(P1)

An analog signal is a continuous-time signal that represents some other quantity,

such as sound, temperature, or pressure.

Examples of analog signals include the sound waves produced by a human voice,
the voltage fluctuations in an electrical circuit, and the temperature changes in a
room.

A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values,

such as binary, logic, or multivalued. Digital signals are used in digital electronics,
signal processing, and communications . At any given time, a digital signal can
only take on one of a finite number of values, whereas an analog signal represents
continuous values . Digital signals are represented by a sequence of fixed-width
square wave electrical pulses or light pulses, each occupying one of a discrete
number of levels of amplitude . The physical quantity representing the information
in a digital signal can be a variable electric current or voltage, the intensity, phase,
or polarization of an optical or other electromagnetic field, acoustic pressure, the
magnetization of a magnetic storage media, etcetera . Digital signals have noise
immunity, which means that electronic noise, provided it is not too great, will not
affect digital circuits, whereas noise always degrades the operation of analog
signals to some degree .

Examples of digital signals include the binary code used in computers, the on-off
signals used in digital communication, and the digital signals used in digital audio
and video.
 (P2)
An AM radio receiver is a sophisticated analogue electronic device that transforms radio waves into
sound waves. Below is a block schematic of an AM radio receiver:

The blocks and what they do are as follows:

• Antenna: This device converts radio waves into electric signals by capturing them from the atmosphere.

• Tuner: It eliminates extraneous signals and chooses the desired frequency band.

• Detector: It restores the original audio signal by demodulating the AM signal.

• Amplifier: This device amplifies and makes audible the audio signal.

• Speaker: It creates sound by converting an electric signal into sound waves.

Block Diagram of a Complex Analog Electronic System:

 Block 1: Sensor The sensor serves as the system's input device. It transforms a physical stimulus
into an electrical signal, such as sound, light, or temperature.
 Block 2: Preamplifier The electrical signal from the sensor is amplified by the preamplifier so
that the remainder of the system can process it.
 Block 3: Signal Conditioning
 To get the electrical signal ready for the next phase of the system, the signal conditioning block
amplifies and filters it.
 Block 4: Digital-to-Analog Conversion (ADC)
 The electrical signal is converted from analog to digital by the ADC. The ease of processing and
transmitting digital signals makes this vital.
  Block 5: The Digital Signal Processor (DSP) is the central component of the system. It handles all
digital processing, including modulation, amplification, and filtering.
 Block 6: The digital signal is transformed back into an analog electrical signal by the digital-to-
analog converter (DAC). This is required because some output devices need an analog signal,
including actuators and speakers.
 Block 7: Power Amplifier
 The DAC's electrical signal is amplified by the power amplifier in order to power the output
device.
 Block 8: Output Device: The device that transforms an electrical signal into a physical signal is
called the output device. Speaking of output devices, consider motors, actuators, and speakers.

A complex digital electronic system:

Is a microcontroller, a tiny computer with a wide range of functions. The following is a microcontroller
block diagram:

The blocks and their functions are:

 CPU: The CPU is the microcontroller's brain, carrying out commands and managing operations.
 Memory: The CPU uses memory to store the data and program code necessary to complete tasks.
 Input/output ports: These let the microcontroller talk to other devices like switches, sensors,
LEDs, and so on.
 Timer/Counter: It creates, measures, and counts intervals of time.
 Analog to Digital Converter (ADC): It transforms analog signals into digital signals the CPU can
process.
 DAC: This device transforms digital signals into analogue signals that are usable by external
devices.
 Interrupt Controller: It deals with the interruptions that happen when the CPU must react quickly
to an urgent situation.
This is an example of a complex digital electronic system's block diagram:

 Block 1: Device for Input

 The device that the user uses to communicate with the system is known as the input device. Input
devices include things like touchscreens, mice, and keyboards.
 Block 2: Microprocessor
 The system's brain is the microcontroller. It is in charge of every other system component.
 Block3: Recall
 The data and program code required by the microcontroller to operate the system are kept in
memory.
 Block 4: Device for Output
 The device that plays or displays the system's output is known as the output device. Printing
machines, speakers, and displays are a few examples of output devices.
 Block 5: Sensors
 The environment can be learned by the microcontroller through the use of sensors. The room's
temperature, for instance, can be determined using a temperature sensor.
 Block 6: Actuators
 Environmental physical devices can be managed by actuators. For instance, a robot arm's position
can be managed by a motor.

