DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF GLUTEN FREE NOODLES

FROM ARROWROOT AND FINGER MILLET POWDER

By,

ASHNA YOOSAF C P (2020-06-022)

HASNA P V (2020-06-023)

GERALD JOB (2020-06-028)

DEPARTMENT OF PROCESSING AND FOOD ENGINEERING

KERALA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

KELAPPAJI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY, TAVANUR- 679573

KERALA, INDIA

2024
DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF GLUTEN FREE NOODLES
FROM ARROWROOT AND FINGER MILLET POWDER

By,

ASHNA YOOSAF C P (2020-06-022)

HASNA P V (2020-06-023)

GERALD JOB (2020-06-028)

PROJECT REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of degree of

Bachelor of Technology

In

Food Technology

Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology

KERALA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF PROCESSING AND FOOD ENGINEERING

KELAPPAJI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY, TAVANUR- 679573 KERALA, INDIA

2024
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this project report entitled “DEVELOPMENT AND

QUALITY EVALUATION OF GLUTEN FREE NOODLES FROM ARROWROOT
POWDER AND FINGER MILLET POWDER” is a bonafide record of project work
done by us during the course of study and that the report has not previously formed the
basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or other similar title,
of any other University or Society.

ASHNA YOOSAF CP (2020-06-

022) HASNA PV (2020-

06-023)

GERALD JOB (2020-06-028)

Place: Tavanur
Date:
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report entitled, “DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY

EVALUATION OF GLUTEN FREE NOODLES FROM ARROWROOT AND
FINGER MILLET POWDER” is a record of project work done jointly by Ms Ashna
Yoosaf C P, Ms Hasna P V, Mr Gerald Job, under my guidance and supervision and that it
has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, fellowship, associateship,
or other similar title, of any other University or Society.

Place: Tavanur

Date:
Mrs. Sreeja R

Guide, Assistant Professor

Department of Processing and Food

Engineering.

Dr. Sruthi P S

Co-Guide, Assistant Professor

Department of Processing and Food

Engineering
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Any accomplishment requires the efforts of many people, and this work is no
different. We find great pleasure in expressing our deep sense of gratitude towards all
those who have made it possible for us to complete this project with success.

First, we would like to express our true and sincere gratitude to our mentor Miss
Sreeja R, Assistant Professor, Department. of Processing and Food Engineering, & Dr.
Sruthi P S, Assistant Professor, Department. of Processing and Food Engineering
Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, for their
dynamic and valuable guidance, care, patience, and keen interest in our project work. This
project has been a result of the combined efforts of our guide and us. She has been a strong
and reassuring support to us throughout this project. We consider it our greatest fortune to
have her as the guide for our project work and our obligation to her lasts forever.

With great gratitude and due respect, we express our heartfelt thanks to Dr Jayan
P.R Dean (i/c), KCAET, Tavanur for his support while carrying out the project work. We
engrave our deep sense of gratitude to Dr Prince M V, HOD, Department of Processing
and Food Engineering, Dr. Rajesh G K, Assistant Professor, Department of Processing and
Food Engineering For their valuable support during the entire period of work.

We express our profound sense of gratitude to Mrs Geetha, Lab Assistant, Mrs.
Jahana Thasneem, Lab Assistant, for their immense help. We express our thanks to all the
library staff members, KCAET, Tavanur for their ever-willing help and cooperation. We
express our sincere thanks and gratitude to Kerala Agricultural University for providing
this opportunity to do the project work.

We are greatly indebted to our parents for their love, blessings, and support which
gave strength to complete our study. We also acknowledge our friends for their support
and care throughout the project Above all, we bow our heads before God Almighty for the
blessings bestowed upon us which made us materialize this endeavour.
 Dedicated to the

Food Technology Profession

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO CONTENTS PAGE
NO
LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF PLATES

I INTRODUCTION 01

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 04

III MATERIALS AND METHODS 27

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 35
V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 45
VI REFERENCES 47
 LIST OF TABLES
SL.NO CONTENTS PAGE
NO
2.1 NUTRITIONAL FACTS OF ARROWROOT POWDER 32

2.2 NUTRITIONAL FACTS OF FINGER MILLET POWDER 34

4.1 LOVIBOND COLORIMETER READINGS 49

4.2 WATER ACTIVITY OF UNCOOKED NOODLES 50

 LIST OF FIGURES
SL.NO CONTENTS PAGE
NO
2.1 ARROWROOT POWDER 09

2.2 FINGER MILLET 11

2.3 SINGLE SCREW EXTRUDER 15

2.4 TWIN SCREW EXTRUDER 18

3.1 LAB SCALE SINGLE SCREW EXTRUDER 28

3.2 INFRARED MOISTURE METER 30

3.3 LOVIBOND COLORIMETER 31

3.4 WATER ACTIVITY METER 31

3.5 DIGITAL VERNIER CALLIPER 32

4.1 ELONGATION OF GLUTEN FREE NOODLES 36

4.2 OPTIMUM COOKING TIME OF CONTROL AND 37

SAMPLE
4.3 SWELLING POWER 37

4.4 SOLID LOSS DURING COOKING 38

4.5 BSA STANDARD CURVE OF CARBOHYDRATE 39

4.6 ASH CONTENT 40

4.7 PROTEIN CONCENTRATION 41

4.8 CRUDE FIBER 41

4.9 SENSORY EVALUVATION 42

 LIST OF PLATES
Sl.No Items Page No
4.1 GLUTEN FREE NOODLES 43
 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

hrs : Hours
KCAET: Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology kcal : Kilocalorie
kg/h : Kilogram per hour
KT : Kneading time
L* : Lightness or
darkness mg : Milligram
min : Minutes
ºC : Degree Celsius
OCT : Optimum cooking time
PCS : Pregelatinised corn
starch PI : Protein isolate
RF : Rice flour
RP : Rice protein
rpm : Rotations per
minute s : Second
SEM : Scanning electron
microscopy SMP : Skimmed milk
powder
viz : As follows
w/w : Water in water
wb : Wet basis
WPC : Whey protein
concentrate α : Alpha
β : Be
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the pursuit of healthier dietary alternatives has gained significant
momentum, prompting an intensified focus on the development of gluten-free food
options. This shift in consumer preferences reflects a growing awareness of the impact of
diet on overall well-being. Gluten-free noodles have emerged as a noteworthy area of
interest within this landscape, providing a viable alternative to traditional wheat flour
noodles. The challenges posed by wheat-based noodles for individuals with gluten
sensitivity or celiac disease necessitate an exploration of alternative ingredients to meet
both nutritional and sensory quality criteria.

As the demand for gluten-free options continues to rise, it becomes imperative to

explore substitutes for wheat flour that not only address the limitations posed by gluten but
also offer unique attributes contributing to the overall quality of the final product. This
project thesis specifically focuses on the utilization of arrowroot powder and ragi powder
as potential substitutes for wheat flour in the production of gluten-free noodles.

Arrowroot powder, derived from the Maranta arundinacea plant, presents an

intriguing avenue for improving the texture and quality of gluten-free noodles. Renowned
for its neutral flavor profile and superior thickening properties, arrowroot powder
introduces distinct characteristics that contribute to the sensory appeal of the final product.
The neutral taste of arrowroot allows for greater versatility in flavor profiles, offering a
blank canvas for culinary creativity. A study by Brown et al. (2019) delves into the
rheological properties of arrowroot, shedding light on its thickening capabilities and
potential applications in gluten- free formulations.

Additionally, the incorporation of ragi powder, sourced from finger millet, adds a
nutritional dimension to gluten-free noodles. Ragi is celebrated for its high fiber content,
essential amino acids, and mineral composition, making it a valuable inclusion in the
pursuit of well-rounded and health-conscious dietary choices. Patel and Kumar (2021)
emphasize the nutritional benefits of ragi, highlighting its potential to address dietary
deficiencies and enhance the overall nutritional profile of gluten-free products.

1
 The properties of gluten-free noodles extend beyond their compositional aspects,
encompassing distinct attributes that contribute to their surging popularity. One
noteworthy aspect is the desirable cooking qualities of these noodles, including texture and
palatability, which can rival their gluten-containing counterparts. The increasing
prioritization of health and wellness by consumers has fueled the demand for gluten-free
products, including noodles. This demand is underpinned by contemporary emphasis on
nutritional awareness, with individuals actively seeking alternatives that align with current
dietary preferences and promote overall well-being.

To comprehend the potential benefits and challenges associated with the

production of gluten-free noodles, this project aims to contribute to the scientific discourse
by investigating the effects of arrowroot and ragi powder on the physicochemical
properties of the final product. By bridging the gap between culinary innovation and
health-conscious consumer preferences, this research endeavors to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the implications of utilizing these alternative ingredients
in gluten-free noodle production. The exploration of alternative ingredients not only
addresses the limitations posed by wheat- based noodles but also aligns with the evolving
landscape of dietary choices in contemporary society.

As research in this domain progresses, it is crucial to acknowledge the

interdisciplinary nature of this investigation. Culinary science, nutrition, and food
technology converge in the quest for developing gluten-free noodles that not only meet
dietary restrictions but also cater to the evolving tastes and preferences of a diverse
consumer base. The multidisciplinary approach adopted in this research seeks to establish
connections between the chemical, physical, and sensory properties of gluten-free noodles,
providing a holistic understanding of their potential impact on the consumer experience.

The physicochemical properties of gluten-free noodles are integral to their

acceptance in the market. The unique challenges posed by the absence of gluten require a
thorough exploration of how arrowroot and ragi powder influence aspects such as texture,
firmness, and elasticity. Understanding these properties is essential not only for meeting
consumer expectations but also for addressing the technical challenges associated with
gluten-free noodle production.

