electron hole pair (because of thermal collisions) are continuously created in the
depletion region. There is a regular flow of electrons towards the N-side and of holes
towards the P-side. This makes a current from the N-side to the P-side. This current
is called the drift current (idr).
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Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
Que. Discuss the different modes of biasing the P-N junction.
Ans. The circuit symbol used for P-N junction diode is shown in figure:-

P-N Junction
P N
P N Anode Cathode

Biasing of the P-N junction:- There are two methods of biasing the P-N junction:-

1. Forward biasing 2. Reverse biasing

1. Forward bias:- When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the P region and the
negative terminal to the N region of a P-N junction VB + E
–
EB
then it is said to be forward biased. The circuit diagram
for forward biasing of P-N junction is shown in figure.
In forward biasing, the applied voltage V of battery
mostly drops across the depletion region. It is due to
P V N
the fact that the resistance of depletion region is very + –
high as it has no free charge carriers. In forward biasing the forward voltage opposes the
potential barrier VB. As a result of it, the potential barrier height is reduced and width of
depletion layer decreases. The potential barrier in forward biasing becomes (VB – V).
The majority carriers, holes in the P-region are repelled by the positive potential due to

battery and move towards the P-N juction. Similarly, the majority carriers, holes in the N-
region are repelled by the negative potential due to battery, towards the junction. Due to it, the
diffusion of majority carriers takes place across the junction. On crossing the junction, the
number of the electrons and holes will combine with each other. For each electron hole
combination, a covalent bond in the P-region, near the positive terminal of the battery is broken
and the liberated electron enters the positive terminal of the battery through lead wires. This
action results in a new hole, which under the force of applied voltage moves towards the P-N
junction. At the other end, the electrons from the negative terminal of the battery enter the N-
region to replace the electron lost due to the combination with the holes at the junction. Thus
an electric current will flow due to migration of majority carriers across the P-N junction, which
is called.forward current. The magnitude of this forward current is usually in milliampere (mA).
Thus, the resistance of P-N junction is low to the flow of current when forward biased.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
2. Reverse biasing:- When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the N-region and
the negative terminal to the P-region of a P-N junction then it is said to be reverse biasing.
The circuit diagram for reverse biasing of P-N junction is shown in figure. In reverse
biasing, the applied voltage V of
battery, mostly drops across depletion
region of P-N junction and its
direction of voltage is same as that of
potential barrier. Due to it, the reverse
bias voltage supports the potential
barrier. Due to it, the reverse bias
voltage supports the potential barrier.
As a result of it, the barrier height
increases and width of depletion
region increases. The barrier potential under reverse bias is (V B + V).
The majority carriers, holes in -the P-region are attracted by the negative potential due

to battery and move away from the P-N juction. Similarly, the majority carriers, holes in the
N-region are attracted by the positive potential due to battery and move away from the junction.
Due to it, there is no conduction across the junction due to majority carriers. However, a few
minority carriers of P-N junction diode cross the junction after being accelerated by higkreverse
bias voltage. They constitute a current that flows in the opposite direction. This is called reverse
current. Since the large increase in reverse voltage shows small increase in reverse current. The
magitude of this forward current is usually in microampere (µA). Hence, the resistance of P,N
junction is high to the flow of current when reversed biased. The reverse current is not
limited by the magnitude of the applied voltage but is limited due to concentration of minority
carriers on either side of the junction.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

Que. Explain the forward and reverse bias characteristics of a P-N junction. Explain with the
help of a circuit diagram.
Ans. Characteristics:- The variation of current with the applied voltage across the junction
diode is known as characteristics of P-N junction. There are two types of characteristics are
drawn:-
1. Forward bias characteristics 2. Reverse bias characteristics

1. Forward bias characteristics:- The graphical relation between forward bias voltage applied
to P-N junction and the forward current through the P-N junction is known as forward bias
characteristics. The circuit diagram to study forward bias characteristics is
the resistance of P-N junction is high to
shown in figure:-

In the forward bias, the positive

terminal of a battery is connected
to the P-region and the negative
terminal to the N-region of P-N
junction. Here a potential divider
arrangement is employed to change the potential difference applied across the diode which can
be noted by the voltmeter connected in The current (If)
flowing in the circuit can be noted by the milliammeter
connectd in circuit.
When the battery voltage is zero, diode. not
conduct and the diode current is zero. As the battery
voltage increases, the barrier tial starts decreasing and a
small current begins to flow. The forward current
inottiosps slowly at first but as soon as the battery voltage
(V) becomes greater than the barrier potential (VB), the
forward current increases rapidly.
The battery voltage at which forward current starts increasing rapidly is known as knee
voltage or cutin voltage.

After knee voltage, the junction diode behaves almost like a conductor. The variation of
current with voltage applied across the junction diode is exponentially. However, there is a

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
limit of current that can pass through the diode without damaging it A high current through the
diode produces a largc amount of heat which may burn the diode.

