Model structure visualizations help data scientists, AI researchers, and

business stakeholders understand complex algorithms and data flows.

Model performance visualizations provide insight into the performance
characteristics of individual models and model ensembles.

What is Data Visualization?

In simple terms, data visualization in data science refers to the process
of generating graphical representations of information. These graphical
depictions, often known as plots or charts, are pivotal in the realm of
data science for effective analysis and interpretation. Understanding the
various types of data visualization in data science is crucial to select the
appropriate visual method for the dataset at hand. Different types serve
different analytical needs, from understanding distributions with
histograms to spotting trends with line charts. As one delves deeper
into the data science field, the importance of mastering these
visualization types becomes even more apparent.

Why is Data Visualization Important in Data Science?

There are many reasons for data visualization in data science. Data
visualization benefits include communicating your results or findings,
monitoring the model’s performance at the evaluation stage,
hyperparameter tuning, identifying trends, patterns and correlation
between dataset features, data cleaning such as outlier detection, and
validating model assumptions.

Examples of Data Visualization in Data Science

Here are some popular data visualization examples.

1. Weather reports: Maps and other plot types are commonly used
in weather reports.
2. Internet websites: Social media analytics websites such as Social
Blade and Google Analytics use data visualization techniques to
analyze and compare the performance of websites.
3. Astronomy: NASA uses advanced data visualization techniques in
its
Different Types of Data Visualization in Data Science
Different Types of Data Visualization in Data Science

There are many data visualization types. The following are the commonly used data
visualization charts.

1. Distribution plot

A distribution plot is used to visualize data distribution—for example: A probability

distribution plot or density curve.

Data science: Evaluation measures

The data science questions are evaluated automatically. The solution code in the interface is run
in two phases:

 If you click Compile & Test, then your submission.csv file is evaluated against the public test
dataset. You can download this dataset by clicking Click here to download data set.
 If you click Submit, then your code is evaluated against a private data set (train and test). The final
score is assigned based on the private or full data set.

Therefore, your score can change after submitting the solution.

These questions are evaluated by using accuracy measures. The commonly used measures are
as follows:

1. Root-mean-square error
2. Mean absolute error

Root-mean-square error

It is a frequently used measure of the differences between predicted outcomes and observed
outcomes. The root-mean-square deviation represents the square root of the second sample
moment of the differences between predicted values and observed values or the quadratic
mean of these differences. These deviations are called residuals when the calculations are
performed over the sample data set and are called errors (or prediction errors) when the
computed value is beyond the sample data set. This technique is mainly used in climatology,
forecasting, and regression analysis to verify experimental results.

The RMSE formula is as follows:

where

 f denotes the expected values

 o denotes the observed values

What Is Predictive Analytics?

The term predictive analytics refers to the use of statistics and modeling techniques to
make predictions about future outcomes and performance. Predictive analytics looks
at current and historical data patterns to determine This allows businesses and
investors to adjust where they use their resources to take advantage of possible future
events. Predictive analysis can also be used to improve operational efficiencies and
reduce risk.
Mean absolute error

In this technique, the amount of error in predicted outcomes and observed outcomes. Here, the
absolute value of the errors is considered valid for the calculation.

To determine the absolute error (Δx), you must use the following formula:

(Δx) = xi – x

where

 xi denotes the predicted outcome

 x denotes the observed outcome

The mean absolute error (MAE) is the average of all the calculated absolute errors. The formula
is:

where

 n denotes the number of errors

 Σ (summation symbol) denotes adding all the absolute errors
 |xi – x| denotes the absolute errors
These questions are evaluated by using accuracy measures. The commonly used measures are
as follows:

1. Root-mean-square error
2. Mean absolute error

Root-mean-square error

It is a frequently used measure of the differences between predicted outcomes and observed
outcomes. The root-mean-square deviation represents the square root of the second sample
moment of the differences between predicted values and observed values or the quadratic
mean of these differences. These deviations are called residuals when the calculations are
performed over the sample data set and are called errors (or prediction errors) when the
computed value is beyond the sample data set. This technique is mainly used in climatology,
forecasting, and regression analysis to verify experimental results.

The RMSE formula is as follows:

where

 f denotes the expected values

 o denotes the observed values

Mean absolute error

In this technique, the amount of error in predicted outcomes and observed outcomes. Here, the
absolute value of the errors is considered valid for the calculation.