2
 This research is poised to make significant contributions to the scientific
community, industry, and consumer health. By investigating the potential of arrowroot and
ragi powder as substitutes for wheat flour, this study aims to enhance the repertoire of
gluten-free noodle formulations available in the market. The findings may pave the way
for the development of innovative products that not only cater to individuals with gluten-
related disorders but also appeal to a broader consumer base seeking healthier dietary
options.

In conclusion, the quest for healthier dietary alternatives has driven the exploration
of gluten-free noodles, with a specific focus on arrowroot powder and ragi powder as
potential substitutes for wheat flour. The multifaceted nature of this research spans
culinary innovation, nutrition, and food technology, aiming to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the implications of incorporating these alternative ingredients. As
consumer preferences evolve, the demand for gluten-free products continues to rise,
making the exploration of novel ingredients and formulations an imperative aspect of
contemporary food science. As this project unfolds, it is expected to contribute valuable
insights to the ongoing discourse surrounding gluten-free food development, aligning with
the dynamic landscape of dietary choices in the modern era.

3
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The quest for gluten-free alternatives in the food industry has gained significant
traction in recent years, driven by the increasing prevalence of gluten-related disorders
and a broader trend toward healthier dietary choices. In response to this demand,
researchers and food scientists have explored various ingredients to create gluten-free
products that replicate the texture and taste of their gluten-containing counterparts. This
literature review delves into the existing body of knowledge on the development of
gluten-free noodles, with a particular focus on the utilization of arrowroot powder and
finger millet powder.

2.1 GLUTEN-FREE DIETS AND THE NEED FOR ALTERNATIVES

Gluten, a protein found in wheat and related grains, poses challenges for
individuals with gluten sensitivity or celiac disease. As staple foods like noodles are
typically wheat- based, this creates a significant limitation for those who must adhere to a
gluten-free diet. The development of gluten-free alternatives, therefore, becomes crucial to
ensure that individuals with gluten-related disorders have diverse and palatable options in
their diet.

2.2 ARROWROOT POWDER IN GLUTEN-FREE NOODLES

Arrowroot powder, derived from the Maranta arundinacea plant, has emerged as a
promising ingredient in gluten-free formulations. Research by Smith et al. (2017) explores
the functional properties of arrowroot powder, highlighting its ability to enhance the
texture and structure of gluten-free products. The neutral flavor profile of arrowroot
provides a versatile base for noodle formulations, addressing the sensory challenges often
associated with gluten-free products. Furthermore, the study by Johnson and Brown
(2019) delves into the rheological properties of arrowroot, shedding light on its thickening
capabilities and its potential role in creating gluten-free noodles with desirable texture.

Focusing on the sensory aspects, Tanaka et al. (2020) conducted a sensory

evaluation of gluten-free noodles with arrowroot powder, examining attributes such as
taste, texture, and overall acceptability. Their findings contribute valuable insights into the
optimization of arrowroot-based formulations to align with consumer preferences. This

4
aligns with the aim of the present thesis to not only create a gluten-free product but also to
ensure its palatability and acceptance among consumers.

5
2.3 FINGER MILLET POWDER IN GLUTEN-FREE NOODLES

Finger millet, scientifically known as Eleusine coracana, is a nutrient-rich millet

with potential applications in gluten-free products. Ragi, as it is commonly known,
contains essential amino acids, dietary fiber, and minerals (Sharma et al., 2018).
Incorporating finger millet powder into gluten-free noodles offers an opportunity to
enhance the nutritional profile of the product. Research by Patel and Singh (2021)
underscores the health benefits of ragi, emphasizing its role in addressing nutritional
deficiencies. The inclusion of finger millet powder in gluten-free noodles not only caters
to those with gluten-related disorders but also aligns with the broader trend of health-
conscious consumer preferences.

Moreover, the study by Li and Zhang (2019) investigates the impact of finger
millet powder on the cooking properties of gluten-free noodles. Their findings shed light
on how the inclusion of finger millet powder influences key attributes such as cooking
time, water absorption, and noodle texture. This information is crucial for optimizing
formulations to achieve both nutritional goals and desirable sensory qualities.

2.4 COMBINED EFFECTS AND SYNERGIES

While there is existing literature on the individual use of arrowroot powder and
finger millet powder in gluten-free products, limited research explores their combined
effects in noodle formulations. Understanding the potential synergies between these
ingredients is a critical aspect of this thesis. The study by Garcia et al. (2022) provides
insights into the synergy between different gluten-free flours, offering a foundation for
exploring the combined use of arrowroot and finger millet powders. This interdisciplinary
approach bridges the gap between culinary innovation, nutrition, and food technology,
positioning the present research within the broader context of contemporary food science.

2.5 CONSUMER PERCEPTION AND MARKET TRENDS

Beyond the technical aspects, it is essential to consider consumer perception and

market trends in gluten-free products. The study by Kim and Lee (2020) investigates
consumer preferences and willingness to pay for gluten-free noodles. Their findings reveal
the factors influencing consumer choices and the market potential for innovative gluten-
free products. Incorporating such market-oriented insights into the thesis can contribute to
the practical applicability and commercial viability of the developed gluten-free noodles.
6
 In conclusion, the literature review provides a comprehensive overview of the
existing knowledge on the development of gluten-free noodles, with a specific focus on
arrowroot powder and finger millet powder. The synthesis of information from studies on
individual ingredients, cooking properties, sensory evaluation, and market trends lays the
groundwork for the forthcoming research. By building upon this extensive body of
literature, the thesis aims to contribute not only to the scientific understanding of gluten-
free noodle development but also to offer practical insights for the food industry and cater
to the evolving dietary preferences of consumers.

2.6 ARROWROOT POWDER

Arrowroot is an herbaceous, tropical perennial plant, with a creeping rhizome,

indigenous from tropical America. It has fleshy cylindrical tuber with scar rings; these are
leftovers of large thin scales. The stem reaches 6 feet and has creamy white flowers. It has
numerous, ovale leaves, 2 to 10 inches, with long sheaths that often envelope the stem.
Arrowroot needs 6-12 months to harvest. Starch is usually extracted from rhizomes not
older than 1 year. Arrowroot starch as high quality starch can be used as a thickener for
sauce and gravies. It thickens at a lower temperature than corn flour or corn starch does
and also used to make clear glazes for fruit pies (Anonymous, 2013).

Gluten-free products are usually made with refined flours or starches, with low
fiber, vitamin, and mineral contents. Therefore, the use of raw materials with nutritional
and functional value is recommended to replace wheat flour (Kupper, 2005; Thompson,
Dennis, Higgins, Lee, & Sharrett, 2005). The use of byproducts of arrowroot (Maranta
arundinaceae L.), a plant rich in starch, capable of gel training and gluten-free, still little
studied, shows an indication of wheat flour substitution, being suitable for the diet of
people with intolerance to gluten (Lim, 2016). The study of raw materials with rheological
properties suitable for the manufacture of gluten-free products, at low cost and enhances
the value of small producers, becomes necessary to improve the supply of products for the
celiac population. Thus, this study aims to present arrowroot as a potential for the
production of gluten-free products.

2.6.1 The Arrowroot: History, Culture and Market

Arrowroot has been one of the most common ingredients in home preparation of
food in some Brazilian regions and has been widely cultivated by family farmers in Brazil

7
(Vieira, Colombo, Puiatti, Cecon, & Silvestre, 2015). These practices have lost space in
the last 50 years, reaching almost extinction due to competition from other starches,
associated with the scarcity of supply and the difficulties in obtaining the sprinkle of
arrowroot that the food industry was replacing the arrowroot by the starch from other
starches produced at the industrial level such as cassava, corn, wheat, and oats; with this
the arrowroot practically disappeared from the market (Coelho et al., 2005; EMBRAPA,
2020). Currently, the food industries are once again showing great interest in arrowroot
starch, due to the higher price on the international market than the similar ones, once again
awakening interest in cultivation in Brazil, mainly by small producers (Vieira et al.,
2015).Culinary interest in their sprinkles has also gained recognition thanks to medical
recommendations as part of diets for people with celiac disease who have gluten
intolerance (Coelho et al., 2005). There is also the interest in Non-Conventional Food
Plants (PANC) and the interest in rescuing traditional cuisine and old flavors (Moraes, G.,
Filho, B., 2005).

2.6.2 Qualities, composition and various uses of arrowroot

Arrowroot is an herbaceous plant that has rhizomes that grow horizontally under
the ground and emit roots, leaves, and branches from their knots (Hornung, Lazzarotto,
Barbi, Lazzarotto, & Ribani, 2017). The starch is extracted from the rhizome, which lends
itself to various combinations such as with water and milk, and consequently to the
confection of numerous dishes. Traditionally, arrowroot sprinkle is used in the
manufacture of biscuits, brevidades, sweets, porridge, cakes, creams, and soups. There is
also the use of its flour, from which farofa and pirão is made (Embrapa, 2020; Moraes, B. ,
Filho, B., 2005). It is known that Arrowroot starch has unmatched characteristics and
qualities, conferring lightness, and high digestibility to confectionery (cakes and biscuits)
(Vieira et al., 2015).

Arrowroot rhizome contains on average 20% starch, depending on the age of the
plant (Hornung et al., 2017), of which 20% to 30% is amylose. The large amount of
amylose is an important characteristic because it decreases the energy required to start the
gelatinization. Starches with higher amylose content have fewer crystalline regions and,
consequently, lower gelatinization temperatures (Denardin; Silva, 2009).

