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Food Biology Series
Mycotoxins in Food
and Beverages
Innovations and Advances
Part I
Books Published in Food Biology series
1. Microorganisms and Fermentation of Traditional Foods
Ramesh C. Ray, Montet Didier (eds.), 2014
2. Bread and Its Fortification: Nutrition and Health Benefits
Cristina M. Rosell, Joanna Bajerska, Aly F. El Sheikha (eds.), 2015
3. Authenticity of Foods of Animal Origin
Ioannis Sotirios Arvanitoyannis (ed.), 2015
4. Fermented Foods, Part I: Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Didier Montet, Ramesh C. Ray (eds.), 2015
5. Foodborne Pathogens and Food Safety
Md. Latiful Bari, Dike O. Ukuku (eds.), 2015
6. Fermented Meat Products: Health Aspects
Nevijo Zdolec (ed.), 2016
7. Fermented Foods of Latin America: From Traditional Knowledge to
Innovative Applications
Ana Lucia Barretto Penna, Luis A. Nero, Svetoslav D. Todorov (eds.), 2016
8. Lactic Acid Fermentation of Fruits and Vegetables
Spiros Paramithiotis (ed.), 2016
9. Microbial Enzyme Technology in Food Applications
Ramesh C. Ray, Cristina M. Rosell (eds.), 2016
10. Acetic Acid Bacteria: Fundamentals and Food Applications
Ilkin Yucel Sengun (ed.), 2017
11. Fermented Foods, Part II: Technological Interventions
Ramesh C. Ray, Montet Didier (eds.), 2017
12. Food Traceability and Authenticity: Analytical Techniques
Didier Montet, Ramesh C. Ray (eds.), 2018
13. Seafood Safety and Quality
Md. Latiful Bari, Kozi Yamazaki (eds.), 2018
14. Food Molecular Microbiology
Spiros Paramithiotis (ed.), 2019
Mycotoxins in Food
and Beverages
Innovations and Advances
Part I
Editors
Didier Montet
Researcher and Expert in Food Safety
UMR Qualisud, CIRAD, Montpellier, France
Catherine Brabet
Senior Researcher, UMR Qualisud, CIRAD,
Montpellier, France
Sabine Schorr-Galindo
Professor, Senior Researcher, UMR Qualisud,
Univ. Montpellier, Montpellier, France
Ramesh C. Ray
Retired Senior Principal Scientist (Microbiology)
ICAR - Central Tuber Crops Research Institute,
Regional Centre, Bhubaneswar, India
p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
First edition published 2021
by CRCPress
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© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Montet, Didier, editor.I Brabet, Catherine, editor.I Galindo,

Sabine, 1967- editor.I Ray, Ramesh C. editor
Title: Mycotoxins in food and beverages : innovations and advances I
editors, Didier Montet, Catherine Brabet, Sabine Galindo, Ramesh C. Ray.
Other titles: Food biology series.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021-I Series: Food biology seriesI
Includes bibliographical references and index.I Summary: "Mycotoxins
are secondary metabolites produced by fungi in a wide range of foods
(cereals, peanut, tree nuts, dried fruits, coffee, cocoa, grapes,
spices...) both in the field and after harvest, particularly during
storage. They can also be found in processed foods of plant origin, or
by transfer, in food products of animal {milk, eggs, meat and offal).
Mycotoxins are of major concern since they can cause acute or chronic
intoxications in both humans and animals which are sometimes fatal. Many
countries, particularly in Europe, have set maximum acceptable levels
for mycotoxins in food and feed"-- Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020049316I ISBN 9780367422097 (hardback; alk. paper)
Subjects: MESH: MycotoxinsI Food MicrobiologyI Food
Contamination--prevention & control
Classification: LCC RA1242.M94I NLM QW 630.5.M9I DDC 615.9/5295--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049316
ISBN: 9 78-0-36 7-42209-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-68280-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-03581-7 (ebk)
Typeset in Palatino Roman
by Innovative Processors
Foreword
“Quo vadis” is a historically well-known term, applicable for many disciplines

across the past. In fact, questioning the direction of the future has never been
as challenging and so important. One anchor point is the past and the second
is the status quo.
This book addresses specific topics in mycotoxin research regarding food
safety. It presents the reader a cross section of recent developments, ranging
from lesser-known mycotoxins with potentially relevant toxicology over the
influence of actual developments with impact on the generation of mycotoxins
(e.g. climate change, agricultural practices, biotechnological production changes)
spanning to management plans and the scientific-analytical tools needed to
answer open questions.
Addressing such specific aspects in an all-inclusive perspective is more
important than ever, as global human population continues to grow and the
impact of seizing of limited resources relevant for (intensive) agriculture
progresses (e.g. phosphates) correlates with population growth. The resulting
demand of agricultural produce in the future – in sufficient quantity and
sustainable quality – will largely effected by plant health and mycotoxin
management along the food and feed production chain.
Since the discovery of aflatoxins in the 1960s as result of the turkey-X
disease incident in the United Kingdom, mycotoxin research has made vast
progress. As a result, many countries in the world have regulations in place
to protect citizens and animal welfare from unfit produce contaminated with
mycotoxins. Europe alone regulated until 2020 nine groups of mycotoxins
in more than 60 different food commodity groups based on previous risk
assessments made by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). This
regulatory development is remarkable, as it resulted in agricultural imports
(to the EU) based on sound risk evaluation and risk management, while in
return generated profitable market prices for the exporting countries.
The turkey-X-disease incident in the 1960s linked to the identification
of aflatoxin B1 as causal agent marked the beginning of today’s mycotoxin
research. Aflatoxin B1 is the most potent natural occurring carcinogen and the
search for other threads from fungal origin led to the discovery of ochratoxin
A, the trichothecenes, zearalenone, patulin and finally the fumonisins in the
mid 1980s. With reference to the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO),
it is estimated that more than 20% of all agricultural produces is affected by
mycotoxins, though not all above levels of acute health concern.
vi Foreword
In early days after discovery, the available analytical methods relied

predominantly on thin-layer chromatography in combination with optical
detection methods, like fluorescence or UV absorption, with native fluorescence
being the favourable feature resulting in a relatively specific and sufficiently
visible/measurable result even for low amounts present. Therefore, it is
worth mentioning that three of the above-mentioned mycotoxins (groups)
that have been studied in the earlier days (aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and
zearalenone) possess such a natural fluorescence. Patulin levels in apple juice
(from Penicillium expansum) can reach up to 1 g per litre. While patulin does
not possess any fluorescence, the high concentrations facilitated its isolation
and characterisation, resulting initially in attempts to utilise it as antibiotic.
A more challenging effort was the identification of fumonisins as the
causal agent responsible for what is known as Equine LEM
(leukoencephalomalacia) to be developed; a deadly disease affecting horses in
South Africa. Once identified, their danger to human health was consequently
spotted. The fumonisins initially escaped the scientists in absence of any
optically useful absorbance or fluorescence and other challenging chemo
physical properties. Only with great effort, they were finally identified in the
1980s in South Africa as mycotoxins of global relevance.
Over the last 25 years the scientific development, namely in instrumental
analysis and immune-chemistry, led to the rather universally availability of
liquid-chromatography coupled to mass selective detectors and to methods
using particularly tailored (fragmented) antibodies and aptamers that
recognise mycotoxins (or structurally similar mycotoxin groups) rather
specifically. These two technologies were game-changers that put numerous
other mycotoxins on the radar for public health risks, which so far escaped
scientists due to the analytical limitations until then. It must be mentioned
however that numerous mycotoxins were already identified and structurally
identified (in fungal cultures) in the 1970s, but these were not necessary
identified in food, too.
As our world became a vastly changing place the words of Heraklit:
πάντα ρ· ε' í (panta rhei, meaning “everything flows”) appear more relevant for
scientists than ever.
Climate change, a growing population and the limits of natural resources
require humankind to manage progress under these conditions. As a result,
novel agricultural practices (e.g. vertical agriculture or hydroponic agriculture)
or even new food production strategies (e.g. industrial utilisation of insects for
nutrition or precision fermentation/biology) seem to offer solutions for global
nutrition and are promoted by international think tanks with enormous
financial leverage as “disruptive technologies” of the future.
Such developments will offer fungi new opportunities to compete for
survival and eventually bear the potential of new mycotoxin scenarios in the
food chain.
As a result sound risk evaluation and risk management is key and it should
target the identification of possible mycotoxin risks in a changing food system.
The contributions in this book reflect on the current knowledge and strategies
Foreword vii
regards these challenges ahead. Further, they give the reader an option to
verify the assumption based on Aristotle “the whole thing (multidisciplinary
reduction of mycotoxins in food and feed) is more than the sum of each single
strategic approach”.
Dr Joerg Stroka
European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC)
Geel, Retieseweg 111, 2440 Geel, Belgium
Preface to the Series
Food is the essential source of nutrients (such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
and minerals) for all living organisms to sustain life. A large part of daily human
efforts is concentrated on food production, processing, packaging and marketing,
product development, preservation, storage, and ensuring food safety and quality. It
is obvious therefore, our food supply chain can contain microorganisms that interact
with the food, thereby interfering in the ecology of food substrates. The microbe-food
interaction can be mostly beneficial (as in the case of many fermented foods such
as cheese, butter, sausage, etc.) or in some cases, it is detrimental (spoilage of food,
mycotoxin, etc.). The Food Biology series aims at bringing all these aspects of microbe
food interactions in form of topical volumes, covering food microbiology, food
mycology, biochemistry, microbial ecology, food biotechnology and bio-processing,
new food product developments with microbial interventions, food nutrification
with nutraceuticals, food authenticity, food origin traceability, and food science and
technology. Special emphasis is laid on new molecular techniques relevant to food
biology research or to monitoring and assessing food safety and quality, multiple
hurdle food preservation techniques, as well as new interventions in biotechnological
applications in food processing and development.
The series is broadly broken up into food fermentation, food safety and hygiene,
food authenticity and traceability, microbial interventions in food bio-processing
and food additive development, sensory science, molecular diagnostic methods
in detecting food borne pathogens and food policy, etc. Leading international
authorities with background in academia, research, industry and government have
been drawn into the series either as authors or as editors. The series will be a useful
reference resource base in food microbiology, biochemistry, biotechnology, food
science and technology for researchers, teachers, students and food science and
technology practitioners.
RameshCRay
Series Editor
Preface
This first of the two volumes of an important book on mycotoxins entitled