To determine the absolute error (Δx), you must use the following formula:

(Δx) = xi – x

where

 xi denotes the predicted outcome

 x denotes the observed outcome

The mean absolute error (MAE) is the average of all the calculated absolute errors. The formula
is:

Where
What is in and out of sample testing?
In-sample testing and out-of-sample testing are two methods used to
evaluate the performance of a trading strategy.
In-sample testing
In-sample testing involves testing a strategy on a set of data that was used
to develop and optimise the strategy.
In-sample testing is used to evaluate the performance of a strategy on a set
of historical data that was used to develop and optimise the strategy. It
helps to identify any flaws or weaknesses in the strategy and can be used
to optimise the strategy's entry and exit parameters.
For instance, if the data set you are testing on covers 40 years, you would
complete your optimisation on the first 30 years. The last 10 years would be
used for out-of-sample testing.
When running an optimisation on in-sample data, the results can be overly
optimistic, as the strategy has been optimised to perform well on the
specific data that was used for the testing.
Out-of-sample testing
Out-of-sample testing is used to evaluate the performance of a strategy on
a separate set of data that was not used during the development and
optimisation process. This helps to determine whether the strategy would
be able to perform well on new, unseen data (the 10 years of historical data
mentioned above).
The results of out-of-sample testing are typically considered to be more
realistic, as the strategy has not been optimised to perform well on this
specific data set.
In theory, it is essentially operating the strategy on a set of data that it has
never seen before.
What is Cross-Validation?
Cross validation is a technique used in machine learning to evaluate the performance
of a model on unseen data. It involves dividing the available data into multiple folds
or subsets, using one of these folds as a validation set, and training the model on the
remaining folds. This process is repeated multiple times, each time using a different
fold as the validation set. Finally, the results from each validation step are averaged
to produce a more robust estimate of the model’s performance. Cross validation is an
important step in the machine learning process and helps to ensure that the model
selected for deployment is robust and generalizes well to new data.
What is cross-validation used for?
The main purpose of cross validation is to prevent overfitting, which occurs when a
model is trained too well on the training data and performs poorly on new, unseen
data. By evaluating the model on multiple validation sets, cross validation provides a
more realistic estimate of the model’s generalization performance, i.e., its ability to
perform well on new, unseen data.
What is cross-validation used for?
The main purpose of cross validation is to prevent overfitting, which occurs when a
model is trained too well on the training data and performs poorly on new, unseen
data. By evaluating the model on multiple validation sets, cross validation provides a
more realistic estimate of the model’s generalization performance, i.e., its ability to
perform well on new, unseen data.
Types of Cross-Validation
There are several types of cross validation techniques, including k-fold cross
validation, leave-one-out cross validation, and Holdout validation, Stratified
Cross-Validation. The choice of technique depends on the size and nature of the
data, as well as the specific requirements of the modeling problem.
1. Holdout Validation
In Holdout Validation, we perform training on the 50% of the given dataset and rest
50% is used for the testing purpose. It’s a simple and quick way to evaluate a model.
The major drawback of this method is that we perform training on the 50% of the
dataset, it may possible that the remaining 50% of the data contains some important
information which we are leaving while training our model i.e. higher bias.

2. LOOCV (Leave One Out Cross Validation)

In this method, we perform training on the whole dataset but leaves only one data-
point of the available dataset and then iterates for each data-point. In LOOCV, the
model is trained on samples and tested on the one omitted sample, repeating
this process for each data point in the dataset. It has some advantages as well as
disadvantages also.
An advantage of using this method is that we make use of all data points and hence
it is low bias.
The major drawback of this method is that it leads to higher variation in the testing
model as we are testing against one data point. If the data point is an outlier it can
lead to higher variation. Another drawback is it takes a lot of execution time as it
iterates over ‘the number of data points’ times.

3. Stratified Cross-Validation
It is a technique used in machine learning to ensure that each fold of the cross-
validation process maintains the same class distribution as the entire dataset. This is
particularly important when dealing with imbalanced datasets, where certain classes
may be underrepresented. In this method,
1. The dataset is divided into k folds while maintaining the proportion of classes in
each fold.
2. During each iteration, one-fold is used for testing, and the remaining folds are
used for training.
3. The process is repeated k times, with each fold serving as the test set exactly
once.
Stratified Cross-Validation is essential when dealing with classification problems
where maintaining the balance of class distribution is crucial for the

model to generalize well to unseen data.