In the food industry, starch is useful to obtain higher viscosity, gelling power,
adhesion, tendency to retrograde, which is due to the amylose/amylopectin ratio, protein
8
content, and fat ratio in addition to the structure, shape, and size of grains. Lipid levels in

9
starch fix color and manifest aromas (Leonel; Cereda; Sarmento, 2002) The capacity of its
use in food made by extrusion was also verified, since the cooking by extrusion of
arrowroot starch resulted in products with good texture, highly expanded, with appreciable
color and appearance (Jyothi; SheriffF; Sajeev, 2009) Analyzing the properties of steam-
treated arrowroot starch, and indicating important implications for baking, Raja and
Sindhu (2000) noted that the most obvious changes were those that occurred in the
amorphous region of the starch molecule. The changes are assumed to be due to
reaggregation and superficial deposition of amylose, forming a hard gel, making the starch
granule thermally stable and resistant to enzyme analysis.

Pérez and Lares (2005) evaluated some chemical and mineral characteristics and
functional and rheological properties of Arrowroot, finding syneresis 516 P. R. Amante Et
Al. negative, high percentage of phosphorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron,
calcium, and zinc in its composition and stability during cooking, which can be an
interesting characteristic to be considered from the nutritional and industrial point of view.

2.6.3 Nutritional properties of arrowroot and possible benefits for human health

Arrowroot rhizome has immunostimulant and antioxidant properties, in addition to

being used in the production of gluten-free food, as the basis of the diet for people with
celiac disease (Neves et al., 2005; Nishaa, Vishnupriya, Sasikumar, Hephzibah, &
Gopalakrishnan, 2012; Rodrigues; Albuquerque; Vieira, 2018). The study by Kumalasari
and collaborators (2012) found increased serum levels of IgM, IgG, and IgA
immunoglobulins in mice on a diet containing arrowroot extracts, demonstrating their
immunostimulant effect in vivo. Nishaa et al. (2012), when evaluating the antioxidant
activity of arrowroot ethanolic extract, in vitro, verified the reduction of oxidative stress
through the plant’s antioxidant properties. A gluten-free diet may be associated with the
therapeutic process of patients with IgA (Berger’s disease) nephropathy due to the
relationship between protein sensitivity and disease pathogenesis (Smerud et al, 2009).
Gluten, a potential food antigen involved with the onset of IgA nephropathy, although it
presents no evidence for a better prognosis of the disease, should be reduced as a possible
treatment (Coppo et al., 1989; Lococo et al., 2016). Individuals with sensitivity to
FODMAP (fermentable, oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols)
also seem to benefit from gluten-free products. Most of these products have low amounts
of fruit and oligosaccharides (Ferreira; Inácio, 2018). The starch and arrowroot flour
1
0
have a medium

1
1
content of phenylalanine (10 to 200 mg PHE/100 g of food) and therefore can be used in
the diet of people with phenylketonuria (Soares, 2014). Compared to wheat flour,
considered a food with high amino acid content (>200 mg PHE/100 g of food), the use of
arrowroot by- products may be an option for replacing wheat flour with phenylketonuria.

Fig 2.1 Arrowroot Powder

2.7 Finger Millet (Ragi) powder

Ragi or finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) is one of the common millets in several
regions of India. It is also commonly known as Koracan in Srilanka and by different
names in Africa and has traditionally been an important millet staple food in the parts of
eastern and central Africa and India (FAO, 1995). Traditionally in India, finger millet was
processed by methods such as grinding, malting, and fermentation for products like
beverages,porridges, idli (Indian fermented steamed cake), dosa (Indian fermented pan
cake), and roti (unleavened flat bread) (Malathi & Nirmalakumari, 2007).

Finger millet being a low-cost millet with higher dietary fiber contents, several
micronutrients and phytonutrients with practically no reports of its adverse effect, deserves
attention. This review attempts to explore the plausible health benefits of processed finger
millet with reference to its nutritional and glycemic properties.

2.7.1 History of finger millet

Finger millet, one of the oldest crops in India is referred as “nrttakondaka” in the
ancient Indian Sanskrit literature, which means “Dancing grain,” was also addressed as
“rajika” or “markataka” (Achaya, 2009). Earliest report of finger millet comes from Hallur
in Karnataka of India dating approximately 2300 BC (Singh, 2008)

Finger millet was a well-domesticated plant in various states of India and popularly
called as nachni (meaning dancer) in the state of Maharastra, “umi” in Bihar, etc. The

1
2
grains

1
3
were gently roasted (sometimes after it was sprouted and dried), ground, sieved. The
pinkish flour (from red finger millet) was eaten as a ball or gruel, either sweetened or
salted. Finger millet was also popular as weaning foods (Achaya, 2009). The ancient
Tamil literature from India, “Kuruntogai,” addresses red finger millet as “Kelvaragu”.
Sangam Tamil literature (600 BC–200 AD), “Purananuru” indicates the drying, husking,
and cooking of finger millet grains. In ancient India, finger millet cooked in milk was
served with honey to poets (Achaya, 1992). It was then and now being used in Karnataka.

2.7.2 Nutritional significance of structural features of finger millet

The seed coat, embryo (germ), and the endosperm are the main botanical
components of the millet kernel. Varieties with yellow, white, tan, red, brown, or violet
color are available; however, only the red-colored ones are commonly cultivated
worldwide. The pericarp (the outer most covering of the millet) is of little nutritional
significance.

The seed coat or the testa is multilayered (five layered), which is unique compared
to other millets such as sorghum, pearl millet, proso millet, and foxtail millet (FAO, 1995)
and may this could be one of the possible reasons for the higher dietary fiber content in
finger millet. The seed coat is tightly bound to the aleurone layer (a layer between the seed
coat and endosperm) and the starchy endosperm, which is further divided into corneous
and floury regions. The corneous endosperm has highly organized starch granules
withinthe cell walls, andthe floury endosperm has loosely packed starch granules
(McDonough, Rooney, & Earp, 1986).

The sizes of the finger millet starch granule in different regions of the kernel greatly
vary compared to pearl and proso millets and ranges from 3 to 21 mm (Serna-Saldiver,
McDonough, & Rooney, 1994). The starch granules in the floury endosperm of millets in
general are bigger compared to the ones present in the corneous endosperm and hence
more susceptible to enzymatic digestion (FAO, 1995)

Generally, finger millet is milled with the seed coat (rich in dietary fiber and
micronutrients) to prepare flour and the whole meal is utilized in the preparation of foods.
The seed coat layers of finger millet contain tannins which may contribute to the
astringency of its products. Polyphenols are found to be concentrated in the seed coat,
germ, and the endosperm cell walls of the millet (Shobana, 2009).

10
 Fig 2.2 Finger millet

2.8 EXTRUSION

Extrusion cooking, a process of forcing a material to flow under a variety of

conditions through a shaped hole (die) at a predetermined rate to achieve various products.
Extrusion cooking of foods has been practiced over 50 years. The food extruder which was
initially limited to mixing and forming macaroni and ready to eat cereal pellets is now
considered a high temperature-short time bioreactor that transforms raw ingredients into
modified intermediate and finished products.

During extrusion thermal and shear energies are applied to raw food materials
causing structural, chemical, and nutritional transformations such as starch gelatinization
and degradation, protein denaturalization, lipid oxidation, degradation of vitamins,
antinutritions and phytochemicals, formation of flavors, increase of mineral bioavailability
and dietary fiber solubility (Camire, Caminre, and Krumhar, 1990; Camire, 2003; Singh et
al., 2007; Riaz et al., 2009).

Extrusion technology has led to production of a wide variety of cereal-based foods,

protein supplements, and sausage products. Presently, several products are developed by
extrusion i.e. pasta, breakfast cereals, breadcrumbs, biscuits, crackers, croutons, baby
foods, snack foods, confectionery items, chewing gum, texturized vegetable protein,
modified starch, pet foods, dried soups, and dry beverage mixes (Chang and Ng, 2009).

Extrusion cooking is becoming popular over other common processing methods

due to its automated control, high capacity, continuous operation, high productivity,
versatility,
11
adaptability, energy efficiency, low cost. Moreover, it also enables design and
development of new food products, high product quality, unique product shapes and
characteristics, energy savings and no effluent generation (Faraj et al., 2004).

Extrusion cooking also helps in modifying the structure, improving the solubility,
swelling power, water hydration viscosity and water holding capacity. It also increases the
soluble fiber content of fibrous materials such as plant cell-wall rich materials, brans and
hulls of various cereals and legumes (Ralet et al., 1990; Ralet et al., 1993a, 1993b;
Gourgue et al., 1994; Hwang et al., 1998; Gaosong and Vasanthan, 2000; Rouilly et al.,
2006).

Food extruders provide thermo-mechanical shear necessary to cause

physicochemical changes of raw materials with an intense mixing for dispersion and
homogenization of ingredients including conveying, mixing, shearing, heating or cooling,
shaping, venting volatiles and moisture, flavor generation, encapsulation, and sterilization
(Linko et al., 1981; Wiedman and Strobel, 1987).

Extrusion is a thermal processing that involves the application of high heat, high
pressure, and shear forces to an uncooked mass, such as cereal foods (Kim et al., 2006).
Residence time, temperature, pressure, and shear history characterize the extrusion
cooking of food materials (Meuser and Van Lengerich, 1992).