“Mycotoxins in Food and Beverages: Innovations and Advances”, was
finalized in the midst of the coronavirus crisis that has affected almost the
entire world. We hope that this crisis will come to an end very soon and by the
time this book is published, we – our families, friends and colleagues would
have forgotten this painful episode of COVID 19.
Such crises pass but the problem of food hazards remain with us. We
would like to draw attention now to defining the food crisis which in fact is a
food hazard and disseminate the findings or research worldwide.
If we return to the mycotoxins, the object of this book, we are on a science
that can be described as new since the first serious analyzes date from the
1980s period when some of the coordinators of this book were only simple
students.
The coordinators of the first volume of this book wish to thank Dr Joerg
Stroka from the Joint Research Center (JRC) of the European Commission
located at Geel (Belgium) for his nice preface. His opinion on the history of
mycotoxins and his knowledge of the analysis of the problem of mycotoxins
by world experts are of the greatest importance.
We have experienced spectacular progress on mycotoxin knowledge in
recent years partly due to the progress in mycotoxins analysis. The major
innovations are taken up in the chapter by Professor Ray Coker (United
Kingdom), the inventor of the ToxiMet system, an automatic multi mycotoxins
analyzer. It gives us an overview of all the mycotoxin purification and analysis
systems currently in use around the world.
Even if current modern analytical devices allow analyzing more than
400 mycotoxins, the analysis of mycotoxins remains difficult and long and
requires sophisticated devices. Two teams have offered rapid and innovative
methods in this book, one at the marketing stage and the other at the advanced
research stage. Thus María Luz Rodríguez et al. (United Kingdom) describe
the method developed by the Randox company which relates to Biochip Array
Technology capable of carrying out multi-analyzes of mycotoxins from a food
sample. Dr Moez El Saadani et al. (Egypt) take stock of aptameric sensors,
of which they have developed an electronic prototype capable of analyzing
xii Preface
ochratoxin A in a real environment in a quantitative and instantaneous way.

A 3 D piece of DNA permitted to specifically capture a mycotoxin.
The fate of mycotoxins during storage in food is described by Professor
Philippe Dantigny et al. (France). They tell us the importance of studying
mycotoxins migration in foods by quantifying their concentration and by
correlating these concentrations to simple observations made by consumers
(i.e. visual aspect of fungal growth). Safe recommendations about moldy
foods are provided by these scientists.
Developing countries are the most affected by the presence and toxicity
of mycotoxins as described by Dr William Stafstrom et al. from Cornell
University (USA). They show the importance of improving mycotoxin
surveillance and response capacity in developing countries. Their chapter
explores and describes the current state of monitoring and documenting
mycotoxins in under-regulated contexts, how multi-disciplinary approaches
can enhance more efficient and effective monitoring. They also propose a
mycotoxin surveillance framework for use in low-resource settings.
As an example of the biodiversity of mycotoxin-producing fungi, Dr
Amaranta Carvajal-Campos et al. from CIRAD and INRAE (France) and
University Nangui Abrogoua (Côte d’Ivoire) focus on the biodiversity of
aflatoxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi species according to food matrices and
geographic areas.
It is rare to have knowledge on this subject from developing countries
collated in a book. Some of these countries have trained specialists and some
have set up research and/or monitoring laboratories. Among these experts,
Dr Pauline Mounjouenpou from the Institute of Agricultural Research for
Development (IRAD) at Yaoundé (Cameroon) reports on mycotoxins and their
regulation in Cameroon. Professor Amina Bouseta et al. from Fez University
discuss the occurrence of mycotoxins in foods and feeds in Morocco and their
sources of contamination. They also give an overview on their control by
official laboratories and the national regulation and finish by sharing some
ideas of prevention.
Ms Ruth Nyagah, a food expert from Kenya, gives rare information on the
link between mycotoxins and cancer in Kenya. She also provides an overview
of the aflatoxin levels in farm products and explains the reactions of the
Kenyan government by the creation of the National Food Safety Coordinating
Committee.
Dr Larissa Yacine Waré et al. makes us aware of the presence of mycotoxins
in milk and infant formula in Burkina Faso. They show the importance of
chronic exposures to toxins that have a negative impact on the health of infants
and young children. They give important and appropriate recommendations
to producers of infant and young child feeding.
The second volume of this book will focus on prevention and
decontamination, biological fight and the uses of biocides. We will give to
Preface xiii
the readers new information about toxicology and how molds will react to
climate change and adapt their production of mycotoxins. We will also take
stock of what genetically modified plants can bring to consumers.
We wish all of our readers an excellent reading time.
Didier Montet
Catherine Brabet
Sabine Schorr-Galindo
Ramesh C. Ray
Contents
Foreword v
Preface to the Series ix
Preface xi
1. Mycotoxin Surveillance for Low-resource Settings 1

William Stafstrom, Anthony Wenndt and Rebecca Nelson
2. Overview of Mycotoxins and Regulations in Cameroon 30
Pauline Mounjouenpou Limi
3. Mycotoxins during Consumer Food Storage 51
Philippe Dantigny, Monika Coton, Angélique Fontana and Sabine
Schorr-Galindo
4. Biodiversity of Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi Species
According to Food Matrices and Geographic Areas 69
Carvajal-Campos Amaranta, Manizan Ama Lethicia, Didier Montet
Sophie Lorber, Olivier Puel and Catherine Brabet
5. Mycotoxins in Foods and Feeds in Morocco: Occurrence, Sources
of Contamination, Prevention/Control and Regulation 116
Amina Bouseta, Adil Laaziz, Hassan Hajjaj and Rajae Belkhou
6. Status and Management of Aflatoxins in Kenya 162
Ruth Nyaga
7. Benefits/Risks Related to the Consumption of Infant Flours
Produced in Burkina Faso 175
Waré Larissa Yacine, Durand Noël, Barro Nicolas and Montet Didier
8. Recent Developments in the Analysis of Mycotoxins 189
Part 1: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Sample Extraction
and Clean-up for the Analysis of Mycotoxins
Raymond Coker
9. Recent Developments in the Analysis of Mycotoxins 205
Part 2: Quantitation Methods for the Analysis of Mycotoxins
Raymond Coker
xvi Contents
10. Biochip Array Technology: Innovative Multi-analytical

Methodology for the Simultaneous Screening of a Broad Range
of Mycotoxins from a Single Food or Feed Cereal Based Sample 242
María Luz Rodríguez, Monika Plotan, Jonathan Porter, R. Ivan
McConnell and S. Peter Fitz Gerald
11. Biosensor and Aptamer: New in Mycotoxins Detection 260
Elsaadani Moez, Sorli Brice and Montet Didier
Index 291
CHAPTER
1
Mycotoxin Surveillance for
Low-resource Settings
William Stafstrom, Anthony Wenndt and Rebecca Nelson*
School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York, 14853 USA
1. Introduction
Mycotoxins are a global health and economic challenge, estimated to affect a
quarter of the global food supply. This 25% figure represents the frequency
of samples contaminated at levels that exceed European Union and Codex
Alimentarius regulatory standards, and it is estimated that 60–80% of samples
contain detectable mycotoxins (Eskola et al. 2019). Since the identification of
aflatoxins (AF) as the cause of Turkey-X disease nearly 60 years ago, highly-
resourced countries have instituted costly food safety monitoring and
regulatory mechanisms that largely insulate consumers from mycotoxins’
negative health effects (Labuza 1983, Wu 2004). In tropical and subtropical
regions, crops and foods are frequently contaminated by mycotoxins produced
by fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium such as AF,
fumonisins (FUM), ochratoxin A (OTA), tricothecenes such as deoxynevalenol
(DON), and zearalenone (ZEA) (Shephard 2008).
In contrast to farmers in high-income countries, where the burden of
mycotoxins is experienced in the form of economic losses, many smallholder
farmers and consumers in the global south encounter mycotoxins directly as
a threat to health and nutrition. Governments in many developing countries
lack the resources and capacity required to comprehensively monitor and
regulate their presence in the food system (Shephard 2008). Smallholder
farming systems figure prominently in developing countries’ agricultural
sectors and contribute to both formal and informal markets. Both formal and
informal sectors in these countries are inadequately regulated and are sources
of mycotoxin risk (Grace et al. 2015).
The negative health effects of consuming different mycotoxins can
generally be classified as resulting from chronic or acute toxicity. The threat
*Corresponding author: rjn7@cornell.edu

2 Mycotoxins in Food and Beverages: Innovations and Advances
of chronic mycotoxin exposure is often overlooked, whereas human disease

outbreaks caused by acute mycotoxin exposure garner international attention.
Trichothecene (e.g. DON) contamination of wheat caused an outbreak of
gastrointestinal illness in India in 1987 (Bhat et al. 1989). In 1995, a foodborne
disease outbreak in several Indian villages was linked to FUM contamination
of household maize and sorghum stores (Bhat et al. 1997). Most prominently,
the consumption of AF-contaminated homegrown maize in eastern Kenya in
2004 caused aflatoxicosis and resulted in 125 deaths (Azziz-Baumgartner et al.
2005). In contrast, the relatively rare acute outbreaks in developed countries
have mainly affected pets or livestock (Leung et al. 2006, Morgavi and Riley
2007). These and other acute mycotoxin outbreaks predominantly affect
localities that share several important features: small farm sizes, low farm
incomes, and limited regulatory systems.
Communities that depend on smallholder agricultural systems are also
at risk of mycotoxins’ less obvious chronic effects (Shirima et al. 2015). The
agricultural sectors of many low-income countries rely significantly upon
smallholder farming systems in which most crops are grown for subsistence
or traded in informal and underregulated markets. Smallholder farms
disproportionately occupy marginal lands and experience unfavorable
conditions that induce plant stress. These systems face myriad challenges
including vulnerability to extreme weather conditions (e.g. drought), poor
soil quality, limited access to inputs, and various types of market failure.
Worryingly, climate change threatens to exacerbate many of these challenges
in increasingly unpredictable ways (Morton 2007).
Improving mycotoxin surveillance and response capacity in these settings
was one of the key recommendations from a report conducted by the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization
(Strosnider et al. 2006). Coordinated efforts to improve monitoring of
mycotoxins and avoid such events in these settings have made some progress,
but mycotoxins remain a prominent public health challenge in developing
countries (Ladeira et al. 2017).
Innovations in monitoring mycotoxins in underregulated and low-
resource areas are needed but remain a significant challenge. Most validated
assays are expensive, require advanced instruments and highly trained
personnel, and are not suited for use in the field (Harvey et al. 2013). Small-
scale farms are difficult to sample as they are dispersed in remote areas, their
households are sensitive to excessive sampling, and their crops rarely enter
formal markets. Landscape-wide mycotoxin prediction models are emerging
as an option to guide and support on-the-ground surveillance, but successful
deployment in resource-limited environments will require substantial
technical advancement (Battilani 2016).
Many developing countries have not yet implemented regulatory
guidelines for mycotoxins, and in those that have, regulations are often
only enforced in the context of international trade with developed countries
(Matumba et al. 2017). In these cases, mycotoxins harm not only the health of
local communities but also disrupt their access to lucrative markets.
Mycotoxin Surveillance for Low-resource Settings 3
In developing countries, mycotoxin surveys have provided snapshot