Description of Every Block:

 Input Device: This device enables communication between the user and the system. Input devices
include things like touchscreens, mice, and keyboards.
 Microcontroller: The system's brain is the microcontroller. It is in charge of every other system
component.
 Memory: The data and program code required by the microcontroller to operate the system are
kept in memory.
 Output Device: The output device is where the system's output is shown or played. Printing
machines, speakers, and displays are a few examples of output devices.
 Sensors: Information about the surroundings can be sent to the microcontroller via sensors. The
room's temperature, for instance, can be determined using a
 Actuators: Actuators are used to operate environmental physical devices. For instance, a robot
arm's position can be managed by a motor.

Numerous applications call for the use of intricate analog and digital electronic systems, including:

 Consumer electronics, such as laptops, TVs, and smartphones.

 Electronics used in automobiles: airbags, anti-lock brake systems, engine control systems, etc.
 Industrial electronics: robots, PLCs (programmable logic controllers), etc.
 Medical devices with electronics: MRI scanners, pacemakers, etc.

The complexity of these systems is rising along with technological advancements. But the fundamental
ideas of how things work are still the same.
 (P3)
 A closed-loop control system compares the actual output to the desired
output using feedback, modifying the input as necessary. The feedback loop
increases the system's stability and lowers error. Four fundamental
components make up a closed-loop system: a plant, a sensor, a controller,
and a reference input. The intended output value, such as the speed or
temperature, is the reference input. The apparatus that interprets the error
signal and produces the control signal is called the controller. The machine
that generates the output, such as a heater or motor, is called the plant. The
sensor is the tool used to measure the output and provide the controller with
a feedback signal.
An air conditioner is a type of closed-loop control system. Below is an
illustration of an air conditioner's block diagram:

The air conditioner runs in the following ways:

 The user-specified desired temperature, like 25°C, serves as the reference input.
 The thermostat-like controller creates the control signal to turn on or off the compressor by
comparing the feedback signal and reference input.
 The compressor in the plant is what heats or cools the air before sending it into the space.
The thermometer that measures the room's actual temperature and transmits a feedback signal
to the controller is called a sensor.
 By modifying the compressor operation, the feedback loop makes sure that the room's actual
temperature is kept relatively close to the desired temperature.
o A control system that does not use feedback to modify the input is known as an (open-
loop) control system. An open-loop system's output is solely determined by its input and
its parameters. A closed-loop system is more accurate and stable than an open-loop
system since it has error detection and correction built in. Two fundamental components
make up an open-loop system: a plant and a reference input. The intended value of the
output, such as the voltage or time, is the reference input. The equipment that generates
the output, such as an amplifier or timer, is called the plant.
 A hand drier is an illustration of an open-loop control system. Below is a
block diagram of a hand drier:

The hand drier works as follows:

 The manufacturer's specified time, such as thirty seconds, serves as the reference
input.
 The heater and fan in the plant are what dry the hands by blowing hot air.
 The hand drier's output is neither measured nor fed back into the input.
Regardless of how dry the hands are in real life, the hand drier runs for a
predetermined amount of time.
 (M1)

Block A is an open-loop control system that is basic. The product of the three blocks' series
outputs is the system's output. The system's transfer function is as follows: T(s) = G1(s) * G2(s)
* G3(s)

This indicates that the system's total gain is equivalent to the sum of the gains from the three
separate blocks.

Block B is a negative feedback closed-loop control system. By using a feedback loop, the system
can adjust for errors and disruptions in the input signal. The system's transfer function is
provided by:

T(s) is equal to (1 + G3(s) * G4(s) * H1(s)) / G1(s) * G2(s) * G3(s) * G4(s) * H2(s).

The feedback gain factor, H1(s), is a new term that the feedback loop adds to the transfer
function. The amount of the output signal that is fed back into the system's input is determined
by this factor.

A high feedback gain factor makes the system more susceptible to errors and disturbances in the
input signal. But the system will also perform better in terms of tracking and be more stable.