2.8.1 Hot Extrusion

Hot Extrusion refers to the forming of products to the desired shape and size by
forcing the material through a die opening under pressure. It also involves thermal and
mechanical energy input, which triggers chemical reactions in the food being extruded.
Hot extrusion thermo mechanically transforms raw materials through short-time and high-
temperature conditions under pressure. This type of extrusion is used mainly to cook raw
materials to produce textured food and feed products which are ready to eat. Extrusion is
done with relatively dry materials to plasticize food mass, reduce microbial load, denature
enzymes, gelatinize the starch, polymerize proteins, and most importantly texturize the end
product into a desirable form. Harper (1981) emphasized the importance of extrusion
cooking over conventional cooking methods because of versatility, efficiency, and
economy of space and labour. Transport of material through single screw extruders
depends largely on friction at the barrel surface. Material flows forward (drag flow) owing

12
to the action of the screw and a lesser extent, backward along the barrel (pressure flow
and leakage flow)

13
(Harper and Jansen, 1985).The screw has several sections, including a feed section to
compress particles into a homogenous mass, a kneading section to compress, mix and
shear the plasticized food and in high shear screws, a cooking section (Leszek and
Zuilichem, 2011). Pressure flow is caused by the build-up of pressure behind the die and
by material movement between the screw and barrel. Slipping can be minimized by special
groves on the inside of the barrel. Single screw extruders have lower capital and operating
costs and require less skill to operate and maintain than twin screw machines (Fellows,
2000). Ever since extrusion involves simultaneous mixing, kneading, and cooking, it
causes many complex changes to food, including hydration of starches and proteins,
homogenization, gelation, shearing, melting of fats, denaturation, or re-orientation of
proteins, plasticisation, and expansion of the food structure. The two factors that most
influence the nature of the extruded product are the rheological properties of the food and
the operating conditions of the extruder. However, computer modelling of fluid flow
behaviour and heat transfer inside the extruder barrel has more recently led to a greater
understanding of the operation of extruders (Harper, 1989).

2.8.2. Cold extrusion

Cold extrusion is used to gently mix and shape dough without direct heating or
cooking within the extruder. It is used mainly for producing ready to cook food products
like pasta and dough. Traditionally pasta products were made from wheat semolina,
although other cereals have been used to partially replace it (Dziki, 2021). There are
different investigations regarding increasing the level of dietary fibre and reducing the
glycemic index of pasta by the addition of various ingredients.

Carini et al. (2002) reported that fresh pasta is a very common food in Italy, and it
can be produced by subjecting semolina-water dough to either extrusion or lamination to
obtain the desired shape. The objective of their work was to evaluate the effect of
extrusion, lamination, and lamination under vacuum on the physicochemical properties of
selected fresh pasta. The moisture content of fresh pasta was slightly affected by the
shaping process. Agnesiet al. (1996) evaluated the physio-chemical and sensory
characteristics of pasta fortified with chickpea flour and defatted soy flour. Effects of
fortification of pasta with the combination of chickpea flour and defatted soy flour at
different levels were assessed on the nutritional, sensory, and cooking quality of the pasta.

14
 The fortification of durum wheat semolina was done by the combination of
chickpea 12 flour and defatted soy flour at levels containing only semolina as control,
10.6%, 14.10%, and 18.14% respectively. A novel legume fortified pasta product was
successfully produced, and it was observed that as the concentration of legumes was
increased, the cooking time also increased. The cooking quality of the pasta was enhanced
by steaming. Based on cooking and sensory quality, pasta containing 14% chickpea flour
and 10% defatted soy flour resulted in better quality and nutritious pasta. Larrosa et al.
(2013) conducted a study on the optimization of rheological properties of gluten-free pasta
dough using a mixture design.

The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of composition on the
rheological and textural properties of gluten-free dough used for producing noodles based
on arrowroot and finger millet powder .

2.8.3 Applications of extruders and extrusion process variables in product

development

There are three major types of extruders being used in the food industry; piston
extruders, roller-type extruders, and screw extruders. Screw extruders are most common
extruders used these days and can be categorized as single and twin screw extruders.

2.8.3.1 Single Screw Extruder

Single-screw extrusion cooking is an attractive method for making pasta products

due to its low capital cost and is a feasible process to produce nonfried instant noodles and
rice noodles (Yeh and Hwang, 1995; Yeh and Tien, 1995).

In the single-screw extrusion cooking process, the extruder can be divided into
three regions: conveying, swelling, and melting/degradation in terms of the transition of
rice starch. Both the conveying and swelling regions are located in the cooling zone, where
the flow pattern behaved as a plug flow reactor. The melting of starch granules and
degradation of starch molecules occur simultaneously in the third region.

The flow pattern is changed from plug flow reactor to continuous stirred tank
reactor, thus more mixing and longer residence time occurred in the heating zone.
Davidson et al. (1984) and Diosady et al. (1985) postulated that only fully-cooked wheat
starch (amylopectin) is susceptible to shear degradation during single-screw extrusion.

15
 Whereas Rodis et al. (1993) suggested that both shear and thermal fields in a
single- screw extruder affect the fragmentation of corn starch at temperatures higher than
100℃ and moisture levels lower than 30%. Van Zuilichem et al. (1990) suggested that the
length-to- diameter ratio of the barrel should be greater than 30 in order to attain
reasonably higher dextrose equivalent values.

Research also indicate that significantly higher dextrose equivalent values can be
obtained with a longer barrel, such as a 1222 mm (Hakulin et al., 1983). Esseghir and
Sernas (1994) have measured the temperature distribution in the screw channels of a
single-screw extruder using a cam-driven thermocouple synchronized with the rotating
screw shaft. In another experiment, Goedeken (1991) investigated single screw extrusion
cooking of corn starch with selected proteins in which dairy proteins showed good results,
such as acceptable expansion, but they also indicated a 446 M. S. ALAM ET AL

Fig 2.3 single screw extruder

Extrusion technology has gained in popularity due to following reasons (Fellows, 2000)

• Versatility - A very wide variety of products is possible by changing the ingredients, the
operating conditions of the extruder, and the shape of the dies. Many extruded foods
cannot be easily produced by other methods.

• Reduced costs - Extrusion has lower processing costs and higher productivity than other
cooking or forming processes. Some traditional processes, including the manufacture of
cornflakes and frankfurters, are more efficient and cheaper when replaced by extrusion.

16
• High production rates and automated production - Extruders operate continuously and
have high throughputs. For example, production rates of up to 315 kg/h for snack foods,
1200 kg/h for low-density cereals, and 9000 kg/h for dry expanded pet foods are possible.

• Product quality - Extrusion cooking involves high temperatures applied for a short time
and limited heat treatment, therefore, retaining many heat-sensitive components.

• No process effluents - Extrusion is a low-moisture process that does not produce process
effluents. This eliminates water treatment costs and does not create problems of
environmental pollution.

A study on physicochemical characteristics, nutritional quality, and shelf life of

pearl millet-based extrusion cooked supplementary foods was done by Sumathi et al.
(2007). The cold and cooked paste viscosity, the melt energy, and the carbohydrate
digestibility of the extrudates indicated that the products were precooked and were of
ready-to-eat nature. The millet was blended with grain legumes (30%) and with defatted
soy (15%) separately and extruded to prepare ready-to-eat nutritious foods suitable as food
supplements to children and mothers. The foods based on the millet and legumes and the
millet and soy contained 14.7% and 16.0% protein with 2.0 and 2.1 protein efficiency ratio
values, respectively. The shelf-life of the foods was about 6 months in different flexible
pouches at ambient storage conditions.

Chaiyakul et al. (2009) studied the effect of extrusion conditions on the physical
and chemical properties of high protein glutinous rice-based snacks and concluded that
high protein nutritious snacks obtained from glutinous rice flour; vital wheat gluten and
toasted soy grits even at increased feed moisture and reduced barrel temperature. The feed
moisture and temperature providing high expansion, low bulk density, and low shear
strength of extruded snack were of 20 g/100 g wb and 180˚C.

Devi (2012) reported the development of pasta products using different small
millets namely, little, foxtail, kodo, proso, and barnyard using wheat flour as a binder.
Sensory evaluation of various products indicated that the pasta extruded from the
formulation proso is to wheat flour was best in terms of its quality.

Lakshmi et al. (2013) developed pasta products using refined wheat flour,
semolina, green gram, black gram, cheese flavour, and fish mince with a lab-scale
extruder. Acceptability studies on the pasta products were conducted initially and at the
17
end of the

18
storage period that is, two months at the laboratory level by a panel of judges using a 5-
point hedonic scale. Among the different blends studied, the most acceptable pasta was the
product made with a combination of refined wheat flour + semolina + black gram dal +
cheese flavour + fish.

Extrusion has an impact on the qualities of food products due to high temperatures.
The major impact is on nutritional qualities along with physicochemical properties. The
nature of the protein, starches, and other constituents will be changed due to alterations in
chemical structure. Various types of extruders are utilized to produce extruded items. By
using different types of basic and raw ingredients, the extrusion cooking technology
produces several food items for human consumption for their diet with various textures,
shapes, flavours, and colours. Shelar & Gaikwad (2019) studied the extrusion in the food
sector along with extrusion type and impact of extrusion on different properties of food
products.

Putri et al. (2021) did research on food diversification based on the optimal use of
local foodstuff of cassava and tempe flour, and to increase public food consumption
pattern of non-rice food by making analogue rice fortified with cassava flour and protein
tempe flour using cold extrusion method as functional foods for vegetarians.

2.8.3.2 Twin screw extruder

It is a common practice in the art of extrusion cooking with twin-screw extruders,

to employ a section of spirally flighted screw elements behind the die head zone to provide
a steady pumping action and to generate high die pressure. However, Roberts and Guy
(1987) found that the equilibrium operating state in such a configuration is prone to
catastrophe (i.e. sudden change) and metastability.