views of mycotoxin contamination and have often been targeted towards
areas known to be at higher risk of exposure. Few studies have assessed
mycotoxin dynamics over long periods of time and/or over large areas,
which would provide a more complete understanding of mycotoxin
contamination within and across diverse food systems. In the future, it will
be more possible to establish systems that monitor the complex spatial and
temporal dynamics of mycotoxins within these systems and analyze their
interactions with biological, environmental, and socio-cultural factors. This
is necessary to establish effective mycotoxin surveillance systems and to
implement innovative mitigation strategies. Because of resource constraints,
the high-income country model for monitoring and regulating mycotoxins is
not broadly applicable in these systems, and alternative approaches must be
considered. Despite these challenges, recent advances in the understanding
of mycotoxins and potential monitoring technologies offer hope for more
effective mycotoxin surveillance in low-resource areas.
This chapter aims to explore and describe: (1) the current state of
monitoring and documenting mycotoxins in underregulated contexts, (2)
how multi-disciplinary approaches enhance mycotoxin surveys and enable
more efficient and effective monitoring, (3) a proposed mycotoxin surveillance
framework for use in low-resource settings that integrates across scales and is
context-dependent and resource-sensitive, and 4) how this framework would
be amenable to sustainable and community-motivated interventions.
2. Status of Mycotoxin Surveillance in

Low-Resource Settings
Mycotoxin surveillance in low-resource settings is limited in scope and is
infrequently institutionalized outside of export markets. Understanding how
mycotoxins have been monitored in these contexts in the past can provide
the basis for identifying areas for improvement. Doing so requires becoming
acquainted with a variety of stakeholders, mycotoxins, crops, sampling
methodologies, and assay technologies. In unregulated and informal food
systems, mycotoxin surveys along the food value chain offer insights into the
levels of contamination faced by consumers. Without systematic surveillance
mechanisms, such snapshot surveys hint at the true state of mycotoxin
exposure faced by consumers, especially where enforcement of mycotoxin
regulations is limited. Though there are rarely comprehensive mycotoxin
surveillance programs in developing countries, some isolated efforts to build
infrastructure and capacity for such programs have been initiated.
2.1 Monitors of Mycotoxins

The participants in (intermittent) monitoring of mycotoxins in low-resource
areas are affiliated with a wide range of governmental agencies, domestic
and international academic institutions, and research centers. These actors
represent diverse fields such as plant pathology, analytical chemistry, food

science, nutrition, agronomy, and others.
The role of governments in mycotoxin surveillance in low-resource
settings varies significantly among countries and is typically limited to the
formal sector. Generally, national food safety programs monitor the presence
of mycotoxins in commercially produced goods. For instance, the Kenya
Bureau of Standards (KEBS) recently banned five domestic brands of maize
flour after finding them to exceed Kenya’s 10 ppb regulatory limit for AF
(BBC 2019). KEBS previously banned domestic peanut butters that exceeded
AF standards (The Citizen 2019). These actions had regional repercussions, as
Tanzania and Rwanda also instituted bans on the identified brands. In India,
the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) measured AF (M1
form) for the first time in their milk quality survey and found that 5.7% of
samples were above the limit of 0.5 ppb (FSSAI 2018). Encouragingly, this
FSSAI survey was conducted using mobile laboratories and real time data
analysis, but only cities of >50,000 people were visited, and India does not
regulate mycotoxins in the livestock feeds that are the source of the milk
contamination. These actions by domestic authorities speak to the growing
awareness of the threat of AF contamination, but also underline that such
efforts are focused on commercially available products contaminated by a
single mycotoxin. As governments progress in their surveillance of formal
markets, there must be alternative strategies to address the mycotoxin
exposure of citizens in subsistence farming systems and those who access
informal markets.
Domestic research institutions are active and important contributors in
surveying their countries’ foods and beverages for mycotoxins. Domestic
groups are uniquely positioned to look beyond the commonly surveyed staple
foods and beverages (e.g. maize, groundnuts, wheat, milk, etc.) and explore
other less globally prominent crops that are widely consumed in local contexts.
For instance, the most comprehensive survey of AF in rice was carried out
by a team of Indian plant pathologists (Reddy et al. 2009). A diverse group
of researchers from the University of Harare showed that AF was common
in multiple legumes grown by smallholder farmers throughout Zimbabwe
(Maringe et al. 2017). Traditional South African alcoholic beverages were
analyzed for multiple mycotoxins and different mycotoxins were associated
with commercial and home-brewed beverages (Odhav and Naicker 2002).
However, domestic institutions frequently face resource constraints and their
surveys tend to be relatively small-scale.
International and regional research centers like the CGIAR’s International
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) have played a key role in the understanding
of mycotoxin dynamics in developing countries. CGIAR’s agricultural
research centers possess the human and technical resources necessary to
conduct mycotoxin surveys, and they are mandated to research and improve
agriculture in low-resource contexts. Because of their relative resource
advantages, they can collect and analyze more samples and conduct multi-
year studies. For example, ILRI’s regional hub in Vietnam conducted the
country’s first comprehensive survey of AF in maize for food and livestock

feed (Lee et al. 2017). The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-
Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) spearheaded a survey of Zambian peanut butter over
three years, showing significant and erratic AF contamination in commercially
available brands (Njoroge et al. 2016).
Collaborations among international, regional, and domestic scientists
can be effective partnerships for carrying out mycotoxin surveys. Often,
this blend leverages international perspectives and resources, regional
hubs of excellence with high capacity, and local knowledge of diverse
and complex food systems. For example, authors affiliated with ILRI, the
University of Rwanda, and international academic institutions collaborated
to characterize maize AF contamination in Kigali marketplaces (Nishimwe
et al. 2017). Intragovernmental cooperation has also proven beneficial, as
in the case of American and Nepalese government scientists assaying FUM
and trichothecenes in Nepalese maize and wheat (Desjardins et al. 2000).
Collaborations can help to expand the scope of a survey; Nigerian and German
institutions collaborated to assess the presence of multiple mycotoxins in
Nigerian maize, including the first documentation of ergosterol in this context
(Bankole et al. 2010). Surveys conducted by these diverse teams of researchers
offer extensive insight into the status of mycotoxin contamination in
developing countries. However, this reliance on diverse and informal groups
also emphasizes the lack of a consistent and defined system of mycotoxin
surveillance in these contexts.
Local communities are notably absent as active monitors in these efforts,
as few mycotoxin surveys have significantly engaged with community
groups. Within surveys, their role is often limited to being the source of the
contaminated products. This is partly driven by the reliance on validated
mycotoxin assays that are analyzed at a centralized location far from where
samples are collected. Though such validated assays may not be feasible at
the local level, communities offer deep knowledge of many of the drivers of
mycotoxins and should play an important role in monitoring mycotoxins.
2.2 Food and Beverage Types

Mycotoxin surveys have analyzed a wide range of food and beverages, often
focusing on AF contamination in the staple crops maize and groundnuts
because of their notable vulnerability to contamination. For instance,
mycotoxins were tested in a wide variety of foods and feeds from Bangladeshi
markets and the highest levels of contamination were from AF in maize,
groundnuts, and poultry feed (Dawlatana et al. 2002). While these crops
are among the most vulnerable to AF accumulation, the potential sources of
mycotoxins are numerous within varied and diverse diets, and surveillance
efforts need to be balanced across the foods at most obvious risk and other
possible sources.
Consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated feeds by livestock leads to a
reduction in animal health and productivity and results in the presence of
mycotoxins in animal products such as milk, eggs, and meat. For example,
in Kenyan peri-urban and rural settings, the AF and DON concentrations

in livestock feed and AF concentrations in milk were surveyed (Makau et
al. 2016). Consumers in peri-urban areas were found to be at higher risk of
exposure to AF from milk (M1 form) because the feed in those areas was more
highly contaminated by mycotoxins. Other beverages traditionally consumed
in low-resource settings, particularly beer and coffee, have been monitored. In
Africa, sorghum malts and beers are regularly contaminated with AF, FUM,
and DON (Matumba et al. 2011, Roger 2011). In major coffee producing and
consuming nations, such as Ethiopia, Cote d’Ivoire, and Colombia, substantial
levels of OTA have been observed in coffee for local consumption (Diaz et al.
2004, Geremew et al. 2016, Manda et al. 2016).
Surveys demonstrate that the sources of mycotoxin exposure vary
significantly across food systems, and a surveillance framework should
account for local variation in both the quantity and types of foods and
beverages consumed.
2.3 Sampling Methodologies

