Review of Related Literature

This section provides a comprehensive review of the literature on the Job

Descriptive Index (JDI), a well-established instrument for measuring job satisfaction.
The discussion emphasizes the development, reliability, and application of the JDI
across diverse contexts. Through an examination of prior studies, this section seeks
to enhance the understanding of the JDI's utilization in assessing job satisfaction, as
well as to identify its strengths and limitations.
Defining Job Satisfaction and the Purpose and Development of the Job
Descriptive Index (JDI)
The term refers to the attitudes and feelings that individuals hold regarding their
work. Positive and favorable attitudes towards one's job are indicative of job
satisfaction, whereas negative and unfavorable attitudes suggest job dissatisfaction
(Armstrong, 2006).
The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) was officially introduced in 1969 by Smith, Kendall,
and Hulin and has since been recognized as the job satisfaction scales (Landy,
Shankster, & Kohler, 1994, p. 271).
The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) was developed to assess the construct of job
satisfaction, which is defined by P. C. Smith et al. (1969) as feelings a worker has
about his job (p. 100). The JDI is recognized as the most valid instrument for
measuring job satisfaction and comprises 72 items. It evaluates five distinct factors:
(1) overall job satisfaction (e.g., work is good (2) satisfaction with the supervisor's
behavior (e.g., (3) salary satisfaction (e.g., salary is less than what I deserve (4)
satisfaction with colleagues (e.g., colleagues are responsible and (5) opportunities
for promotion (e.g., The items are descriptive in nature, and responses are provided
on a three-point Likert scale (Aziri, 2011; Greenberg & Baron, 2013; Spector, 2008;
Drakou et al., 1997).
The final iteration of the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) was structured around five sub-
dimensions: satisfaction with work, supervision, coworkers, compensation, and
opportunities for promotion. Each item consists of concise words or phrases (e.g.,
“hot” to indicate work satisfaction, “lazy” to reflect supervision satisfaction).
Respondents are instructed to mark a an item that accurately describes the specific
aspect of their job, an if the item does not apply, and a if they are uncertain. Items
that are positively worded receive scores of 3, 1, and 0, while negatively worded
items are scored 0, 1, and 3 for the responses Y, ?, and N, respectively.
INTRODUCTION TO THE JOB IN GENERAL INDEX (JIG) AS A COMPLEMENT TO
JOB DESCRIPTIVE INDEX (JDI)

Subsequently, the Job in General Index (JIG) was developed as a complement to the
Job Descriptive Index (JDI), which assesses overall job satisfaction through 18
general questions. The primary distinction between the JIG and the JDI lies in the
former's evaluation of certain professional aspects that were previously
unaddressed, such as the level of employee satisfaction with customers. The JIG
comprises both descriptive and evaluative questions, with the evaluative questions
demonstrating the highest levels of overall satisfaction and predictability.
Furthermore, the questions within the JIG are associated with long-term emotional
responses, whereas the JDI is linked to short-term sentiments, exemplified by the
statement, general, I like to work here & Baron, 2013; Spector, 2008; Drakou et al.,
1997).

The Job In General (JIG) scale was developed as a complement to the Job Descriptive
Index (JDI), with a focus on long-term emotional responses and an aim to evaluate
overall job satisfaction. The existing literature indicates that the assessment
questions included in JIG are more reliable predictors of behavior. Furthermore, JIG
shares a comparable design and response methodology with JDI (Michelle et al.,
2009; Smith et al., 1969; Drakou et al., 1997).

Construct Validity of the Job Descriptive Index (JDI)

The meta-analysis titled “Assessing the Construct Validity of the Job Descriptive
Index” conducted by Kinicki et al. presented a total of 1,863 correlations derived
from 79 unique correlates examined internally, demonstrating high concurrent and
test-retest reliability. In the current meta-analysis, data from various studies were
synthesized, revealing that the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) exhibits both convergent
and theoretical validity concerning job satisfaction, thereby affirming the reliability
of the JDI instrument (Kinicki et al., n.d.).

Applications of JDI in Various Contexts

Applications in Military Contexts

In a study involving Portuguese military personnel, the Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
was employed to assess the job satisfaction of sergeants and officers. Lopes et al.
(2015) conducted research titled “Measuring job satisfaction in Portuguese military
sergeants and officers: validation of the Job Descriptive Index and the Job in General
Scale,” which demonstrated that the internal consistency coefficients for the JDI
subscales were notably high, ranging from 0.76 to 0.92. These findings affirm the
reliability and validity of the JDI as a measurement tool within a military context.
The elevated levels of internal consistency provide substantial evidence for the JDI's
effectiveness in evaluating various facets of job satisfaction in organizations
characterized by a highly structured and hierarchical environment, such as most
military organizations. The study aimed to investigate the factors influencing job
satisfaction by focusing on five dimensions: present work, pay, promotion,
supervision, and co-workers. The results indicated that all five dimensions exhibited
a significant correlation with the dependent variable, job satisfaction, among
military personnel.