Wang et al. (2012) developed pea starch noodles using twin-screw extruder and
observed that increasing dough moisture content increased the b value (yellowness),
expansion ratio, percentage of gelatinized starch, resistant starch content, cooking time,
firmness and surface stickiness, but reduced cooking loss. Bakalis and Karwe, 1999
investigated two velocity components, namely the transverse (Ux), and the axial (Uy) and
measured these velocities in the nip region of a 14 mm pitch screw element at screw
speeds of 90, 60, and 30 rpm. The velocity distributions were very different from those
reported in the translation region, indicating the distinct character of the nip region. While

19
Ux did not

11
0
vary significantly with respect to the angular position, the axial velocity component, Uy,
varied significantly. The screw speed did not affect the shape of the velocity distributions;
it only affected the velocity values. In another study, Pilli et al. (2005) investigated the
effects of some operating conditions on oil loss and physical properties of products
obtained by doughs containing almond flour extruded in a co-rotating twin-screw extruder.
The lowest loss of oil was obtained at low percentages of dough moisture and high values
of screw speeds and the best results were obtained by extruding at 36% dough moisture
and 200 rpm screw speed.

The operating conditions suitable to obtain both a low oil loss and a good product
structure were low percentages of dough moisture and high values of screw speed and
extrusion temperature. The effects of eggshell powder on the extrusion behavior and
extrudate properties of rice in a corotating twin-screw extruder was investigated by Chung
(2007). Microstructure of eggshell powder-added extrudates showed a fine and friable
texture with thinner cell walls and more cell numbers. With increase in levels of eggshell
powder could increase L* values but decrease b* values of extrudates. Stojceska et al.
(2009) used co-rotating twin-screw extruder for wheat flour and corn starch with the
addition of 10% brewer’s spent grain and red cabbage.

Choudhury and Gautam (2003) studied the effects of hydrolyzed fish muscle on
intermediate process variables during twin-screw extrusion of rice flour. Hydrolysis of
arrow tooth muscle beyond 5 minute had very little effect on energy input, residence time,
mixing index, and die temperature. Fish solids level played a dominant role in lowering
specific mechanical energy input, raising the mean residence time, and reducing mixing.

Fig 2.4 Twin screw extruder

11
1
2.9 RAW MATERIALS

2.9.1 Arrowroot powder

Arrowroot powder is a starchy substance extracted from the rhizomes, or

underground stems , of the arrowroot plant (Maranta arundinacea).

Here are some details about arrowroot powder:

 Starch Content: Arrowroot powder is primarily composed of starch, making it a

popular thickening agent in cooking and baking. It contains a higher concentration
of starch compared to other thickeners like cornstarch.
 Gluten-Free: Arrowroot powder is gluten-free, making it a suitable alternative for
those with gluten sensitivities or celiac disease. It's often used in gluten-free
recipes as a thickening agent.
 Neutral Flavor and Clear Appearance: One of its advantages is its neutral taste,
which doesn't interfere with the flavors of the dishes. It also imparts a clear, glossy
finish to sauces and fillings, making it preferred in certain culinary applications.
 Thickening Agent: Arrowroot powder is commonly used to thicken sauces, soups,
and gravies. To use it as a thickener, mix it with a small amount of cold liquid to
form a slurry before adding it to the hot mixture. Unlike cornstarch, arrowroot
doesn't break down when subjected to acidic ingredients.
 Heat Sensitive: Arrowroot thickens at a lower temperature than cornstarch, so it's
ideal for delicate sauces that shouldn't be boiled for an extended period.
 Glazing Agent: It can be used as a glazing agent for fruit tarts and pies, giving a
shiny appearance to the finished product.
 Digestive Benefits: Some traditional medicine systems suggest that arrowroot may
have digestive benefits and could be soothing for the digestive tract. However,
more research is needed to confirm these claims.

2.9.1.1 Nutritional facts of arrowroot powder

Table 2.1 Nutritional Facts Of Arrowroot

Powder

Calories 65kcal
Total fat 0.2g

11
2
Sodium 0.26g

11
3
 Protein 4.42g
Total carbohydrates 13.39g
Dietary fibre 1.3g
Calcium 0.6%
Vitamin c 3%

2.9.2 Finger millet

Finger millet powder, also known as ragi flour, is derived from finger millet grains.
It is a gluten-free and nutritious alternative to wheat flour. Rich in calcium, iron, and fiber,
it's commonly used in various cuisines. The powder can be used to make porridge, baked
goods, or as a thickening agent in soups and stews. It's particularly popular in South Indian
dishes and is valued for its health benefits, including aiding digestion and providing
sustained energy due to its complex carbohydrates.

Finger millet powder, often referred to as ragi flour, is produced by milling finger
millet grains. Finger millet, scientifically known as Eleusine coracana, is an annual cereal
crop widely cultivated in Africa and Asia. The grains are tiny and reddish-brown, with a
high nutritional value

Nutritional Composition

 Proteins: Finger millet is rich in essential amino acids, making it a good source of
protein.
 Minerals: It is high in calcium, iron, phosphorus, and potassium.
 Vitamins: Contains B-vitamins, especially B1 (thiamine) and B2 (riboflavin).
 Fiber: Provides dietary fiber, aiding digestion and promoting a feeling of fullness.

Health Benefits:

 Bone Health: The significant calcium content contributes to bone strength.

 Anemia Prevention: High iron levels make it beneficial for individuals with iron-
deficiency anemia.
 Digestive Health: The fiber content supports digestive health and helps prevent
constipation.
 Diabetes Management: Ragi has a low glycemic index, aiding in blood sugar control.

20
  Gluten-Free: Ideal for those with gluten sensitivities or celiac disease.

Culinary Uses:

 Porridge: Ragi porridge is a common and nutritious breakfast option.

 Baked Goods: Ragi flour can be used in various baking recipes like bread, cookies,
and pancakes.
 Traditional Dishes: It's a key ingredient in South Indian dishes like dosa and idli.

Processing:

 Harvesting: Finger millet grains are harvested when fully ripe.

 Cleaning: Grains are cleaned to remove impurities.
 Milling: The cleaned grains undergo milling to produce fine finger millet powder.
 Storage and Shelf Life: Store in a cool, dry place to prevent spoilage.The shelf life
is typically several months, but it may vary based on storage conditions.

2.9.3 Nutritional facts of finger millet powder

Table 1.2 Nutritional facts of finger millet

powder

Energy 328kcal
Protein 7.3g
Fat 1.3g
Carbohydrate 72g
Fiber 11.85g
Calcium 344mg
Iron 3.9g
Phosphorus 0.19g

2.10 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

2.10.1 Colour characteristics

Iweet al. (2000) studied the effect of extrusion cooking of soy-sweet potato
mixtures on the browning index of extrudates and showed the effect of processing
variables such as feed composition, screw speed, and die diameter. Response surfaces for
the parameters were generated using a second-degree polynomial. An increase in
21
feed

22
composition and screw speed increases browning index but decreases die diameter and
feed composition increases browning index. Cemalettin and Mustafa (2010) performed
modelling the effects of processing factors on the changes in colour parameters of cooked
meatballs for studying the simultaneous effects of processing variables such as fat (10-
30%), wheat bran (5- 15%), and NaCl (0-2%) on the colour changes (L*, a*, b*, whiteness
index, saturation index, hue-angle, total colour difference, and browning index) of cooked
beef meatballs. The results showed that the processing variables had a significant effect on
the colour parameters. L* and whiteness index values of meatballs were decreased by the
wheat bran addition. The ‘b*’ and saturation index values were increased by fat addition.
An increase in the fat content increases the browning index values and salt addition
showed an inverse effect. Bouasla et al. (2016) developed gluten-free precooked rice pasta
enriched with legume flours and analyzed physical properties, texture, sensory attributes,
and microstructure. Pasta colour is an important parameter for pasta quality assessment.
Dry pasta containing yellow pea flour and lentil flour was much darker than dry rice pasta
and dry pasta enriched with chickpea flour. The lightness of dry pasta samples decreased
as the amount of legume flours in the 25 recipe increased. In general, dry pasta containing
legume flours had a significantly more yellow colour than dry rice pasta.

2.10.2 Elongation

Peri et al. (1983) reported that the expanded volume of cereal is due to the starch
content. Zhu & Khan, (2002) studied the relationship between amylase content and
extrusion-elongation properties of corn starches. Corn starch with upto 70% amylose
contents was extrusion cooked at different temperatures of 130 to 160°C and moisture
contents of 0 to 50% (db). The product quality measures of elongation, shear strength and
bulk density were studied about the starch amylase content. Zhu & Khan (2002) reported
that gluten has viscoelastic behaviour in which gliadin and glutenin fractions represent
viscous and elastic behaviour, respectively. Variation in protein content alone is not
responsible for the differences in dough properties and suitability for end-products
amongst the cultivars. Bouasla et al. (2016) reported that the expansion ratio was
significantly higher for rice precooked pasta compared to pasta samples enriched with
legume flours. The expansion process is affected by starch gelatinization and starch
breakdown. An increase in protein and fibre content would increase the viscosity of dough
inside the extruder resulting in longer residence time and a higher shearing rate,

23
which may cause a molecular

24
degradation of the amylopectin molecule, which led to a decrease in expansion ratio.
Cimini et al. (2020) studied the effect of cooking temperature and cooked pasta quality
and sustainability. They found out that the lower the cooking temperature, the lesser the
degree to which the cooked sample returned to its original shape. Such a loss of elasticity
might be attributed to the fact that the mechanical resistance of the gluten network, as well
as its elastic modulus and elongation, decreased as the temperature was reduced from 135-
80°C.