A low feedback gain factor will make the system less susceptible to errors and disturbances in
the input signal. On the other hand, the system might also perform worse in terms of tracking
stability.

Benefits of Feedback Management

Compared to open-loop control, feedback control has several benefits. These advantages
include:

• Better rejection of disturbances: Feedback control makes it possible for the system to make up
for input signal disruptions. This is crucial for scenarios like a robot arm moving through an
obstacle course where the system is susceptible to outside disruptions.

• Better tracking performance: The system can follow a reference signal more precisely thanks to
feedback control. This is crucial for applications like self-driving cars, where the system must
follow a predetermined path.

• Increased stability: The system's stability can be increased by using feedback control.
Applications like aircraft, where the system is unstable, should take note of this.

Difficulties with Feedback Control

Moreover, feedback control presents several difficulties, such as:

• Added complexity: Compared to open-loop control systems, feedback control systems are more
intricate. This is as a result of the feedback loop adding new variables and terms to the transfer
function.

• Reduced bandwidth: The system's bandwidth can be decreased through feedback control. This
is as a result of the feedback loop adding latency to the system.

• Instability risk: The system may experience instability if the feedback gain factor is excessively
high. This implies that the system will not produce the desired output and will oscillate.
 (D2)
Characteristics of Control Systems: Open-Loop and Closed-Loop

Systems that do not allow the output to affect the control signal are known as open-loop control
systems. This indicates that the control signal is only generated based on the desired output and
that the system is unaware of its own output. Although open-loop control systems can be less
precise and reliable than closed-loop control systems, they are usually easier to design and
implement.

Control systems that measure and modify the control signal based on the output are referred to as
closed-loop control systems, or feedback control systems. The system can compensate for errors
and disturbances in the input signal thanks to this feedback loop, which leads to more reliable
and accurate operation. On the other hand, compared to open-loop control systems, closed-loop
control systems may be more difficult to design and implement.

The following table provides a more detailed comparison of the characteristics of

open-loop and closed-loop control systems:

Characteristic Open-loop control systems Closed-loop control systems

Accuracy Less precise because there was more precise as a result of using feedback
no feedback
Disturbance Not good, since the system Good because the feedback system allows
rejection doesn't recognize its own the system to adjust for disruptions.
output
Stability Sensitive to alterations in More stable since disturbances are lessened
parameters and disturbances by the feedback loop
Complexity Easier to plan and execute Because feedback is required, the design
and implementation are more complicated.
Response Quicker reaction because Slower reaction as a result of the feedback
feedback delays are eliminated loop's delay
Examples of Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control Systems

Examples of open-loop control systems include:

• A sprinkler system that, irrespective of the ground's moisture content, activates for a
predetermined period of time.

• A toaster that, regardless of how brown the bread is, turns on after a predetermined period of
time.

• An engine in a car with a throttle position that is predetermined.

• A thermostat that regulates a heater or air conditioner to maintain a desired temperature is an

example of a closed-loop control system.

• A PID controller, which is used to control a wide range of industrial processes

• An ABS system, which keeps the wheels from locking up during braking

• A cruise control system, which maintains a desired vehicle speed.

Applications of Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control Systems:

Open-loop control systems are generally employed in situations where simplicity is valued over
accuracy and robustness. An open-loop control system, for instance, can be used with a sprinkler
system since it is not necessary for the ground to be completely moist. Similar to this, a toaster
can operate with an open-loop control mechanism since a perfectly browned piece of bread is not
necessary.

Closed-loop control systems are commonly employed in scenarios where precision and resilience
are crucial.

For instance, a thermostat uses a closed-loop control system to keep the temperature at a set
point because it's crucial that it's both comfortable and steady. Similar to this, a cruise control
system makes use of a closed-loop control system to keep the car moving at a set speed because
it's critical that it remain steady and safe.

Conclusion

Both closed-loop and open-loop control systems are crucial instruments for managing dynamic
systems. Compared to closed-loop control systems, open-loop systems can be less precise and
reliable, but they are easier to build and operate. Closed-loop control systems are more accurate
and reliable, but they require more work to design and implement, so they are not as suitable for
applications where dependability and high performance are essential.