Mycotoxins are often distributed highly heterogeneously within a commodity
or food product, which makes them difficult to sample and assay accurately.
Improvements in sampling and testing methodologies lead to significant
improvements in accurately monitoring mycotoxins (Herrman et al. 2020).
Sampling methodologies must be locally adapted and context-sensitive for
determining exposure levels in developing countries. Food and beverages
consumed in these countries are often derived from subsistence farms or local
markets, and commercial products can represent a diverse array of farm types
and regions of origin.
For rural areas, farm- or household-based sampling methods are typically
employed. Procuring samples directly from farmers’ fields allows researchers
to assess mycotoxin concentrations prior to storage or processing. In Zambia,
harvested cobs were sampled from standing maize plants in smallholder
farms to investigate pre-harvest AF and FUM contamination (Njeru et al.
2019). Sampling from household stores can include crops at different stages of
processing. Matumba et al. (2015) directly sampled from subsistence farmers’
bags of shelled maize, while Shephard et al. (2013) also sampled cooked
maize products like porridge. Household and farm surveys are effective at
determining highly local exposure to mycotoxins, as the crop or food products
tested are derived from the farm or local trade. However, visiting hundreds
of farms or homes is difficult to scale, as it is expensive and tedious, poses
multiple social and cultural constraints, and the ethics of sampling from food
insecure households must be considered.
To more comprehensively survey outside of the farm or household
setting, alternative approaches have been used. Nabwire et al. (2019) leveraged
relationships with schools to procure household maize samples that they
tested for AF. Mutiga et al. (2014, 2015) sampled maize at local grain mills
in eastern and western Kenya. In developing countries, small-scale mills are
common in both rural and urban environments and are patronized by local
customers. Sampling at these local processing nodes offers improvements

in survey efficiency and scale, and, if sampling flour, representative sample
sizes can be smaller because mycotoxin distribution is more homogeneous in
milled than in unmilled samples. Local mills are used for cereals like maize,
sorghum, and rice, and shelling machines are analogous hubs for groundnuts.
Sampling outside of the rural context might also be necessary, as crops
originating from smallholder farms are traded throughout a country. The 2016
Tanzanian aflatoxicosis outbreak demonstrated this phenomenon; though
deaths were linked to subsistence farmers’ home-grown stores of maize,
samples of commercial maize flour during this time period also contained
high concentrations of AF (Kamala et al. 2018). Surveys of traded goods have
sampled food commodities or processed foods downstream of producers in the
value chain. Potential sampling nodes in these areas are local markets, milling
and processing facilities, and commercially available products (Makau et al.
2016, Moser et al. 2014, Nishimwe et al. 2017, Njoroge et al. 2016). Depending
on the size of the market, the sourcing of the processor, or the distribution of
processed goods, these samples can represent mycotoxin contamination from
single or multiple origins. This complexity underlines that understanding
the flow of crops through the food value chain is necessary for optimizing
sampling methods and integrating mycotoxin surveillance at different scales.
In light of this inherent complexity, a sampling methodology that allows
for less granular surveys would improve broader surveillance of mycotoxins.
For crops that are processed at highly local facilities (e.g. maize, sorghum,
groundnuts), sampling at these community nodes might offer an ideal
balance of sampling resolution and efficiency. Further down the value chain,
sampling local markets, traders, or processors could provide an even broader
view but would sacrifice geographical resolution.
2.4 Mycotoxin Assays

A technical challenge to mycotoxin surveillance in low-resource settings is the
lack of low-cost, field-based assays (Shephard 2018). Portable options, such
as lateral flow assays, are prohibitively expensive for large-scale monitoring.
Cheap, portable, and non-destructive methods, like near infrared reflectance
(NIR), are promising but have not been validated at regulatory standard levels
(Harvey et al. 2013). Aptamer-based assays have not yet come to market, but
could be inexpensive, stable, and accurate enough to significantly enhance
field-based mycotoxin monitoring (Sharma et al. 2017, Shephard 2018).
Most mycotoxin assays’ levels of detection (LOD) are fit for purpose and
based on regulatory standards that depend on toxicity and risk exposure
assessments in different foods and beverages. For example, the high toxicity
of AF and its presence in staple crops, like maize and sorghum, means that
their LODs are typically orders of magnitude lower than for mycotoxins such
as FUM and trichothecenes. However, in areas at risk of extreme exposure to
mycotoxins, qualitative or semi-quantitative assays could still prove useful,
especially if there is a substantial savings in cost. In the context of smallholder
farming systems, assay costs make large-scale continuous monitoring
prohibitively expensive, but a compromise that integrates more advanced

techniques with cheaper and less precise methods could prove to be effective.
2.5 Mycotoxin Surveys Summary

Published surveys collectively paint a picture of largely unregulated food
systems that are contaminated with highly variable and often dangerously
high levels of mycotoxins depending on the year, sample type, and location.
Presently, mycotoxin surveillance in developing countries relies on surveys
that provide a relatively scattered and likely biased view. The general state
of mycotoxin risk documented by these surveys has helped to enhance
awareness and mobilize some action at local and global scales, yet awareness
of mycotoxins within many at risk communities remains low (Adekoya et al.
2017, James et al. 2007, Johnson et al. 2018, Lee et al. 2017, Mboya and Kolanisi
2014). For mycotoxin surveys to connect the awareness of the problem to
actionable solutions, the status of mycotoxins in the food system needs to be
further contextualized in a more holistic fashion.
3. Monitoring Mycotoxin Risk Factors in

Low-Resource Settings
Mycotoxin surveys of foods and beverages have established a basic
understanding of the mycotoxin challenge in most countries’ food systems.
However, food systems in developing countries are inherently complex and
distinctive, with diverse social and cultural contexts and varied agricultural
systems. This complexity means that surveys that provide a snapshot view
of mycotoxin contamination may not offer insights into the underlying
causes. Integrated surveys that analyze mycotoxin concentrations along
with their various drivers have been critical to contextualizing the degree to
which different risk factors influence contamination. To establish an effective
surveillance framework, factors associated with mycotoxin contamination
from every step along the food value chain should be monitored to improve
risk prediction.
3.1 Pre-Harvest Risk Factors

Mycotoxin susceptibility is largely driven by plant stress, which is influenced
by weather and soil conditions (Ferrigo et al. 2014). Pre-harvest abiotic factors
thus play a large part in determining the extent of mycotoxin accumulation,
and they form the basis of predictive models for pre-harvest AF, DON, and
FUM contamination (Battilani et al. 2008, Cao et al. 2014, Cotty and Jaime-
Garcia 2007, Kerry et al. 2017, Schaafsma and Hooker 2007). In smallholder
farming systems, surveys have documented how certain fungi and their
mycotoxins are associated with different agroecological zones, which provides
insight into how mycotoxins are affected by factors such as altitude, soil,
temperature, humidity, seasonality, and rainfall (Monyo et al. 2012, Mukanga
et al. 2010, Mutiga et al. 2015, Ndemera et al. 2018, Sserumaga et al. 2019,
Toteja et al. 2006).
There is some geographic overlap of mycotoxins, and general trends about
what drives their geographical distributions across growing seasons have
been documented. For example, in lower latitudes, hotter and drier lowlands
tend to have more AF contamination, while cooler and wetter highlands
experience more FUM and DON contamination. Smith et al. (2016) examined
environmental effects in Kenyan smallholder farming communities by using
remotely sensed datasets of rainfall, soil parameters, and a vegetation index
to model the concentrations of maize AF and FUM in Kenyan smallholder
farming systems. Crucially, they found evidence for mycotoxin distribution
being affected by both across- and within-season environmental variation.
From a surveillance perspective, remote sensing datasets provide detailed
and, typically, freely available information on smallholder farming systems
that could help to predict areas at risk of certain mycotoxins both across and
within years.
Agronomic factors during a growing season significantly influence end-
of-season mycotoxin contamination, and many of these are controlled by the
grower. In smallholder farming systems, numerous studies have focused on
how mycotoxin contamination of crops (primarily AF and/or FUM in maize
and/or groundnuts) are associated with myriad pre-harvest agronomic
practices. These data are usually acquired by conducting questionnaires or
surveys with farmers during sample collection. Some of the good agricultural
practices that could effectively mitigate mycotoxins are intercropping, crop
rotation, residue removal, use of early maturing and resistant varieties, soil
amendments, reducing field drying time, and pest management by pesticides
or push-pull systems (Atukwase et al. 2009, Degraeve et al. 2015, Kaaya et al.
2005, Kimanya et al. 2009, Mutiga et al. 2014, 2015, Ndemera et al. 2018, Njeru
et al. 2019, Phokane et al. 2019). Accounting for these factors in a surveillance
framework can help to evaluate risk and to suggest the most effective
interventions.
The types and varieties of crops grown also influence toxin accumulation.
Information about cropping systems is relevant to risk assessment and
targeting of surveillance efforts, although a crop’s inherent vulnerability to
mycotoxins is difficult to quantify given the large environmental effects on
fungal infection, colonization, and mycotoxin production. Within smallholder
farming systems, there is often high genetic diversity within crops, as
landraces and open pollinated varieties are common. Certain crops are more
resistant to mycotoxin contamination because of their innate resistance or
their adaptation to an environment. Within a crop, varietal differences explain
some variance in mycotoxin contamination. AF contamination of western
Kenyan groundnuts was lower in improved varieties than in landraces, and
resistant genotypes were identified in a west African groundnut breeding
program (Mutegi et al. 2009, Waliyar et al. 1994). In Kenyan maize, varieties
with flint kernels were less contaminated with AF than dent kernel varieties
(Mutiga et al. 2017).
There is a considerable diversity of mycotoxigenic fungal pathogens both

across and within species and understanding this diversity in the context of
the food value chain can be relevant to mycotoxin surveillance. Viewing this
diversity through the lens of the plant disease triangle, which considers the
interactions among the pathogen, host crop, and environment, can help to
inform which mycotoxins are likely to contaminate a given food or beverage.
Multiple fungal pathogens are present in smallholder farming systems and
the distribution of different species across landscapes is largely dictated by
environmental factors such as temperature and humidity (Bankole et al. 2006,
Giorni et al. 2009, Hove et al. 2016, Mukanga et al. 2010). Within a species,
strains can vary in their mycotoxin production potential and different strains
can be adapted to different environments (Fandohan et al. 2005, Kpodo et
al. 2000, Monyo et al. 2012). For example, in an area of Kenya that is notably
affected by aflatoxicosis outbreaks, Probst et al. (2012) determined that the
genetically distinct and extremely toxigenic S strain morphotypes of A. flavus
predominated. For rapid diagnostics in the field, Radhakrishnan et al. (2019)
devised a DNA sequencing-based monitoring system that distinguished
different strains of wheat yellow rust in Ethiopia. These findings suggest
that surveillance of mycotoxins can be enhanced by understanding the
ecogeographical distribution of mycotoxigenic fungi species and their strains
in crops and soils.
3.2 Post-Harvest Risk Factors