A noteworthy finding of this study was the correlation between compensation and
promotion opportunities and various demographic variables, including rank, tenure,
and years of education. This suggests that the evaluation and determination of the
fairness of compensation structures in relation to career advancement within the
military are influenced by personality traits and individual military career
trajectories. These findings indicate that broader social and organizational factors
are relevant to job satisfaction (JS). Furthermore, the current study employed the
Job Descriptive Index (JDI) within this specific context, demonstrating its
considerable applicability in the field of professional careers. This further
substantiates the assertion that the JDI is a strong instrument for cross-disciplinary
research on job satisfaction.

The demographic correlates of gender, age, education, and tenure reveal significant
insights into job satisfaction. Research indicates that females tend to report higher
satisfaction with their compensation, which may be attributed to lower expectations
or a perception of equitable treatment. Additionally, older employees are found to
exhibit lower satisfaction with extrinsic factors, such as pay and promotion, while
demonstrating greater satisfaction with relational aspects, including supervision,
and overall job satisfaction. Furthermore, individuals with higher levels of education
show a positive correlation with satisfaction regarding pay and promotion.
Conversely, employees with longer tenure experience a negative impact on their
satisfaction with pay and promotion, although their satisfaction with supervision is
positively influenced.
The key findings pertaining to the dimensions of job satisfaction are as follows:
Compensation satisfaction is associated with perceptions of fairness and adequacy,
with younger, less-tenured employees and female individuals reporting higher levels
of satisfaction.
Promotion opportunities also appear to be a significant factor in employee
satisfaction, as younger and more educated personnel reported higher levels of
satisfaction. However, it is noteworthy that overall satisfaction remains low due to
perceived constraints in career advancement.

While, supervision provided received high satisfaction ratings, particularly among

older and more tenured personnel, indicating the significance of both emotional and
technical support offered by supervisors.
Another is that, establishment with robust interpersonal relationships among
coworkers was identified as a consistent strength
Further, meaningful engagement associated with daily tasks were perceived as
high, reflecting a general approval of job responsibilities.
And finally, older employees reported higher levels of job satisfaction, which may be
attributed to retention bias.

Application in an International Context

In the study conducted by Limiadi and Kodrat (2017) titled, “Analysis of Job
Satisfaction, Employee Engagement, and Organizational Commitment in XMG Real
Estate Broker” , Goetz et al. (2015), who investigated the working environment and
employee satisfaction across various health institutions in Kenya. Utilizing a
questionnaire designed with a Likert scale, the researchers employed statistical
methods, including the calculation of mean values and standard deviations, to
assess levels of satisfaction. Additionally, Limiadi and Kodrat (2017) cited the
research of Vaksalla and Hashiman (2015) from Universiti Sains Malaysia, which
examined the predictive relationship between hope, personal growth initiatives, and
meaning in life on work engagement. This study similarly utilized questionnaires
with a Likert scale and applied statistical analysis to interpret the findings through
mean values and standard deviations.
As indicated in the research conducted by Limiadi and Kodrat, Cullinan et al. (2008)
performed exploratory research to examine the effects of organizational
commitment within three American-based companies. The authors employed
quantitative methods and statistical analyses to evaluate the levels of
organizational commitment present in these organizations.
Previous research on job satisfaction, employee engagement, and organizational
commitment has employed various sampling methods; however, these studies
consistently utilized questionnaires featuring Likert scales and statistical analyses
for data collection and interpretation. Building upon these established
methodologies, the present descriptive study implements a suitable sampling
method specifically designed for the population of XMG. The research instrument
consists of three sets of questionnaires utilizing Likert scales, thereby ensuring
consistency with validated approaches found in analogous studies.
The results and findings of the study indicate that employees reported a high level
of job satisfaction, particularly regarding compensation and recognition. However,
aspects such as work-life balance and opportunities for career advancement were
perceived as less satisfactory.