While training models on a dataset, the most common problems
people face are overfitting and underfitting. Overfitting is the main
cause behind the poor performance of machine learning models.
Don’t worry if you have faced the problem of overfitting. Just go
through this article. In this article, we will go through a running
example to show how to prevent the model from overfitting. Before
that let’s understand what overfitting and underfitting are first.

Our main objective in machine learning is to properly

estimate the distribution and probability in training
dataset so that we can have a generalized model that
can predict the distribution and probability of the test
dataset.

Overfitting:

When a model learns the pattern and noise in the data to such
extent that it hurts the performance of the model on the new
dataset, is termed overfitting. The model fits the data so well that it
interprets noise as patterns in the data.

The problem of overfitting mainly occurs with non-linear models

whose decision boundary is non-linear. An example of a linear
decision boundary can be a line or a hyperplane in case of logistic
regression. As in the above diagram of overfitting, you can see the
decision boundary is non-linear. This type of decision boundary is
generated by non-linear models such as decision trees.We also have
parameters in non-linear models by which we can prevent
overfitting. We will see this later in this article.

Underfitting:
When the model neither learns from the training dataset nor
generalizes well on the test dataset, it is termed as underfitting.
This type of problem is not a headache as this can be very easily
detected by the performance metrics. If the performance is not
good to try other models and you will certainly get good results.
Hence, underfitting is not often discussed as often as overfitting is
discussed.

Good Fit:

Since we have seen what overfitting and underfitting are, let’s see
what good fit means.
What is Grid Search?
Grid Search is a hyperparameter tuning technique used in machine learning to find the best
combination of hyperparameters for a given model. Hyperparameters are variables that are not
learned by the model, but rather set by the user before training. Examples of hyperparameters
include learning rate, number of hidden layers, and regularization strength.

Grid Search works by systematically exploring a predefined grid of possible values for each
hyperparameter. It trains and evaluates the model for each combination of hyperparameters in
the grid, usually using a cross-validation approach to ensure the results are reliable. The
performance of each model is then compared, and the combination of hyperparameters that
produces the best performance is selected.

How does Grid Search work?

Grid Search works by defining a grid of possible values for each hyperparameter. For example, if
we have three hyperparameters with two possible values each, we would have a grid with a total
of eight combinations to explore. Grid Search then trains and evaluates a model using each
combination of hyperparameters and selects the one with the best performance.

The performance of each model is typically measured using a predefined evaluation metric, such
as accuracy, precision, or mean squared error. Grid Search can be computationally expensive,
especially when the number of hyperparameters and their possible values is large. However, it
guarantees finding the best combination of

hyperparameters within the specified grid.

Why is Grid Search important?

Grid Search is an essential technique in machine learning because it allows for the optimization of
hyperparameters, which greatly impacts the performance of a model. By finding the best
combination of hyperparameters, Grid Search helps improve the accuracy and generalization of a
model, resulting in better predictions or classifications.

Without Grid Search, determining the optimal hyperparameters would require trial and error or
expert knowledge, which can be time-consuming and inefficient. Grid Search automates this
process, systematically searching for the best hyperparameters and saving valuable time for data
scientists and machine learning practitioners.

Use Cases of Grid Search

Grid Search is widely used in various machine learning applications. Some of the most important
use cases include:

 Tuning the hyperparameters of a classification model to improve accuracy or F1 score.

 Optimizing the hyperparameters of a regression model to minimize mean squared error or maximize
R-squared.
 Fine-tuning the hyperparameters of a neural network to improve training speed and convergence.
 Optimizing the hyperparameters of an ensemble model (e.g., random forest) to maximize
performance and reduce overfitting.

Related Technologies and Terms

Grid Search is closely related to other hyperparameter optimization techniques, such as Random
Search and Bayesian Optimization. These techniques offer alternative approaches to finding the
best hyperparameters for a model:

 Random Search: Instead of exploring all possible combinations of hyperparameters, Random Search
randomly samples combinations from the predefined grid. This can be more effective when the
hyperparameter space is vast.
 Bayesian Optimization: Bayesian Optimization uses probabilistic models to search for the best
hyperparameters, focusing on areas where good performance is more likely. It adapts its search based
on previous evaluations, making it more efficient than exhaustive methods.