2. Reverse bias characteristics:- The graphic retion between reverse bias voltage applied to
P-N junction and the reverse current,through the P-N junction is known as reverse bias
charact.eristics. The circuit diagram toitudy reverse bias characteristics is shown in figure:-

μA

The P and N-regions of a diode are connected to the negative and the positive terminals
of a battery respectively using a potential divider arrangement. As the reverse current (Ir) is
small a micrommeter is employed in the circuit for the measurement of current.
When P-N junction is reverse biased, the majority carriers in P and N-region are repelled
away from the junction. There is small current due to the minority carriers. This current attains
its saturation value and is independent of the applied reverse voltage. It depends upon the
termperature of the junction diode. As the reverse voltage is increased then charge carriers
acquires the maximum kinetic energy. Due to it, large amount of covalent bonds in P and N-
regions are broken. As a result of this, large electron-hole pairs are produced and further these
charge carriers are accelerated towards the junction and again large amount of covalent bonds
are broken. Hence there is a sudden rise in the reverse current. This voltage is called zener
diode or break down voltage. Once break down voltage is reached, the high reverse current
may damage the junction diode.
The current in a P-N junction is given by:-
I = I0 [eeV/KT –1]
Where is Boltzmann constant having value as K = 1.38 × 10–23J/K, T is the temperature
and to is the saturation current.
In forward bias:- In forward bias, V is positive and low, then eqV/KT > > 1
 I = I0eqV/KT
Hence the current increase exponentially with potential in forward bias.
In reverse bias:- In reverse bias, V is positive and high, so e-qV/KT < < 1
 I = –I0

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

Que. Explain
the resistance of P-N junction diode.
Ans. In a junction diode, volta,i.e V is not propsortional to the diode current and hence it does
not obey ohm's law. So junction diode is the example of non-ohmic conductor. The
resistance of a diode is the function of the operating current. Diode has two possible resistances
i.e.
1) Static resistance 2) Dynamic resistance
(1) D.C or Static resistance:- Static resistance of the diode is defined as the ratio of the voltage
across the diode to the corresponding direct current flowing through it.
V
RS =
I
The resistance of diode changes so the dynamic resistance is more useful in it.
(2) A.C or Dynamic resistance:- Dynamic resistance of the diode is defined as the ratio of the
small change in voltage(  V) to the corresponding small change in current (  I) in the diode.
V
Rd =
I

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
Que. What is rectifier? Explain with the help of a circuit diagram, the use of P-N junction diode
as half wave rectifier. Draw a sketch of the input and output wave forms.
Ans. Rectifier:- The device which converts alternating current (a.c.) into direct current
(d.c) is called rectifier. The process of converting alternating current into direct current
is called rectification.
Principle:- Junction diode conducts only when forward biased and it does not conduct when
reverse biased. This fact makes the junction diode to work as a rectifier. Rectifier is of two
types:-
1. Half wave rectifier:- The rectifier which converts only one half cycle of applied
alternating signal into direct signal is::called half wave rectifier.
2. Full wave rectifier:- The rectifier which converts the whole cycle of applied
alternating signal into direct signal is called full wave rectifier.
1. Half wave rectifier:- The rectifier which converts only one half cycle of applied aternating
signal into direct signal is called half wave rectifier. The remaining half cycle remain unused.
The electrical circuit for a half wave rectifier is shown in figure:-

The a.c. input signal to be rectified is fed to the primary coil of the transformer. The
secondary coil is connected to the junction diode through a load resistance RL. The output
signal is obtained across the load resistance.
Working:- When the positive half of a.c. input signal flows through the primary coil, an
induced e.m.f. is set up in the secondary coil due to mutual induction. The direction of induced
e.m.f. is such that the upper end of the secondary coil becomes positive and lower end becomes
negative. Since upper end of secondary coil is connected to P-region and lower end is connected
to the N-region of the junction diode, so the junction diode is forward biased during the positive
half of input a.c. Thus the junction diode conducts and current starts to flow in resistance from
point A to B. The output voltage is obtained across the ends of the load resistance R L.
When negative half cycle of a.c. input flows through the primary coil, again induced
e.m.f. is set up across the secondary coil due to mutual induction. Now the direction of induced
e.m.f. is such that the upper end of the secondary coil becomes negative and lower end becomes
positive, .So the junction diode is reverse biased. Hence the junction diode does not conduct
and theie fore, we get no output across the load resistance during negative half of input a.c.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
Since only half of the portion of the input wave os pntained as output in the form of d.c.,
so the junction diode is called a half wave rectifer. The input and corresponding output voltages
are shown in figure:-