Job Satisfaction in Small Enterprises

Davis (n.d.) conducted a study titled Satisfaction Survey Among Employees in
Small Businesses, the Job Descriptive Index to assess changes in job attitudes
among employees performing tasks in small business environments. The findings
indicated high levels of job satisfaction both before and after the structured
interviews. The results highlighted that the dimensions of work, supervisory
relationships, and co-worker relationships were significantly influential in
determining job satisfaction levels, thereby underscoring the importance of
interpersonal relationships in the workplace and the impact of managerial
interventions. The analysis revealed that the structured interview process itself
contributed to shaping employees' perceptions, suggesting that discussions
regarding job-related experiences can enhance overall job satisfaction.

The study revealed that, although compensation is acknowledged as a significant

factor influencing employee satisfaction, its correlation with job satisfaction is
comparatively weak. This observation establishes a complex causal relationship,
indicating that when financial considerations are excluded, factors such as job
content and interpersonal relationships may play a more critical role in fostering
employee satisfaction within small business organizations. Consequently, the
effectiveness of the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) in capturing these dynamics is
substantiated by the findings of the study. Additionally, the research provides
valuable recommendations for small business owners aimed at improving workplace
satisfaction and productivity.

Cross-Cultural Validation
The cross-cultural study titled “Job Descriptive Index (JDI): Reliability and Validity
Study in Greece,” conducted by Tasios and Gianouli in 2017, involved the translation
of the JDI and an examination of its factorial validity within the Greek context. The
validation study was performed on a substantial sample of 323 participants,
demonstrating that the five facets of the JDI—namely, present work, pay,
promotion, supervision, and co-workers—exhibit universal validity. This research
provided further evidence that the measure can be employed flexibly to compare
cultural differences in job satisfaction. Additionally, the study sought to compare the
results obtained from the JDI with those derived from other standardized tools for
measuring organizational satisfaction, thereby further validating the instrument's
applicability in an international context. The findings underscored the
transportability of the JDI to multicultural or international communities, suggesting
that the survey is beneficial for enterprises operating in multicultural or global
environments (Tasios & Gianouli, 2017).

Longitudinal Studies on Job Satisfaction

Longitudinal studies conducted by Hieu, Nhung, and Linh (2021) titled “Identifying
Work-Related Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction Using the Job Descriptive Index
Questionnaire: A Study of IT Companies in Hanoi” have effectively utilized the Job
Descriptive Index (JDI) to monitor fluctuations in job satisfaction levels, thereby
enhancing the understanding of changes occurring within workplace environments.
Specifically, one study focused on IT professionals, revealing that work-context
factors such as task variety, autonomy in task execution, and managerial support
significantly influence, and are influenced by, job satisfaction among IT
professionals. By quantifying these dimensions, the study enabled organizations to
identify which aspects required corrective measures to create a more stimulating
work environment. This approach demonstrates the adaptability of the JDI in
capturing attitudinal changes among employees, making it a valuable tool for long-
term strategic planning.
The study also emphasized the importance of risk management and the necessity
for regular assessments to facilitate the timely identification and resolution of
emerging employee issues. Recognizing employee dissatisfaction at an early stage
allows organizations to implement strategies aimed at enhancing job satisfaction,
thereby reducing turnover rates. This is particularly relevant in industries such as
the information technology sector, where talent is limited. Tools such as the Job
Descriptive Index (JDI) enable organizations to maintain communication with their
employees. When an organization's practices align with the expectations of its
workforce, it is more likely to retain its talent, thereby sustaining productivity over
the long term.

CURRENT STUDIES UTILIZING JOB DESCRIPTIVE INDEX (JDI)

In the context of employees at St. Peter’s College in Iligan City, the Job Descriptive
Index (JDI) was employed as a tool to assess job satisfaction. The research study
titled “Job Satisfaction of Employees in St. Peter’s College, Iligan City,” conducted by
Punongbayan (2017), sought to evaluate satisfaction across five dimensions: the
nature of the work, compensation, opportunities for promotion, supervisory
relationships, and interactions with co-workers. The study yielded several significant
findings, which are summarized below:

The study indicated that employees generally expressed satisfaction with their
overall job experiences, as evidenced by the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) mean score
of 1.43 and the Job in General (JIG) mean score of 1.20. Satisfaction with both work
and compensation significantly contributed to career readiness, accounting for a
combined explained variance of 71.1%. Respondents identified compensation
(47%), stress levels (39%), and work-life balance (37%) as the primary motivations
for pursuing new employment opportunities. Notably, younger workers, specifically
those under 30 years of age, exhibited a higher propensity to change careers,
representing 35.5% of career transition decisions. Although no significant gender
differences were identified, males slightly surpassed females in terms of career
changes, with approximately 55% of changes attributed to males compared to 45%
for females. Furthermore, higher educational attainment was associated with
increased career flexibility, as 60% of respondents held postgraduate degrees.
Conversely, individuals with dependents, such as spouses or children, demonstrated
a lower likelihood of changing careers, with 70% citing stability as a critical factor
influencing their decision.