Post-harvest events also contribute to mycotoxin risk and are often considered
the most tractable ways to manage mycotoxin risk under resource constraints.
Within smallholder farming systems, critical post-harvest actions to reduce
mycotoxin levels involve drying, storage, sorting, and processing (Manandhar
et al. 2018). Some storage methods that inhibit fungal growth or insect damage
include storing in a cool, dry location, using hermetically sealed bags that limit
insect damage, using natural deterrents to insects like essential oils or neem
leaves, or application of synthetic insecticides (Kamala et al. 2016, Magembe et
al. 2016, Sasamalo et al. 2018). Sorting is typically done by hand and involves
removing discolored, damaged, or non-uniform grains, which are more likely
to be infected by fungal pathogens and contain mycotoxins. Hand sorting has
proven effective for reducing FUM in maize and AF in groundnut, but it has
not been consistently effective for reducing AF in maize (Afolabi et al. 2006,
Galvez et al. 2003, Mutiga et al. 2014, Xu et al. 2017). Optical sorting devices
that use spectral reflectance signals can reduce AF and FUM in maize, but
they are not validated to regulatory limits and are not commercially available
(Harvey et al. 2013, Stasiewicz et al. 2017). Decortication, the removal of the
maize germ and seed coat by milling, is common and significantly reduces
FUM (Fandohan et al. 2005, Vanara et al. 2009). Another processing technique,
nixtamalization, is commonly employed in Central America and can reduce
AF and FUM in maize food products (Elias-Orozco et al. 2002, Palencia et al.
2003). Post-harvest mitigation methods vary in their effectiveness, depend on
the crop and mycotoxin in question, and have a range of costs. Monitoring
their implementation in a food system would help to better model mycotoxin

exposure risk and identify optimal interventions.
Dietary composition significantly influences exposure to mycotoxins.
Cultural preferences for crops that are more readily contaminated by
mycotoxins increase the risk of exposure. Also, certain demographics may be
particularly at risk; for example, children’s weaning foods can be contaminated
with a greater number of mycotoxins than foods consumed by the general
population (Matumba et al. 2015, Yacine Ware et al. 2017). This is troubling,
as infants and young children are especially sensitive to mycotoxins’ negative
health effects. Understanding the dietary patterns of consumers is the last
step along the food value chain and is critical to informing the mycotoxin risk
faced by a community.
3.3 Integrated Monitoring and Mitigation

A diverse array of interconnected factors affects the mycotoxin contamination
of a food system. As opposed to traditional surveys of mycotoxins,
interdisciplinary surveys elucidate how these factors interact and influence
mycotoxin levels. Thus, by monitoring and modeling these associated factors,
patterns of mycotoxin contamination across landscapes and communities
can be discerned. There remains the challenge of how to scale monitoring
techniques of mycotoxins and their drivers efficiently and effectively in
low-resource settings. Each combination of crop and mycotoxin has its own
unique blend of drivers, which multiplies this challenge (Pitt et al. 2013).
Combining mycotoxin surveillance with expertise from diverse fields (e.g.
plant pathology, plant genetics, agronomy, animal science, epidemiology,
etc.) provides a more comprehensive platform for translatable mitigation
strategies that have multiplicative benefits beyond just reducing mycotoxins.
For example, sustainable approaches to improving soil quality not only reduce
mycotoxins indirectly by lessening stress on the plant, but also improve yields
and provide resiliency against drought. If applied correctly, integrative and
multi-disciplinary approaches to mycotoxin surveillance could enable more
effective and nuanced interventions that are informed by and adapted to local
communities.
4. Mycotoxin Surveillance Framework

Mycotoxins are symptoms of food systems under stress. Their presence
indicates difficulties in farming, storage, processing, and human and
livestock health. In the absence of formal monitoring, surveys of mycotoxins
in low-resource settings have described seemingly idiosyncratic and noisy
systems in which consumers are exposed to a wide range of mycotoxins and
concentrations. Integrated surveys have detailed how this highly variable
contamination is influenced by numerous and diverse factors. To date, a variety
of barriers, compounded by resource constraints, have prevented long-term
and continuous monitoring of mycotoxins in these systems. The presence of
extreme levels of mycotoxin contamination is often not detected until after

devastating outbreaks occur, and the effects of exposure to moderate levels of
mycotoxins are less well understood.
Pitt et al. (2018) proposed the first systematic surveillance approach for
constructing an early warning system for AF in maize and groundnuts in
African and Asian smallholder farming systems. Their proposed framework
emphasized the necessity of linking centralized governance structures and
laboratory monitors with community officials based in at-risk areas. This
section will leverage insights from past mycotoxin research to inform the
structure of an integrated mycotoxin surveillance framework in low-resource
settings that aims to function as both an early warning system and a tool for
building sustained resilience to mycotoxins within chronically threatened
systems.
4.1 Proposed Surveillance Framework

We propose a dual-track framework for monitoring mycotoxins in low-
resource contexts that combines regional surveillance by remote sensing with
targeted local mycotoxin surveys and community engagement. By combining
these sources of information and using them to construct spatiotemporal
models of mycotoxin risk, areas in danger of either acute or chronic exposure
to a mycotoxin can be targeted for interventions that correspond to the level
of risk (Figure 1). Monitoring different types of exposure requires slightly
different inputs and enables different responses.
4.2 Acute vs. Chronic Risk

The two tracks aim to identify localities that are at either acute or chronic
risk of mycotoxin exposure. Surveillance of acute risk involves predicting
where potential mycotoxicosis outbreaks will occur and intervening rapidly
in those communities to verify the risk and rapidly implement interventions.
This track relies heavily on information on environmental conditions during a
growing season, such as the occurrence and timing of drought events.
Monitoring of chronic mycotoxin risk is less time sensitive and would
aim to identify areas at risk of mycotoxin exposure over longer time periods.
Communities at chronic risk of mycotoxin exposure can be identified by
including historical weather or mycotoxin datasets in the model. Modeling
chronic risk can also involve future climate scenarios to discern where
mycotoxin risk will be elevated in the future. Whereas acute risk monitoring
would focus on the potential of an outbreak of a single mycotoxin on a small
number of crops, chronic risk monitoring would consider the possibility that a
community could be exposed to different mycotoxins in different years.
4.3 Framework Inputs

The key inputs to both framework components are the environmental
variables that are associated with the presence of a mycotoxin in a crop or food
product. These environmental indicators form the basis for either mechanistic
Other documents randomly have
different content
several other parts of England. Lord Jesus, revive thy work in the
midst of the years! You will pray that the fatal languor may not take
hold of my already too languid heart. I would fain be found of my
Lord with my loins girded, and my lamp burning. A storm seems to
be at hand. Jesus is our hiding-place.
Blest is faith that trusts his power,
Blest are saints that wait his hour:
Haste, great Conqueror, bring it near;
Let the glorious close appear.
O that some may be awakened to prepare for that awful hour! On

Monday, God willing, I go to blow the gospel trumpet at Glasgow.
Lord, what am I, that I should be one of thy run-abouts! If this be to
be vile, Lord, make me more vile! Adieu. Hearty love and most
cordial respects await your whole self. Follow me with your prayers,
and as the Lord Jesus enables, they shall be returned by, my very
dear friend,
Yours most affectionately in our common Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXIX.
To Mrs. W――.
Glasgow, July 18, 1759.
Dear Mrs. W――,

M AKE no apology for writing your mind. I see the disease, but
know not how to come at a cure. Labourers are wanting of the
old stamp: but vines are very apt to degenerate. If I am not
mistaken, we shall be purged with a witness. God grant it may be
that we may bring forth more fruit. I want the purgation most of all.
I dread a corpulent body. But it breaks in upon me like an armed
man. O that my heart may not wax gross at the same time! I would
fain not flag, but rather begin at least to begin in the latter stages of
my road. Congregations in Scotland are very large. I am glad to hear
that the shout of a king is among you. Pray remember me in the
kindest manner to all in conference, and to all that are so kind as to
enquire after, dear Mrs. W――,
Your sincere friend and servant in our common Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXX.
To Mrs. C――.
Newcastle, August 16, 1759.
Dear Mrs. C――,
L ONG before now I hope you have had the pleasure of seeing
Bethesda’s debts all paid. Bethesda (now outward burdens are
off) I trust will be more agreeable every day. I do not want to
change its present Governess. This, I fear, would be the case, was
Mr. P―― and his family to come. I fear you would then think
yourself discharged. Besides, he seems to want me to resign my
trust entirely. This all here dissuade me from, upon any terms, or to
any person whatsoever. As you and Mr. D―― are so faithful, if Mr.
P―― will continue to superintend till I come, matters may continue
as they are. O when shall I receive my commission to go abroad.
God only knows what awaits us at home. Jesus is our hiding-place. I
am now in my return from Scotland. For these six weeks last past,
the word hath run and been glorified there. O, who is a God like
unto our God, glorious in holiness, fearful in praises, continually
doing wonders! he will be our God and guide unto death. That he
may continually fill you with his grace here, and grant you an exalted
place, near his throne, in his kingdom hereafter, is the earnest
prayer of, dear Mrs. C――,
Your most affectionate, obliged friend, and ready servant in

our glorious Emmanuel,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXXI.
Newcastle, August 16, 1759.
My dear Mr. D――,
I HOPE that soon after your writing in February last, my November

letters came to hand, and that Mr. P――l hath been over with
you, to discharge all Bethesda debts. Blessed be God for causing his
work to prosper in your hands. Pray be always as particular as you
can about the children, and set them upon writing often. Mr. Zubly’s
coming to Georgia pleases me much. Pray let me have the whole
account from last audit. I am glad you have taken in three more
orphans; they will turn out great prizes in the last day. Poor Mr.
I――s!—Let him that standeth take heed lest he fall. Lord Jesus, give
us a right understanding in all things! He is an ever-loving and ever-
lovely Jesus. His power hath been made known in Scotland for these
six weeks last past. Some books will be sent from thence to the care
of Mr. Hodsden. The box which I sent in Burkitt some months ago, I
hear was taken;—it had a gown in it, and several other things. “The
Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away: blessed be the name
of the Lord!” We have a God that will supply all our wants, according
to the riches of his mercy in Christ Jesus. O to be faithful unto the
death! we shall then receive a crown of life. That this may be your
happy portion, is the earnest prayer of, my dear Mr. D――,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXXII.
To Mrs. C――.
London, August 30, 1759.
Dear Mrs. C――,
T HE bearers of this are well known to Mr. D――n. I trust, I can

recommend them as the followers of Jesus Christ. I wish
Bethesda may be a comfortable asylum for them. I think that Mr.
S――k, for the present, might be employed about the lands round
the orphan-house, and so gradually learn to be overseer at Ephrata.
John H――y, I suppose, will be for moving in a year or two. I wish
he may be capable to do for himself. I am told that he drinks; but I
do not love to catch at ill reports against those that are employed in
my house. Pray let me hear particularly concerning him. Mrs. S――k
is a quiet teachable woman. I think she might be of service to you
immediately, and with her husband do quite well, in a short time, at
the plantation. You will soon be able to judge. If ―― doth not turn
out as you desire, and is not of use in the house, let her be put out
to some good service: she is capable now of doing for herself. Mr.
D――n will be so kind as to take care of the little boy. He is quite an
orphan, and I am told very quiet, and willing to learn. Would to God
I was coming with them. But the way at present is quite blocked up.
Lord Jesus, open it in thy due time! I hope you do not so much as
think of seeing England till I come over. Mrs. S――k hath directions
to leave Bethesda, if you think her coming any reason for your
remove; that would grieve me to the heart. I think myself quite
happy in such an assistant, and hope, now all debts are paid, you
will be free from many burdens. O what hath God wrought?
wonders, wonders! Praise the Lord, O our souls! I should be glad of
Mr. P――l at Bethesda; but I can give him no more power than he
hath. All are against my giving up my trust to any person
whatsoever. Lord Jesus, continue to be Bethesda’s God! Should not
H――y’s daughter be put out to service. Orphan-house plants ought
to be transplanted, to make room for others, and then the family will
not be too large. I commit you, and all, to his never failing mercy,
and am, dear Mrs. C――,
Your most obliged, affectionate friend, and ready servant in

our common Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXXIII.
To Mrs. C――.
London, September 12, 1759.
Dear Mrs. C――,