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
Que. Explain with the help of a circuit diagram, the use of P-N junction diode as full wave
rectifier. Draw a sketch of the input and output wave forms.
Ans. Full wave rectifier:- The rectifier which converts the whole cycle of applied alternating
signal into direct signal is called full wave rectifier. For full wave rectification, we have to use
two diodes. The circuit digram for a full wave recitifier using two diodes is shows in figure:-

The a.c. input signal is fed to the primary coil of the transformer. The P-regions of both
the diodes D1 and D2 are connected to the two ends of secondary coil (S). The load resistance
RL across which output voltage is obtained is connected between common point of N-regions
of diodes and central tapping.of the secondary coil.
Working:-
For Positive half cycle:-
When positive half cycle of input a.c. signal flows
through the primary coil, induced e.m.f. is set up in the
secondary coil due to mutual induction. The direction of
induced e.m.f. is such that the upper end of the secondary
coil becomes positive while the lower end becomes
negative. Thus, diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2
is reverse biased. So the current due to diode D1 flows
through the resistance RL from point A to B and the output
voltage is obtained across the ends of the load resistance.

For Negative half cycle:-

When negative half cycle of input a.c. signal flows
through the primary coil, induced e.m.f. is set up in the
secondary coil due to mutual induction. The direction of
induced e.m.f. is such that the upper end of the secondary
coil becomes negative while the lower end becomes
positive. Thus, diode D1 is reverse biased and diode D2 is
forward biased. So the current due to diode D2 flows through the resistance RL from point A
to B and the output voltage is obtained across the ends of the load resistance. Since both the
halves of input a.c. are rectified, so the junction diode is called a full wave rectifier.

The input and corresponding output voltage are show-n in figure.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

NOTE :-
Bridge rectifier:-

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Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
Que. What do you mean by filter circuit , Explain with the help of a circuit diagram ?
Ans.
Filter circuit

Smoothing filter:- As mentioned before, the output, voltage of a rectifier is unidirectional but
still varying in magnitude. Such a voltage is commonly referred as a pulsating or fluctuating
dc. Some special circuits called filters are employed to smooth the output voltage of a rectifier
i.e. by separating out the a.c .components present in the output voltage of the rectifier. In filter
circuits capacitor or inductor or a combination of these are used as the response of these circuit
elements is different for alternating and direct voltages. One such filter is obtained by
connecting a capacitor of high capacitance parallel to the load resistance is shown in figure:-

 1 
The capacitor   offers low impedance to a.c. component. Due to which the a.c.
 ωC 
component is bypassed. This capacitor offers infinite impedance to d.c. component. The d.c.
component is obstructed by C. It produces a voltage drop across load resistance RL as a filtered
d.c. output, which is almost output d.c. voltage.
Working:- During the half cycle when voltage across capacitor is rising, the capacitor gets
charged. When no external load is applied, the capacitor remains charged to the peak voltage
of the rectified output. When the load is applied across the capacitor, the capacitor gets
discharged through that load. Due to it, the voltage across the capacitor begins to fall. In the
next half cycle of rectified output, the capacitor again gets charged to the peak value and so on.
The rate at which the voltage across the capacitor falls depends upon the inverse of time
constant of the circuit. The time constant of this current is equal to the product of capacitance
C and effective resistance R used in the circuit. To make the value of time constant large, the
value of C should be large. Therefore, for filtering the rectified voltage, the capacitor of large
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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
capacitance is to be used in order to obtain the output voltage nearer to the peak voltage of
rectified voltage.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
Que. Write the names of a few diodes used for special purpose along with their circuit symbols.
Describe their uses in brief.
Ans. Some devices which are basically junction diodes are developed for different applications.
The important devices are as follow:-
1. Photo diode 2. Light emitting diode (LED) 3. Zener diode 4. Solar cell
1. Photo diode:- A photo diode is a semiconductor
which depends for its operation on the photoconductive
effect. In a photo diode one of the region P or N is made
so thin that the incident light photons are able to reach
the junction region. The photodiodes are generally
reverse biased when in use. The circuit symbol for a
photo diode is shown in figure and a circuit where photo
diode is being used as a light detector is shown in figure.
In the absence of light the reverse current is very small.
When the frequency hv of incident light photon is such that its
energy hu is greater than or equal to the forbidden enrgy gap then
such photons can be absorbed by the semiconductor to exhibit
photocondpctivity. The electron and hole pairs generated near the
junction will be separated by the junction field and made to flow
across the junction. This result in reverse saturation current much
greater than the reverse current in the absence of illumination.
While keeping the frequency constant if the intensity, of light is
increased this result is more reverse current. It is necessary to
operate the photo diode below its breakdown voltage.
The variation in reverse current corresponding to various
light intensities is shown in figure. Photo diode are used
following purposes:-
(1) In photodetection for optical signals
(2) For converting the light signals into electric signals (demodulation)
(3) In switching the light on and off
(4) In reading of computer, computer cards etc.