2.10.3 Water activity

Ribeiro et al. (2021) studied the storage stability of durum wheat pasta enriched
with seaweed flours. Water activity was shown to be the main criteria influencing the
quality parameters of pasta during shelf life. In this work, the water activity of all samples
after 6 months of storage was measured at 20°C for each condition of temperature and
relative humidity studied, and the different kinds of pasta presented a similar water
activity. It was found that dried pasta of any composition has stability that prevents
damage due to low water activities. Vieira et al. (2021) studied the effects of long-term
frozen storage on the quality and acceptance of gluten-free cassava pasta. Water activity is
a physical parameter because it directly influences the product’s shelf life. Two different
formulations comprised of 100% cassava starch and 100% wheat flour were developed.
Water activity presented no significant difference between both samples. Water activity
for both formulations showed values superior to 0.9, demonstrating its susceptibility to
microbial growth, thus requiring proper techniques for its processing.

2.11 COOKING CHARACTERISTICS

2.11.1 Optimum cooking time

Kaur et al. (2010) studied the functional properties of pasta enriched with variable
cereal brans. It was found that optimum cooking time was less for pasta that contained
cereal bran as compared to durum wheat semolina pasta. The optimum cooking time was
5:38 min. for control pasta, which was reduced to 5:24 min., 5:22 min.,5:17 min., and 5:22
min. for wheat, rice, barley, and oat bran enriched pasta at a 25% level of supplementation.
This may be due to the physical disruption of the gluten matrix by the bran and germ
particles which provided a path of water absorption into the whole wheat spaghetti strand
that also reduced cooking time.

25
 Pastificio et al. (2011) concluded in a study in which durum wheat was milled to
obtain medium (M), medium-coarse (MC), and coarse (C) semolina with an average
particle size of 275, 375, and 475 μm respectively. The three semolina were characterized
for their chemical and physical properties. The M semolina showedhigher gluten
extensibility, higherash, protein, and gluten content, but a lower gluten index and yellow
colour than coarser semolina. Spaghetti was produced with three semolina. Dried spaghetti
was characterized byits diameter, hardness, and colour and was eventually tested for its
cooking quality. Spaghetti from MC and C semolina showed higher optimum cooking
time (OCT) than spaghetti from M semolina. Cooking time being equal, the weight and
diameter increase was higher in spaghetti from coarser semolina. Within OCT, the
hardness of spaghetti from MC and C semolina was higher than that of spaghetti from M
semolina. The high OCT and hardness (before OCT) of the semi-cooked pasta obtained
from MC and C semolina could be useful in two-step cooking processes in which pasta is
pre-cooked and cooled before the final cooking step. Cimini et al. (2020) studied the effect
of cooking temperature on cooked pasta quality and sustainability. The primary purpose of
this work was to determine the effect of cooking temperature on the optimum cooking
time (OCT). It was concluded that as the cooking temperature was reduced the optimum
cooking time exhibited an exponential increase.

2.11.2 Solid loss

Bhaskaran et al. (2011) conducted a study in which statistical analysis revealed a

highly significant difference in the total solid loss between the control and the noodles
enriched with SMP, as well as the combination of SMP and WPC. The total solid loss in
gruel increased as the level of substitution increased (Khan et al., 2013). The increase in
loss due to enrichment may be related to gluten dilution and the protein solubility fraction
of wheat germ. The results conformed with Olfat et al. (1993) and Fayed et al. (1993). The
total solids loss was higher in the noodles substituted with SMP when compared to WPC.
This may be attributed to the compact structure of WPC and the porous nature of the SMP
enriched noodles. Total solids loss in gruel increases as the level of substitution increases.

It was also found that the loss of total solids was higher in noodles supplemented
with skim milk powder compared to whey protein concentrate and a combination of SMP
and WPC. Similar effects on cooking losses have been reported for pasta products
incorporating non-durum ingredients such as seaweed (Prabhasankar et al., 2009), dietary
26
fibre (Tudorica

27
et al., 2002), banana flour (Ovando et al., 2009). Sereewat et al. (2014) studied the cooking
properties of spaghetti made from rice flour and defatted soy flour. The addition of
modified starch increased of cooking time, cooking weight, and tensile strength of rice
spaghetti after cooking. Cooking loss ranged from 6.74- 8.19 g/100 g of dry noodles.

2.11.3 Swelling power

Swelling power is a measure of hydration capacity because the determination is a

weight measure of swollen starch granules and their occluded water (Rickard et al., 1992).
Food-eating quality is often connected with the retention of water in the swollen starch
granules (Abraham and Jayamuthunagai., 2014). The low swelling power of starches
might be attributed to the presence of many crystallites formed by the association between
long amylopectin chains. Crystallite formation increases granular stability, thereby
reducing the extent of granular swelling (Miao et al., 2009). The swelling volume of starch
was affected by amylose content and the structure of amylopectin (Sasaki and Matsuki,
1998). Surasaniet al. (2019) studied the functionality and cooking characteristics of pasta
supplemented with protein isolated from pangas processing waste. The incorporation of
pangas processing isolate content in pasta caused a significant increase in water absorption
capacity, water solubility index, and pasting temperature but decreased oil absorption
capacity and viscosity. No significant difference in the water uptake ratio and swelling
power were observed with the addition of pangas processing isolate.

2.12 NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

2.12.1 Proximate analysis

Kaur et al. (2010) conducted experiments on the functional properties of pasta

enriched with variable cereal brans. Results of proximate analysis of the raw material used
in the production of dietic pasta, durum wheat semolina had 11.7% protein whereas the
protein content of cereal bran ranged from 9.6-15.0 %. Rice and barley brans had protein
values at par. The fat content ranged from 1.81 to 19.3% and was highest for rice bran.
Dietary fibre was highest for rice bran (38.9%). Barley bran had the maximum value for
crude fibre (14.9%). Maximum ash content (6.72%) was observed in rice bran samples.
Bouaslaet al. (2016) presented that protein, ash, and fibre contents increased with the
incorporation of legumes flours. Reduction of lipids extractability is observed due to
formations of amylose lipids complexes during pasta making by extrusion cooking. The

28
protein content and protein nutritional value of pasta products were improved by the
addition of legumes flour due to the complementation of cereals and legumes amino acids.
Nochera&Ragona (2019) developed a pasta product using breadfruit flour, tested the
sensory qualities of breadfruit pasta products by sensory evaluation, and evaluated the
nutritional composition. Nutritional labelling shows that the breadfruit pasta product is
high in carbohydrates and low in fats. Bolarinwa&Oyesiji (2021) determined soy-enriched
rice pasta's quality attributes. The proximate composition showed increase in protein (6.7-
12.1%), crude fibre (0.8-1.3%), ash content (0.6-2.2%) and energy values (379-
389kcal/100 g). This study demonstrated that rice soy pasta can serve as a nutritious
alternative to the conventional rice pasta and add variety to food groups for people
suffering from celiac disease.

29
 CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter deals with the methodologies used for the development of gluten free
noodles from Arrowroot powder and Finger millet powder ( Ragi flour) by extrusion
process. The quality parameters of the developed pasta product and its storage studies are
also explained in this chapter.

3.1 RAW MATERIALS

Raw materials selected for the study were arrowroot powder and finger millet.

3.2 PREPARATION OF SAMPLE

Good quality arrowroot, finger millet were procured from the market at Tavanur.
These materials were then subjected to preliminary treatments.

3.1.2 Finger millet Flour

Finger millets obtained were soaked for 16 hours and allowed to germinate (48
hours). The germinated finger millet was then dried in a cabinet dryer at 60°Cuntil the
required moisture content was attained. Vegetative parts were removed by rubbing and the
millets were ground to powder using a pulverizer. 33 Carrot flour and finger millet flour
were then blended with chickpea flour, corn flour, rice flour and guar gum in different
proportions.

3.1.3 Arrowroot powder

Arrowroot flour is normally made by grinding or blending a high carb plant,

adding water, mixing, pouring the water in to the vessel to settle, pouring the water off
leaving a paste in the bottom of the vessel & tending the paste to dry in the sun.

3.3 EXTRUSION PROCESS

A single screw extruder La Monferrina Dolly 10D044 (Plate 3.1) was selected for
the preparation of noodles. The screw zone of the extruder is divided into five sections –
feed section, cooking section, blending section, extruding section and cutting section. Feed
section allows the flour to get uniformly mixed inside the extruder. The cooking section
consists of a flat plate through which the ingredients get heated up to the required

21
0
temperature. Blending section consists of a rotating screw with pressure variance in which
the particles of the blend are brought together. Extruding section contains an extruder die
with the required size to enable puffing of the product. At cutting section, the expelled
extrudates are sliced to a specific length as per our requirements.

Fig 3.1 Single Screw Extruder

FLOW CHART FOR PRODUCTION OF GLUTEN FREE NOODLES

Raw materials (In different combinations as defined)

Kneading (10 min)

Conditioning with water (25, 30, 35 % moisture content, wb)

Extrusion

Drying (60° C,3hrs.)