I CAN but send you my poor pepper-corn of thanks unfeigned, for
your continued care of dear Bethesda. Now all is paid, I hope
your best days are to come. Do not entertain a thought of leaving a
place, in which you have your health, and are so useful. If Mr. S――k
can supply Ephrata, then all that family will be gone soon. Blessed
be God that some of the girls turn out so well! The worsted and
stays will be sent with this. I hope to write again soon. I am not
sorry that Lory is like to be disposed of, but I would have another
negroe bought in her room. O that Jesus would wash them in his
blood. Little Reader’s letter pleased us much. I would have all the
boys to write. O that Jesus may convert them! Amen and Amen!
Some of the books coming over, may be dispersed among the people
at Oqueehec, and elsewhere, if not wanted at Bethesda. I want a
master sadly for G――, &c. I trust the Lord will provide.
Blest is faith that trusts His power,
Blest are the saints that wait his hour.
Your sister I hear turns out very well. Would to God I could say so of
all my relations!
But surely God’s rich grace is free;
For, O my God! it found out me.
Hoping to have another speedy opportunity of writing again, with

ten thousand thanks for all your care, and most earnest prayers for
your increasing with all the increase of God, I must hasten to
subscribe myself, dear Mrs. C――,
Your most affectionate obliged friend, and very ready

servant in our glorious Jesus,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXXIV.
To Mr. D――.
London, September 13, 1759.
My very dear Mr. D――,
Y OUR letter dated May 25, which I received yesterday by the

hands of Mr. Vincent, gave me unspeakable satisfaction. I can
but thank you, as I do ten thousand times over, for all your care and
faithfulness. He that seeth in secret will ere long reward openly. As I
hear both Dickenson and Ball are arrived, you will have received
more letters from me. God be praised for your success in the silk-
worms! God be praised that Bethesda is out of debt! God be praised
for all his tender mercies to me and mine! Praise the Lord, O our
souls! I wish some of the children could be bred up for the ministry.
G―― seems to me to have some grace. What a pity that I cannot
have a grammar-school! I shall think and pray, and then write to you
and Mr. P――l on this head. You all seem to dislike the temper of
those at Ephrata. If Mr. S――k could supply the place, perhaps it
would be more pleasant. May the Lord Jesus direct, for his name’s
sake! He will, he will! It is a most discouraging thing, that good
places cannot be found for the boys when fit to go out. By this
means, they are kept in the house beyond their time, both to their
own hurt, and to the further expence of the institution. I expect
R―― W―― home with Captain Ball. I am glad B―― is at a trade.
Somebody told his mother, that he was gone to his master’s
plantation. I wish he had written a line. Could you let me know what
stock of cattle you have, and what hogs you kill. The more particular
you are about every thing, the better. I long for the account. I am
glad you received the books! more are to be sent from Scotland. I
do not much care for R――’s being at Bethesda, unless he is a true
penitent. How doth my nephew go on? That you may go on and
prosper both in body and soul, till you are safe landed in an endless
eternity, is the earnest prayer of, very dear Mr. D――,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXXV.
To Mr. D――.
London, February 5, 1760.
I AM waiting every moment for a line from you. I hope it will bring
me the agreeable news of your being at peace with the Indians.
Above all, I trust it will inform me, of your being filled with the peace
of God, which passeth all understanding. As I wrote my whole mind
by dear Mr. S――k, and who, I find by the papers, is safely arrived, I
have nothing to add, till I hear what Mr. P――l hath determined on,
and what situation Mr. S―― thinks himself called to. My heart’s
desire and prayer to God is, that all may be directed for the
Redeemer’s glory, and the lasting welfare of Bethesda. I cannot help
thinking, but something great is to come out of it yet. The thoughts
of a College are revived; but he that believeth doth not make haste.
I am growing very corpulent, but, I trust, not too corpulent for
another voyage, when called to it. Every day the work increases. On
Sunday last, a new enlargement of the chapel was opened, and a
great concourse of people assembled on that occasion. I am told
that God was there. With this, I hope you will receive a box of books.
My nephew hath some more for you, in a box sent to him. I have
had a sweet letter from I―― P――m. O this changing world! Lord,
sanctify all for the better preparing us for our great change! Adieu,
my dear friend. I hope you will keep close to Bethesda. God will
bless you for it. Hoping to hear from you very shortly, I hasten to
subscribe myself,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXXVI.
To Mrs. C――.
My dear Mrs. C――,
I SEND this to Portsmouth after Mr. R――n, to inform you, that last
night we received your agreeable letters, dated in August and
September. Blessed be God that you are all so well. The bills shall be
honoured. I have thoughts, that you and Mr. D―― will come
together. For Christ’s sake, do not think of moving from Bethesda. I
am more than pleased: I am delighted with your being there. The
family will soon be small indeed. It is easily increased at any time. I
hope that G―― and A―― W―― will be put out. I am glad S――f
behaved so well. God’s judgments are like the great deep. Father, thy
will be done! Mr. S――f bears the news quite well. I expect to hear
again from you every day. God bless you all! Cease not to pray for,
dear Mrs. C――,
Your most obliged affectionate friend and servant in our

common Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXXVII.
To Mr. S―― S――.
Bristol, July 5, 1760.
My very dear Sir,
W ITH this, I have sent an order to Mr. C――, to receive of you

three hundred pounds sterling, to purchase bills of exchange
from Mr. S――r. One hundred Mr. S――r is to remit to Mr. F――y.
The other two hundred Mr. C―― is to pay to Mr. Z――n, in order to
be remitted to Professor F――k. The remainder, I think best to keep
till I hear from the Professor himself. The Lord pity and comfort the
poor sufferers! What reason have we to be thankful, who abound in
peace and plenty! What is still more, the fields are white, ready unto
a spiritual harvest. When in the fields, ten thousand, perhaps more,
do assemble here. When under cover, there are more than the
tabernacle will well hold; at least in the evening. Every time the
house is a Bethel, a house of God, a gate of heaven. Grace! grace! I
thought that my wife’s illness would have hastened me to London;
but as she is now recovering, I would fain proceed in my summer’s
campaign. I am persuaded I am the better for your prayers. Never
were they more charitably bestowed. I am a worm, and no man. O
blessed Jesus, how good thou art! With all thy other mercies, give, O
give me an humble and a thankful heart! I could enlarge, but have
more letters to write. I hope my most cordial respects and thanks
will find acceptance with dear Mrs. S―― and Miss, and I am sure
you will accept the same yourself, from, my very dear Sir,
Yours &c. under manifold obligations,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXXVIII.
To Mrs. C――.
Dear Mrs. C――,
I HOPE this will find you restored to more than former health and
usefulness, and quite determined to continue at Bethesda. It
makes me uneasy, to think you have the least inclination of
returning, till you see me on your side the water. Jesus hath called
and blessed you at Bethesda. I would fain have you stay and see the
fruits of your labour. You will see what I wrote about I―― H――. I
must leave all to you who are upon the spot, not doubting but the
Lord Jesus will guide you by his allwise counsel; none teacheth like
him. I have sympathized with you, in respect to your fears about the
Indian war. Lord Jesus grant they may not be permitted to come near
your peaceful dwelling! In heaven, all these alarms will be over. I
long for those blessed mansions. But nothing kills me. My wife was
lately just got into harbour, but is driven back again. Blessed be God,
we are sure of getting in safe at last. Jesus is our pilot. To his
almighty and never-failing protection do I most humbly and heartily
commit you, as being, for his great name’s sake, with ten thousand
thanks for all your labours of love, dear Mrs. C――,
Your sincere affectionate friend, and ready servant in our

common Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXXXIX.
To Mr. D――.
I OWE you much love for your letter and accompts. May Bethesda’s
God bless and reward you! He doth, he will. I suppose you will
see what I have written to Mr. P――l and Mr. S――k. How doth the
Redeemer bring his elect together, even in this world! What a
glorious meeting will there be in the world to come! Methinks I hear
you say, “Come, Lord Jesus, come quickly.” I add, Amen and amen!
even so come Lord Jesus! The prospect is promising. I am going in
my old way, saving that I grow fatter and fatter every day. Lord, help
me to work it down! but it seems working will not do. I spent all the
last winter in London, and began my campaign in May, in
Gloucestershire. Last month I was in Wales, inviting souls to come to
Christ. Here I am labouring also. You will not fail to pray for me. I
long to hear about the Indian war. They are safe who are garrisoned
in God, even a God in Christ. Assure yourself, that neither you nor
your dear orphan-charge are ever forgotten by, my dear Mr. D――,
Yours, &c. in our common Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXL.
To Mr. D――.
London, August 15, 1760.
H OW do I long to hear of God’s appearing for Georgia and

Bethesda? I trust, the Indians have not, and will not be
permitted to disturb a family planted by his own right hand, and for
his own glory. But the divine judgments are a great deep. Lord, help
us to adore, and cheerfully to submit to thy holy will! Some
Bethesda letters, I trust, will soon put me out of suspense. I wrote
to you by the convoy that took your new Governor. I hope he will
behave friendly to the orphan-house. If we make the Lord Jesus our
friend, all will be well. Many here are seeking his friendship. Satan is
angry. I am now mimicked and burlesqued upon the public stage. All
hail such contempt! God forbid that I should glory, save in the cross
of Jesus Christ. It is sweet! it is sweet. What a mercy is it, that we
have got an abiding inheritance in the kingdom of heaven! Of this
we can never be robbed. Hallelujah!—Adieu. Hearty love to all.
Cease not to pray for, and write to, dear Mr. D――,
Yours, &c. in our glorious High Priest,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXLI.
To Mrs. C――.
London, November 14, 1760.
Dear Mrs. C――,
I CANNOT find any of your relations, but what are willing you
should remain in Georgia, and settle there. What condition can
be so useful for you? I have never varied in my opinion. The Lord
Jesus direct, bless, and reward you! He will. The orphan sent by
Captain Ball, I am persuaded will be taken care of. He is sent by
good Lady H――n, and is to be treated as a common orphan. May
the Father of the fatherless bless him and all! I was much pleased
with the letters I received from the lambs of the flock. If possible, I
shall answer them. But at present am so indisposed with a cold,
after my Yorkshire ramble of two months, that I can scarce write
this. Blessed be God, for the prospect of a state, wherein the
inhabitants shall no more say, I am sick. I can now add no more, but
that I am, dear Mrs. C――,
Your most obliged friend, and ready servant in our common

Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXLII.
To Mr. K――.
My dear Timothy,
T HE distance that Plymouth lies from London, is one great cause

of my coming there so seldom. What can I do, who have so
many calls, and so few assistants? London must be minded. For
surely, there the word runs and is glorified more and more. I
returned in post-haste, last month, from Bristol. Both in going and
coming, dear Mr. H――y and I were in great jeopardy. Once the
machine fell over, and at another time we were obliged to leap out
of the post-chaise, though going very fast. Blessed be God, we
received little hurt. Good was to be done. On the fast-day, near six
hundred pounds were collected for the German and Boston
sufferers. Grace! grace! I wish you had collected at Bristol. When
can you move? pray let me know directly. I want my wife to ride as
far as Plymouth. Nothing but exercise will do with her. Remember us
to your whole self, and to all. This is the very first moment that I
could catch, to let you hear from, my dear man,
Yours, &c. in our glorious Emmanuel.
G. W.
LETTER MCCXLIII.
To Mrs. C――.
Dear Mrs. C――,
I T is almost an age now, since I heard from my dear family in the

wilderness. How came I not to have one line by Mr. Young? Ere
now I hope you have received my last by Captain Ball. When shall I
get leave to come over? Perhaps my heart is too much set upon it.
Father, thy will be done! This is my comfort; the Redeemer’s work is
upon the advance. All opposition is over-ruled for the furtherance of
the gospel. A new instrument is raised up out of Cambridge
university. He has been here preaching like an angel of the churches
indeed. My wife is poorly, but joins in sending hearty love. All your
relations are well. Pray give my blessing to the children, and thank
them all for their letters. I would have all the boys put out as soon
as of age. The work prospers here much. Hoping every day to
receive a line, and sending you my most hearty blessing, thanks and
love, I subscribe myself, dear Mrs. C――,
Your most affectionate obliged friend, and ready servant in

our glorious Emmanuel,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXLIV.
To Mr. A――s.
London, March 3, 1761.
My very dear Mr. A――s,
M Y last showed you that we are both of a mind. Let us have a

little patience, and all will be well. As Mr. B――e cannot come
up directly, I must defer my Bristol journey till after Easter. The cold
I catched there, I shall not easily get rid off. But what is, is best.
Your letter to Mrs. J――s was delivered safe. By Wiltshire’s waggon,
I have sent a set of Henry’s Exposition, and Clark’s Bible. Be pleased
to take them. You will send the enclosed. The Redeemer continues
to own and bless us here. That he may bless and own you and yours
evermore, is the earnest prayer of, my very dear Timothy,
Yours, &c. &c. in our common Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXLV.
To the Reverend Mr. G――.
London, March 14, 1761.
My dear Sir,
I HEAR that your little daughter is gone to heaven: a fine flower

soon cropped. I thought she was too fine to continue long in this
bad soil. She is now transplanted to an infinitely better. O that I may
have patience to wait till my wish’d-for change do come! Every day
almost we hear of persons dying in triumph. The awakening is rather
greater than ever. Satan’s artillery hath done but little execution.
Thoughts are vain against the Lord,
All subserves his standing word;
Wheels encircling wheels must run,
Each in course to bring it on.
Hallelujah!
I hope you prosper at G――. My kindest respects await all your dear
reverend brethren that honour me with their countenance, your
whole self, and all who are so kind as to enquire after, my dear Sir,
Yours, &c. in our common Lord,
G. W.
P. S. One Mr. Berridge, lately Moderator of Cambridge, hath been

preaching here with great flame.
LETTER MCCXLVI.
Cannonbury-House (near London),

April 11, 1761.
Dear Sir,
B E pleased to pay to Mr. Thomas Cox the sum of two hundred and
fifty pounds, which, with one hundred and fifty paid to him
before, and given (as this is to be) into the hands of the Reverend
Mr. Zingenhagen, makes up the sum of four hundred pounds; the
whole of what is assigned out of the late collection for the distressed
German protestants, by, dear Sir,
Yours, &c. &c.
G. W.
LETTER MCCXLVII.
To the Reverend Mr. T――.
Cannonbury-House, April 27, 1761.
My very dear Friend,
A CCEPT a few lines of love unfeigned from a worthless worm, just

returning from the borders of an eternal world. O into what a
world was I launching! But the prayers of God’s people have brought
me back. Lord Jesus, let it be for thy glory and the welfare of
precious and immortal souls! Thou hast been digging and dunging
round me. O that the barren fig-tree may at length begin to bring
forth some fruit! O, my dear man, how ought ministers to work
before the night of sickness and death comes, when no man can
work! Lord Jesus, quicken my tardy pace, according to the multitude
of thy tender mercies! You will not cease to pray for me, who am
indeed less than the least of all. Weakness forbids my enlarging.
Hearty love to all who are so kind as to enquire after an ill and hell-
deserving, but redeemed creature. Not only pray, but also give
thanks to a never-failing Emmanuel, who hath been ease in pain,
health in sickness, life in death, to, my very dear friend,
Yours, &c. &c. for his great name’s sake,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXLVIII.
Cannonbury-House, May 2, 1761.
S URPRIZING, that any friends of Zion should be solicitous for the

welfare of such a worthless worm! Indeed, my dear friend, the
news you have heard was true. I have been at the very gates of
what is commonly called death. They seemed opening to admit me,
through the alone righteousness of the blessed Jesus, into everlasting
life. But at present they are closed again: for what end, an all-wise
Redeemer can only tell. I have, since my illness, once assisted a little
at the Lord’s-supper, and once spoke a little in publick. But, my locks
are cut; natural strength fails: Jesus can renew: Jesus can cause to
grow again. By his divine permission, I have thoughts of seeing
Scotland. If I relapse, that will be a desirable place to go to heaven
from. I love, I love that dear people. Ten thousand thanks to you,
and all my dear G―― friends. Be pleased to add to my obligations,
by continuing to pray for one, who, though less than the least of all,
is indeed, my very dear Sir,
Theirs and yours, &c. in a never-failing Jesus,
G. W.
LETTER MCCXLIX.
Plymouth, June 5, 1761.
W ILL not my very dear and valuable friend be glad to hear, that
through divine mercy I am somewhat improved in my health
since my leaving London. At Bristol I grew sensibly better, but hurt
myself by too long journies to Exeter and hither. However, blessed
be God, I am now recovered from my fatigue, and hope bathing will
brace me up for my glorious Master’s use again.
Strange, that a harp of thousand strings,
Should keep in tune so long!
The few times I have been enabled to preach, an infinitely

condescending Redeemer hath vouchsafed to breathe upon the word
preached. Who knows but I may get my wings again? Abba Father,
all things are possible with thee! I know who doth, and will pray for
me, even my very dear Mr. S――, who hath already laid such great
obligations on
His most affectionate friend and very ready servant in our

glorious Emmanuel,
G. W.
LETTER MCCL.
To Mr. R―― K――n.
Bristol, June 11, 1761.
My dear steady Friend,
A CCEPT a few lines of love unfeigned, from one who loves both
you and yours in the bowels of Jesus Christ. They leave me
rather hurt by my late western journey. I strive to put out to sea as
usual, but my shattered bark will not bear it. Lord Jesus, let thy will
be done in me, by me, and upon me, for time and eternity! If this air
doth not agree with me, in a few days I think of returning to my old
nurses and old physicians again. Blessed be God for an interest in an
infinitely great, infinitely gracious, and sympathizing unchangeable
physician! I hope you and yours enjoy much of his heart-chearing
consolations. These have been my support in my younger days;
these will be my cordials in the latter stages of the road. I hope Mr.
and Mrs. J―― are quite well. Pray tell him not to be so touchy to his
old friends, especially when they are sick and just returning from the
grave: perhaps he may not be troubled with them long. God grant he
may never feel the want of them! Jesus lives when ministers die. My
hearty love awaits you all. Cease not to pray for, my dear Mr. K――n,
G. W.
LETTER MCCLI.
Cannonbury-House, July 11, 1761.
My dear Timothy,
J UST as I was going to write you a few lines to come hither, Mr.
Rowand’s letter informed me that you was very ill. But I hope
this will find you better. Lord Jesus, prepare us for whatever thou
hast prepared for us! Commending you to his never-failing mercy, I
subscribe myself,
Ever yours, &c. in Jesus,
G. W.
July 16.
Blessed be God I am better! Blessed be God that you are so

likewise! Who knows what rest and time may produce? O to be
blanks in the hands of Jesus! When shall this once be! What good
news by sea and land! Grace! grace! Let me have another line, and
cease not to pray for, my dear Timothy,
Yours, &c.
G. W.
LETTER MCCLII.
To Mr. K――.
London, October 13, 1761.
My dear Fellow-prisoner,
I HOPE an all-wise Redeemer is teaching us to be content to be
buried ourselves, and to bury our friends alive. This is a hard but
important lesson. Lord Jesus, make us great proficients in the school
of thy cross! I have not preached a single sermon for some weeks.
Last Sunday I spoke a little; but I feel its effects ever since. Father,
thy will be done! Blessed be his name for giving you a little reviving
in your bondage. Perhaps that is all we are to expect on this side
eternity. But there is nothing too hard for the Lord. Lord, we believe,
help our unbelief! Glory be to his great name, that some good was
done at Plymouth. The news drove me to my knees, and stirred up
an ambition to be employed again. I know you and Sarah will say,
Amen, and Amen! I hope your Isaac will be spared; if not, Aaron-
like, may you hold your peace! I have met with changes. My two old
servants are married and gone. Mr. E―― hath preached for me
some time. As yet the congregations are kept up. Mr. A―― and
M―― are very poorly. All are hastening home apace. Accept hearty
love to your whole self, and all dear friends who are so kind as to
enquire after, my very dear Timothy,
Yours, &c. in our Jesus,
G. W.
LETTER MCCLIII.
To Mr. D――.
Leeds, October 24, 1761.
W HAT sudden changes here! O that my great change was come!