2. Light emitted diode(LED):- Light emitted diode is a photoelectric device which converts
electrical energy into light energy. It is a heavily doped P-N
junction diode whi ch under forward bias emits
spontaneous radiation. The diode is covered with a
transparent cover so that this emitted light may come
out.
When P-N junction is forward biased, then the
thickness of depletion layer decreases. Due to
which movements of majority charge carriers
takes place across the junction. Then the
recombination of electrons and holes takes
place. Due to it, the energy is released
which is equal to forbidden energy gap. In
Silicon or Germanium the energy released in
recombination appears as heat while in some

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
semiconductors like GaP, GaAs etc this energy appears as visible light. The semiconductor
used in LED is choosen according to the required wavelength of light. Visible LED's are
available for red, green, yellow, orange and blue colours. LED's are mainly used in following
application:-
1) In calcualtors and digital watches
2) As light indicators
3) High intensity LED's are used in optical fibre telecommunication.

3. Zener diode:- A P-N junction diode when reyerse biased

shows a sudden increase in current to a high value at a
certain voltage called breakdown voltage or zener voltage.
This high current may damage the ordinary P-N junction
diode. The breakdown voltage for P-N junction diode
depends on the amount of doping. When a diode is designed
to operate in the reverse breakdown region without being
damaged than such a diode is called Zener diode. The circuit symbols for a Zener diode is
shown in figure:-

Use:- A zener diode can be used as voltage regulator or voltage stablizer to provide a
constant voltage from a source whose voltage may fluctuate over a wide range. The circuit
diagram using zener diode as a voltage stablizer is shown in figure:-

The zener diode is connected in reverse biased to the fluctuating voltage source. The
resistance R is connected as dropping resistance. The constant voltage supply is obtained across
the load resistance RL connected in parallel with zener diode.
When the input d.c. voltage Vi increases beyond a certain limit, the voltage across zener
diode becomes constant equal to zener break down voltage. Since R L is connected in parallel
so the voltage across RL remains the same as that of zener break down voltage. Hence the output
voltage remains constant. The resistance R is used as a safely measure, its value is so choosen
that the current through the zener diode does not become high enough to damage the diode. It
is, necessary to choose a Zener diode having the breakdown voltage equal to that is required
across RL.

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
4. Solar cell:- A P-N junction diode which converts li.ht ever: into electrical energy is called
solar cell. Solar cells works on the photovoltaic process principle that photoelectric emission
can develop potential difference between suitable substances. Solar cell is shown symbolically
in figure:-
Its construction is shown in figure. A solar cell consists
of a silicon or Ga-As P-N junction diode packed in a can
(iSdsV) with glass window on top. The upper layer is of P-type
semiconductor. It is very thin so that the incident light
photons may easily reach the P-N junction. On the top face
of P-layer, the metal fingers electrodes are prepared in order
of have enough spacing between the fingers for the light to
reach the P-N junction through P-layer.

The generation of emf by the solar cell, when light falls on, is due to the following
three basic processes – (a) Generation
(b) Separation and
(c) Collection.

(a) Generation:- Generation of e-h pairs due to light (with hν > Eg ) close to the junction;

(b) Separation:- Separation of electrons and holes due to the electric field of the depletion
region. Electrons are swept to n-side and holes to p-side;

(c) Collection.The electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and holes
reaching p-side are collected by the back contact. Thus p-side becomes
positive and n-side becomes negative giving rise to photovoltage.

When photons of light of energy h  E g fall at the junction, electron-hole pairs are
generated in the depletion layer. The electrons and holes produced move in opposite directions
due to junction field. The photo generated electrons move towards N-side of P-N junction. The
photo generated holes move towards P-side of P-N junction. They will be collected at the two
sides of the junction, giving rise to a photo voltage between the top and bottom metal
electrodes. The top metal
contact acts as positive
electrode and bottom metal
contact acts as negative
electrodes. When an external
load is connected across metal
electrodes a photo current
flows.
Typical voltage (V) current (I)
for a solar cell is shown
below:-

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)
At open circuit, no current flows through the cell but if the terminals of the cell are short
circuited then due to heavy current, voltage of the cell drops to zero.

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Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

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Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

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Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

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 Physics….Er.Manoj Swami Sir (8890888911)

 LEDs are comprised of compound semiconductor materials, which are made up

of elements from group III and group V of the periodic table (these are known as
III-V materials). Examples of III-V materials commonly used to make LEDs are
gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium phosphide (GaP).

Main LED materials

The main semiconductor materials used to manufacture LEDs are:

 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN): blue, green and ultraviolet high-brightness LEDs
 Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP): yellow, orange and red high-
brightness LEDs
 Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs): Red and infrared LEDs
 Gallium phosphide (GaP): yellow and green LEDs

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