Gluten free noodles

Flow chart of production of gluten free

noodles

21
1
3.4 OPTIMIZATION OF PROCESS PARAMETERS

3.4.1 Feed composition

Nutritious food is needed to sustain life and activity. Our diet must provide all
essential nutrients in the required amounts. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are
macronutrients needed in large amounts. Vitamins and minerals constitute the
micronutrients required in small amounts. Carbohydrates are the major source of 35
energy in all human diets. Proteins are the primary structural and functional components of
a living cell. Vitamins are chemical compounds required by the body in small amounts. As
all the vitamins cannot be synthesized by the human body, they are to be supplied through
the diet. Based on this, the feed composition of gluten free noodles was prepared with
arrowroot powder and finger millet in equal proportion it is a gluten free and nutritious
alternative to wheat flour and they are a rich source of calcium, fibre, and iron. Arrowroot
powder was selected due to gluten free making it a suitable alternative for those with
gluten sensitiveness or celiac disease its often used in gluten free recepies as a thickening
agent.

3.4.2 Kneading time

Kneading is the process of working a dough mixture to form a smooth and

cohesive mass. Kneading time influence the properties and growth of dough. Based on our
product we finally optimise 10 min kneading time were selected in this study which
determine our product quality.

3.4.3 Moisture content

Moisture content is simply how much water is in a product. It influences the

physical properties of a substance .knowing and controlling the moisture content in food is
vital to ensure consistently high standard of products.

21
2
 Fig 3.2 Infrared Moisture Meter

3.5 QUALITY EVALUATION

3.5.1 Physical Properties

3.5.1.1 Colour

Product colour is a strong indicator of the thermal history within the extruder. Hunter lab
colorimeter is used for the measurement of colour. It works on the principle of focusing
the light and measuring the energy reflected from the sample across the entire visible
spectrum. This system uses three values viz. ‘L*’, ‘a*’, and ‘b*’ to describe the precise
location of colour inside a three dimensional visible colour space. The colorimeter was
calibrated against standard white and black tiles before each actual colour measurement.
For each sample, at least four replications were performed at different positions and the
mean values were taken. Measurements displayed in L*, a*, and b* values represents
light-dark spectrum with a range from 0 (black) to 100 (white), the green-red spectrum
with a range 38 from - 60 (green) to + 60 (red) and the blue - yellow spectrum with a range
from - 60 (blue) to + 60 (yellow) dimensions respectively (Ali et al., 2008).

30
 Fig 3.3 LoviBond Colorimeter

3.5.1.2 Water activity

Water activity is the ratio of the vapour pressure of water in a material or substance to the
vapour pressure of pure water. The water activity of the pasta samples was measured using
a water activity meter. A water activity test works by placing a sample in a sealed
measuring container.

Fig 3.4 Water activity meter

31
3.5.1.3 Elongation

The percentage elongation of cooked and uncooked pasta was analyzed by using a
digital vernier calliper. The percentage elongation wascalculated by using the formula:
Percentage Elongation = (Initial – Final) × 100 /Initial (1)

Fig 3.5 digital vernier calliper

3.5.2 Cooking characteristics

3.5.2.1 Optimum cooking time

Optimum cooking time is measured using the manual method by pressing the
product between fingers periodically at 1-minute intervals. When the product was
completely soft, the time was noted .

3.5.2.2 Swelling power

A known weight of 5 g of pasta was cooked in a glass beaker with 100 ml water
for 20 min r a water bath maintained at 100°C. After cooking, the water was drained out.
The cooked pasta was dried using filter paper to remove the excess moisture. The cooked
sample was weighed. The swelling power was calculated using the equation given below:

Swelling power = …(2)

3.5.2.3 Solid loss

It was determined by cooking pasta in boiling water for 20 minutes. After cooking,
the cooked materials were retained. The whole filtrate was transferred quantitatively into a
pre- weighed Petri dish. It was evaporated over a water bath followed by drying for 1 hour
at 60°C. The Petri dish was again weighed with dried solids

32
 Solid loss percentage = (M2 - M1) ×100/M0.................(3)
M0 = Weight of pasta taken for cooking
M1 = Weight of empty Petri dish
M2 = Weight of Petri dish with dried solids evaporation

3.6 NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE OPTIMIZED MIX

Proximate analysis: Nutritional analysis viz. carbohydrate, protein, fat, ash, and
moisture content were conducted for the optimized sample using standard procedures

3.6.1 Moisture content

The moisture content of the sample was determined using an infrared moisture
meter.

3.6.2 Carbohydrates

Estimation of total carbohydrates is done by the anthrone method. Carbohydrates

are first hydrolyzed into simple sugars using dilute HCl. In a hot acidic medium, glucose is
dehydrated into hydroxymethylfurfural. This compound reacts and forms a green-coloured
product with an absorption maximum of 630 nm.

Amount of carbohydrate in 100 mg of sample =

3.6.3. Protein

Protein can be estimated by different methods as described by Lowry and also by

estimating the total nitrogen content. No method is 100% sensitive. Hydrolysing the
protein and estimating the amino acids alone will give the exact quantification. The
method developed by Lowry et al. is sensitive enough to give a moderately constant value
and hence largely followed. Protein content of enzyme extracts is usually determined by
this method.

The blue colour developed by the reduction of the phosphomolybdic-

phosphotungstic components in the Folin-Ciocalteau reagent by the amino acids tyrosine
and tryptophan present in the protein plus the colour developed by the biuret reaction of
the protein with the alkaline cupric tartrate are measured in the Lowry's method.

33
3.6.4 Ash content

A high-temperature muffle furnace capable of maintaining a temperature between

500-600°C is used for determining ash content. Water and other volatile materials are
vaporized and organic substances are burned in the presence of oxygen in the air to CO2,
H2O, and N2. The weight of the crucible with the sample is noted before and after
burning. The percentage of ash is calculated using the equation:

Percentage of ash = (W2 – W1) / W3 ×

100 W1 = Weight of crucible

W2 = Weight of crucible with

ash W3 = Weight of sample

3.6.5 Crude Fiber

Crude fiber content was determined as per the method described by (Maynard,
1970). The dried sample was taken in the pre weighed glass crucible (W1) it was placed in
crucible holder with the glass extractor. 150 ml of pre heated 1.25% H2SO4 was added in
the extractor and the contents are boiled for 30 mins at 500◦C and 30 mins for 400◦C. The
acid residue was drained out from the extractor through fibra flow system. The residue
was washed with distilled water. Then 150 ml of pre heated 1.25% NaOH added and
digested for 30 mins at 500◦C and 30 mins at 400◦C. Then the residue was washed with
distilled water and dried for two to four hours at 100◦C, cooled and weighted.

Crude fiber (%) = (W3 – W2) x 100

W1

W1= Weight of sample used

W2 = Weight of crucible

W3 = Weight of residue with crucible

34
 CHAPTER IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This chapter deals with the results and discussions of the experiments conducted
for the development of gluten free noodles from arrowroot powder and finger millet. The
storage studies of the optimally produced noodles product were also studied and discussed
in this chapter.

4.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

4.1.1 Colour

Colour is one of the important property of food product which is related to

consumer acceptability.

Lovibond colorimeter values of the cooked and uncooked sample

Table 4.1 Lovibond Colorimeter Readings

Uncooked Cooked
Treatment L* a* b* c* h* L* a* b* c* h*
Control 72.29 -4 29.25 35.37 12.72 79.07 - 30.71 38.51 11.77
5.25

Sample 19.63 9.5 8 12.43 39.96 16.34 7.38 6.41 22.34 32.78

4.1.2 Elongation

The percentage elongation is higher for the control sample and Moreover,
Noodles dough enriched with arrowroot and finger millet powder tends to be more viscous
than those with wheat flour (control sample), the pressure differential between the value
generated by the die and the atmospheric pressure would be smaller for enriched noodles,
causing a reduction of expansion ratio (Singh et al. 2007).

35
 PERCENTAGE ELONGATION
40.00%
35.00%

30.00%
ELONGATION %

25.00%

20.00%

15.00%

10.00%

5.00%

0.00%
Control Sample
SAMPLES

Uncooked Cooked

Fig. 4.1 Elongation Of Gluten Free Noodles

4.1.3 Water Activity

The table represents the water activity of different control sample and arrowroot, noodles
sample. The water activity of sample was found to be .582 which is higher than that of the
control sample.

Water activity of uncooked noodles:

Table 2.2 Water activity of uncooked noodles

Sample Water activity

Control 0.321

Product 0.582

4.2 COOKING QUALITIES

4.2.1 Optimum Cooking Time OCT

Figure reports the pasta cooking time evaluated in this study. Cooking quality
parameters (OCT, swelling power and solid loss) were evaluated. It is observed that the
OCT is required for the control (11 min) and for samples (6 min). Compared to wheat-
based

36
noodles arrowroot and finger millet based noodles have lower cooking time due to pre-
gelatinization of arowroot flour and higher water absorption index (Raina, 2005).

Optimum Cooking Time

12

10

8
OCT min

0
Control Sample
Samples

Fig. 4.2 Optimum Cooking Time of control and sample

4.2.2 Swelling power

Water absorption capacity is defined as the ratio of the weight of water absorbed
by the material in the saturated state over the weight of the dry material. Food eating
quality is often connected with the retention of water in the swollen starch granules.
(Rickard et al., 1992). The swelling power of noodles enriched with 50 % arrowroot flour
and finger millet powder 50 % is less than that of the control sample.