Happy Polhill: Bethesda’s loss is thy gain. “Be ye also ready,”
is the call of this awful providence. The Lord furnish survivors with
double strength! I thank you for the accounts. I see you are running
in arrears. Some way or other I trust they will be discharged. But I
would have the family reduced as low as can be. I think that the
keeping of those who are grown up, hurts them and increases my
expence. I have little comfort in many that I have assisted. But our
reward of grace is with the Lord. Come, Lord Jesus, come quickly! As
you are most conversant in figures, you will be pleased to continue
in your usual way; and as you go on in harmony, I trust you will do
quite well. A sea voyage seems more necessary to me now than
ever. I know now what nervous disorders are. Blessed be God that
they were contracted in his service. I do not repent my embarking in
Christ’s cause. He seeth all your disinterested toil in that new world.
“Well done, ye good and faithful servants,” shall be the salutation
given to you all. My hearty blessing and love to all. That great may
be your happiness on earth, and infinitely great your reward in
heaven, is the earnest prayer of, my very dear Mr. D――,
Yours, &c. &c. in our glorious Emmanuel,
G. W.
LETTER MCCLIV.
To Mrs. C――.
Leeds, October 24, 1761.
Dear Mrs. C――,
I AM still in this dying world, but frequently tempted to wish the

report of my death had been true, since my disorder keeps me
from my old delightful work of preaching. But Jesus can teach us to
exercise our passive as well as active graces. Fain would I say, “Thy
will be done!” I am now riding for my health; but I think a voyage
would brace me up. I impute my present disorder, in a great
measure, to the want of my usual sea voyages. Blessed be God, for
supporting me so well under the news of dear Mr. Polhill’s sudden
translation. In that respect, I rather envy than pity him; to be carried
to heaven in an instant; from a ship’s cabin into Abraham’s bosom;
O what a blessing! God sanctify and make up the loss! But we shall
find few Polhills. Blessed be God, that I have faithful ones left
behind. I repose in you the utmost confidence, and hope the Lord
will give you double strength, and vouchsafe us all a speedy and
happy meeting. I know who adds a hearty Amen. I wish G――r and
A―― W―― were put out. Keeping such great boys is expensive,
and there is nothing to be expected by my coming over. I hope my
nephew will take the boy that comes over; if not, he must be
received at Bethesda. Surely God will yet provide for that house of
mercy. But I can at present bear very little of outward cares. Writing
these few letters, I fear, will hurt me: but I could not help venturing.
The Lord bless and reward you, my dear Mrs. C――, for all your
labours of love! I commend you and your dear charge to his never-
failing mercy, and am, with ten thousand thanks for all favours,
Yours most affectionately for Christ’s sake,
G. W.
LETTER MCCLV.
Newcastle, October 29, 1761.
My dear steady Friend,

H ITHERTO the Lord hath helped me. Surely his mercy endureth
for ever. I bear riding sixty miles a day in a post-chaise quite
well. Blessed be his name, friends both here and at Leeds are
prudent, and do not press me to preach much. But I hope I am
travelling in order to preach. If not, Lord Jesus, help me to drink the
bitter cup of a continued silence, with a holy resignation, believing
that what is, is best! Lord, I believe, help thou my unbelief! Every
where as I came along, my spiritual children gladly received me.
Almighty God, do thou provide for all! I hope you go on well at
London. It is the Jerusalem, the Goshen. May ministers and people
see their privileges, and work whilst it is day! The night of sickness
and death is coming, when no man can work. Be pleased to
remember me to dear Mr. and Mrs. J――, and all dear friends as
they come in your way. To-morrow I may set forwards towards
Edinburgh. You and yours will follow me with your prayers, and be
assured of not being forgotten by, my very dear Mr. K――n,
Yours, &c. &c. in our common Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCLVI.
Newcastle, October 29, 1761.
Reverend and very dear Sir,
T HOUGH at a very unexpected, and seemingly unseasonable time,

I am thus far travelled northwards. Hitherto the Lord hath
helped me to hold out. Fain would I reach Scotland, to see some of
my dear friends before I die. My spirits, though in some degree
recruited, are yet low, and I am kept from my old delightful work.
But all things are possible with Jesus Christ. He can either restore, or
enable me to drink the bitter cup of continued silence. Lord Jesus, do
thou help me to say from my inmost soul, “Father, not my will, but
thine be done!” I desire to be more than remembered to my dear
G―― friends, and beg the continuance of their prayers in behalf of,
my very dear Sir,
Theirs and yours, &c. &c. in our common Lord,
G. W.
LETTER MCCLVII.
Edinburgh, November 9, 1761.
T HOUGH I have been very ill since my coming to Edinburgh, yet I

must come just to see my dear friends at G――. I cannot be
there till Thursday noon. Little, very little can be expected from a
dying man. But I can now hear a little for myself. I write this in the
midst of company. All my dear friends will not fail to pray for, very
dear Sir,
Yours and theirs, &c. in Jesus,
G. W.
LETTER MCCLVIII.
Leeds, December 1, 1761.
My dear old Friend,
I T is near ten at night, and I am to set off to-morrow in the Leeds

stage for London. Your letter I received this evening, and thank
you for it most heartily. Silence is enjoined me for a while by the
Edinburgh physicians. They say my case is then recoverable. The
great physician will direct. May he abundantly bless you and yours,
and dear T―― J―― and his? I send you all most hearty love, as
being, for Christ’s sake,
Yours, &c. &c.
G. W.
LETTER MCCLIX.
To Mr. K――.
London, January 8, 1762.
My dear Timothy,
I THOUGHT my wife had written many letters to you before this

time. Blessed be God, I am better. The Scotch journey did me
service. I preached on new-year’s day, and am to do so again, God
willing, to-morrow. Who knows? who knows?—I may again see
Plymouth. Is there any thing too hard for the Lord? When can you
come up? I had a violent fall upon my head from my horse last
Thursday, but was neither surprized nor hurt. Help me to praise Him
whose mercy endureth for ever. Mr. B―― is here, and preaches with
power. Blessed be God that some can speak, though I am laid aside.
That your mouth may be opened, and body strengthened more and
more, is the hearty prayer of, my dear Timothy,
Ever yours, &c. in Jesus,
G. W.
LETTER MCCLX.
Bristol, April 17, 1762.
W ILL not my dear steady friend be glad to hear that Bristol air
agrees with me, and that I have been enabled to preach five
times this last week without being hurt? Lord Jesus, make me truly
and humbly thankful! Was the door open for an American voyage, I
verily believe it would be very serviceable towards bracing up my
relaxed tabernacle. But he who knoweth all things, knows what is
best. Fain would I say, from whatever quarter trials come, “Father,
not my will, but thine be done!” I see more and more, that grace
must be tried. But this is our comfort, when we are tried, we shall
come forth like gold. In how many fires is that precious metal
purified? O for a heart to be willing to be made willing to be nothing,
yea less than nothing, that God, even a God in Christ, may be all in
all! You and yours will add to my obligations by praying for me. By
this you see that you are not forgotten. Shall I beg you to let the
tabernacle friends know soon, that you received this? Having had
company I cannot write. Be pleased to thank the honest Welch
bishop for his subscription. It was a great deal from such a dignitary.
May the great Bishop of souls bless and strengthen him in soul and
body ever more. As I expect to hear from my wife on Monday, and
as I have nothing particular, I shall defer writing again till Monday
evening. In the mean while, be so kind as to give my hearty love
and due respects to her and all, and accept the same yourselves
from, my very dear friends,
Yours, &c. &c. in a never-failing Jesus,
G. W.
LETTER MCCLXI.
Bristol, April 18, 1762.
My very dear Friend,
I WAS quite sorry that I could not take a parting dinner with you.
Mr. Z――n begged me to come just at that time to converse with
me about the suffering protestants, and in the evening I read letters.
Blessed be God, I was not the worse for it. Since my coming here,
my health hath improved. The last week I was enabled to preach
five times. This morning I have been administering the ordinance;
and this evening I hope to be upon my throne again. Our Lord
vouchsafes to smile upon my feeble labours, and the people seem to
feel a refreshing from his divine presence. Who knows but I may yet
be restored so far as to sound the gospel trumpet for my God? The
quietness I enjoy here, with daily riding out, seems to be one very
proper means. Be this as it will, I know ere long I shall serve our
Lord without weariness. A few more blows from friends, and from
foes, and the pitcher will be broken. Then the wicked one will cease
from troubling, and the weary traveller arrive at his wish’d-for rest.
God grant you and yours very large refreshments in the way! Be
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© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint ofTaylor & Francis Group, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Montet, Didier, editor.I Brabet, Catherine, editor.I Galindo,

ISBN: 9 78-0-36 7-42209-7 (hbk)

“Quo vadis” is a historically well-known term, applicable for many disciplines

In early days after discovery, the available analytical methods relied

This first of the two volumes of an important book on mycotoxins entitled

ochratoxin A in a real environment in a quantitative and instantaneous way.

1. Mycotoxin Surveillance for Low-resource Settings 1

10. Biochip Array Technology: Innovative Multi-analytical

*Corresponding author: rjn7@cornell.edu

of chronic mycotoxin exposure is often overlooked, whereas human disease

In developing countries, mycotoxin surveys have provided snapshot

2. Status of Mycotoxin Surveillance in

2.1 Monitors of Mycotoxins

represent diverse fields such as plant pathology, analytical chemistry, food

country’s first comprehensive survey of AF in maize for food and livestock

2.2 Food and Beverage Types

in Kenyan peri-urban and rural settings, the AF and DON concentrations

2.3 Sampling Methodologies

customers. Sampling at these local processing nodes offers improvements

2.4 Mycotoxin Assays

prohibitively expensive, but a compromise that integrates more advanced

2.5 Mycotoxin Surveys Summary

3. Monitoring Mycotoxin Risk Factors in

3.1 Pre-Harvest Risk Factors

There is a considerable diversity of mycotoxigenic fungal pathogens both

3.2 Post-Harvest Risk Factors

their implementation in a food system would help to better model mycotoxin

3.3 Integrated Monitoring and Mitigation

4. Mycotoxin Surveillance Framework

extreme levels of mycotoxin contamination is often not detected until after

4.1 Proposed Surveillance Framework

4.2 Acute vs. Chronic Risk

4.3 Framework Inputs

Blest is faith that trusts his power,

Blest are saints that wait his hour:

Haste, great Conqueror, bring it near;

Let the glorious close appear.

O that some may be awakened to prepare for that awful hour! On

Yours most affectionately in our common Lord,

Glasgow, July 18, 1759.

Dear Mrs. W――,

Your sincere friend and servant in our common Lord,

Newcastle, August 16, 1759.

Dear Mrs. C――,