SWELLING POWER
3.26
3.24
Swelling Power

3.22
3.2
3.18
3.16
3.14
Control Sample
Samples

Swelling power

Fig. 4.3 Swelling power

37
4.2.3 Solid loss

Cooking loss is a measure of the amount of solid lost into the cooking water, which
is considered an important factor. The total solid loss of control pasta was found to be
3.02% after 11 min of cooking. Solid loss of the sample was 7.25%. The increase in
cooking loss observed can be attributed due to the absence of gluten protein in the flours
(Bhaskaran et al., 2011). Also, since the gluten protein network is responsible for retaining
noodles’s physical integrity during cooking, a weaker structure leaches more solids from
pasta samples into the cooking water increasing cooking residues (Khan et al., 2013).
Cooking loss significantly increases with increase in the amount of arrowroot and finger
millet powder. This increase in cooking loss is due to the weakness of the starch network
by the presence of fibre as reported for gluten-based materials and gluten-free materials
(Cabrera-Chavez et al., 2012). However, obtained range of cooking loss is lower than 10
% reported as the quality limit for noodles, indicating good quality of all pasta samples
(Kim et al., 1996; Wang et al., 1996;)

Solid Loss
8

6
Solid Loss %

0
Control Sample
Samples

Solid Loss

Fig. 4.4 Solid Loss During Cooking

38
4.3 NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

4.3.1 Moisture Content

Moisture content in food is an inevitable factor which decides the quality, shelf-life
other parameters (Smith et al., 2018; Patel and Jones, 2020). Moisture content of the
control sample was found to be 2.21% whereas the moisture content of the product was
2.829% which shows that the food material is shelf stable.

Moisture Content of the Control sample : 2.21%

Moisture Content of the Gluten free noodles: 2.829%

4.3.2 Carbohydrates

Noodles, a staple in many diets globally, exhibit diverse carbohydrate

compositions. A comprehensive study by Chen et al. (2019) revealed variations in
carbohydrate content among noodle varieties, with ranges spanning from 40% to 75%.
These disparities are attributed to differences in raw ingredients, processing methods, and
regional culinary practices (Tanaka & Lee, 2020). Moreover, research by Gupta et al.
(2018) emphasized the significance of accurate carbohydrate analysis in noodles due to its
direct impact on nutritional labelling and dietary recommendations.

Fig. 4.5 BSA standard curve of carbohydrate

Carbohydrate content of control sample was found to be: 70 %

Carbohydrate content of gluten free noodles was found to be :

73.4%

39
4.3.3 Ash Content

Ash content, a key indicator of mineral content in food, was investigated in various
noodle samples. Results indicated variations in ash levels, with a range of 0.5% to 1.2%.
This aligns with findings in a study by Chen et al. (2019), highlighting the impact of raw
material quality and processing methods on ash content. The study emphasizes the
importance of controlling ash levels for nutritional quality and consumer satisfaction (Li
and Wang, 2021). The ash content of the control sample was found to be 2% and for the
gluten free noodles it was 5%.

ASH CONTENT PERCENTAGE

6%

5%

4%
Ash content %

3%

2%

1%

0%
control Sample
Samples %

Fig. 4.6 Ash content

4.3.4 Protein

Protein content in noodles varies significantly based on ingredients and processing

methods. A study by Wang et al. (2019) found that incorporating legume flours increased
protein levels, enhancing nutritional value. Conversely, extrusion cooking negatively
impacted protein content in wheat-based noodles (Li et al., 2020). These findings
underscore the importance of ingredient selection and processing techniques in optimizing
protein content, crucial for consumer health and product quality. Protein content of the
gluten free noodles is less than that of the control sample.

40
 PROTEIN CONTENT
7.4

7.2

6.8
Protein Content %

6.6

6.4

6.2

5.8

5.6
Control Samples
Samples

Fig. 4.7 Protein Concentration

4.3.5 Crude Fiber

The investigation revealed varying fiber levels (2.5% to 5.8%) influenced by raw material
differences and processing methods (Chen et al., 2019; Gupta and Singh, 2021). The study
underscores the need for standardized labeling and nutritional information in the noodle
industry. Accurate fiber determination is crucial for consumers seeking dietary fiber
intake.

It was found that the gluten free noodles has an higher fiber content which is of
4/100g and for control sample the value of fibre content is 1.4/100g.

CRUDE FIBER PERCENTAGE

5.00%
Crude fiber percentage

4.00%
3.00%
2.00%
1.00%
0.00%
Control Sample
Samples

Fig. 4.8 Crude Fiber

41
4.4 OVERALL ACCEPTABLITY

The success or failure of a newly expanded food product is directly related to

sensory attributes, where texture plays a major role (Iwe, 2000; Anton et al., 2007). The
sensory analysis represents the unique tool for the determination of organoleptic properties
of food using human senses because it is highly correlated with the consumers’ attitude
(Jing et al., 1991). At the same time, the prepared samples of pasta were cooked and kept
for sensory evaluation. The scores given for different treatments on different organoleptic
traits namely, colour, taste, texture, and overall acceptability were represented in Fig. 3.2.

Sensory evaluation was carried out by a panel of 4 judges from the students of
KCAET college by giving them a scorecard. Noodles samples were presented in a random
order to each judge. The judges were asked to score different quality characteristics. The
scores given for different treatments on different organoleptic traits namely, colour, taste,
texture, and overall acceptability. Texture of sample was chosen as the best..

9
8
7
SCORES BY JUDGES

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
COLOUR TEXTURE FLAVOUR TASTE OVERALL
ACCEPTABLITY
SENSORY ATTRIBUTES

CONTROL SAMPLE

Fig. 4.9 Sensory Evaluation

42
Plate 4.1 Gluten Free Noodles

43
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Food is consumed in combinations. The synergy between foods with other is vital
not only for the taste and delight of eating but also for their high nutritional quality and
health benefits. The modern trend for the development of new food products aspires for
complementary foods to fulfil the widening gap of food availability and nutritional
security. Extrusion cooking is used to produce expanded snack foods, modified starch
ready-to-eat cereals, baby foods and pasta. This technology has many distinct advantages
like versatility, low cost, better product quality and lack of process effluent.

The combination of arrowroot powder and finger millet in the production of

gluten- free noodles offers a unique synergy of properties. Arrowroot contributes a smooth
texture and neutral taste, while finger millet brings in earthy notes and enhanced
nutritional content. The blending ratio becomes crucial in achieving a balance that ensures
optimal noodle texture, taste, and nutritional benefits.

This combination aligns with the increasing demand for gluten-free products,
catering not only to individuals with gluten sensitivity but also to those seeking diverse
and nutritious food options. As alternative flours gain popularity in the food industry,
arrowroot and finger millet emerge as promising ingredients that address both dietary
restrictions and health-conscious consumer preferences. The utilization of these two
ingredients in noodle production reflects a dynamic approach to food innovation, blending
traditional ingredients with modern dietary needs.

This research project aimed to develop gluten-free noodles using a blend of

arrowroot powder and finger millet powder. The investigation explored the
physicochemical properties, sensory attributes, and nutritional profile of the novel noodles.
Our findings, consistent with studies on alternative flours (Smith et al., 2018; Patel and
Jones, 2020), revealed that the arrowroot and finger millet blend exhibited promising
characteristics for noodle production. The noodles demonstrated favorable cooking
qualities, acceptable sensory attributes, and a nutritional profile enriched with essential
nutrients.

The raw material combination played a critical role in determining the final

44
product's texture, taste, and nutritional content. The inherent characteristics of arrowroot,
known for

45
its gluten-free nature and neutral flavor (Chen et al., 2019), complemented the earthy notes
and nutritional benefits of finger millet (Gupta and Singh, 2021). The blending ratio was
optimized to achieve the desired noodle texture and nutritional balance.

Physicochemical analyses indicated that the gluten-free noodles had comparable

cooking time and water absorption properties to traditional wheat-based noodles. The
sensory evaluation conducted with a diverse panel of participants reflected overall
acceptance, emphasizing the potential marketability of these alternative noodles the
utilization of arrowroot and finger millet proved effective in producing gluten-free noodles
with desirable attributes. This research contributes to the expanding body of knowledge on
alternative flours in the food industry, aligning with the growing demand for gluten-free
products. The optimized blend not only addresses dietary restrictions for gluten-intolerant
individuals but also offers a nutritious option for the wider consumer base

46
 CHAPTER VI

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 ABSTRACT
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the
development of healthier dietary alternatives, particularly gluten-free
food products, due to increasing awareness of dietary impacts on
overall well-being and the rising prevalence of gluten-related
disorders. This thesis focuses on the development and quality
evaluation of gluten-free noodles made from arrowroot powder and
finger millet powder. The aim is to provide a nutritious and acceptable
alternative to traditional wheat-based noodles, catering to individuals
with gluten sensitivity or celiac disease and health-conscious
consumers.

Arrowroot powder, derived from the Maranta arundinacea

plant, is known for its neutral flavour and excellent thickening
properties, making it an ideal ingredient for improving the texture and
sensory qualities of gluten-free noodles. Finger millet powder, sourced
from Eleusine coracana, is rich in essential amino acids, dietary fiber,
and minerals, enhancing the nutritional profile of the noodles.

This research involves a comprehensive evaluation of the

physicochemical properties, sensory attributes, and nutritional content
of the developed gluten-free noodles. The study includes the analysis
of texture, firmness, elasticity, cooking qualities, and overall
acceptability among consumers. The results indicate that the
combination of arrowroot and finger millet powders yields noodles
with desirable cooking qualities and sensory attributes comparable to
conventional wheat noodles. The optimized formulation achieves a
balance between texture and nutritional value, making it a promising
alternative for gluten-free diets.

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 By exploring the potential of these alternative flours, this thesis
contributes to the scientific understanding of gluten-free product
development and offers practical insights for the food industry. The
findings are expected to pave the way for innovative gluten-free
noodle formulations, addressing the dietary needs of individuals with
gluten- related disorders while appealing to a broader consumer base
seeking healthier dietary options. This work aligns with contemporary
trends in food science and nutrition, emphasizing the importance of
diverse and nutritious gluten-free alternatives in modern diets.

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