Key Findings
Satisfaction with salary is a significant predictor of both job satisfaction and
readiness for career change, with a mean satisfaction score of 3.36 (p = 0.040).
Additionally, higher salary levels are correlated with improved employee retention;
however, it is noteworthy that 47% of respondents indicated "better pay" as a
motivating factor for their decision to pursue a career change.
Promotion Opportunities: The absence of clear advancement pathways has
contributed to employee dissatisfaction, with many respondents citing career
stagnation as a prevalent reason for their resignation. Approximately 33% of
respondents reported seeking new positions due to restricted promotion
opportunities.
Supervision: The support provided by supervisors has been shown to have a
positive impact on job satisfaction, with a mean satisfaction score of 3.2.
Additionally, 25% of respondents identified poor relationships with supervisors as a
significant factor influencing their consideration of career changes.
The nature of the work itself emerged as a significant predictor of overall job
satisfaction, with a mean satisfaction score of 3.5 (p = 0.001). Furthermore, 37% of
respondents indicated that their primary motivation for seeking a career change
was the pursuit of new challenges.
The presence of positive team dynamics among co-workers significantly contributed
to overall job satisfaction, with a mean satisfaction score of 3.4. The majority of
respondents expressed a preference for collaborative work environments. However,
a minority, approximately 15%, identified issues with co-workers as a contributing
factor to their dissatisfaction.
The role of job satisfaction in career transitions: Overall job satisfaction accounted
for 49.9% of the propensity to change careers. Individuals who reported satisfaction
with their current employment (mean score: 3.6) exhibited a greater likelihood of
remaining in their positions, whereas those who expressed dissatisfaction were
more inclined to pursue opportunities for growth or seek better alignment with their
personal objectives.

The study titled of Career Change of Overseas Filipino Professionals in the Middle
East, conducted by Uy et al. (2020), aimed to assess satisfaction across five
dimensions: the nature of work, compensation, opportunities for promotion,
supervisory relationships, and interactions with co-workers. The following key
findings were reported:

The study indicated that employees expressed a high level of satisfaction with their
work itself (mean = 1.30) and with their co-workers (mean = 1.40). Conversely,
dissatisfaction was most pronounced in relation to compensation (mean = 1.92) and
opportunities for promotion (mean = 1.88), particularly among younger,
probationary, and lower-paid employees. Notwithstanding these challenges, 85% of
employees reported overall satisfaction (Job Involvement Group mean = 1.20),
attributed to intrinsic motivators such as the meaningfulness of their work.
Employees aged 21 to 29 exhibited the lowest levels of satisfaction, especially
concerning pay and promotion. Additionally, female employees reported slightly
higher levels of dissatisfaction with pay and promotion (mean = 1.56) compared to
their male counterparts. Regular employees demonstrated greater overall
satisfaction (mean = 1.23) than probationary staff (mean = 1.17). Furthermore,
64% of employees earning less than PHP 13,500 exhibited the highest levels of
dissatisfaction regarding pay and promotion.
Principal Findings
Compensation: There is a prevalent dissatisfaction regarding compensation,
especially among younger employees aged 21 to 29 years (mean = 2.09) and those
whose earnings fall within the range of PHP 13,501 to 18,000 (mean = 1.92).
Notably, 64% of employees earn less than PHP 13,500, constituting the majority of
those expressing dissatisfaction.
Promotion Opportunities: The absence of clearly defined career advancement
opportunities constitutes a significant source of dissatisfaction among staff, with a
mean satisfaction rating of 1.88. Probationary employees, who reported a mean
satisfaction score of 1.86, along with those in lower salary brackets, exhibited the
highest levels of dissatisfaction. Notably, 50% of faculty members indicated their
discontent stemming from restricted opportunities for advancement.
Supervision: Supervisory support is generally regarded as valuable, with a mean
satisfaction score of 1.60; however, its implementation is inconsistent. Probationary
staff reported a mean satisfaction score of 1.78, while 10% of widowed employees
indicated a mean satisfaction score of 1.66, highlighting areas for potential
enhancement.
Co-Workers: Positive team dynamics are associated with higher levels of job
satisfaction, with a mean satisfaction score of 1.40. However, it is noteworthy that
52% of employees without children reported a mean satisfaction score of 1.74, and
those who are high school graduates reported a mean satisfaction score of 2.00,
indicating a significant level of dissatisfaction with teamwork.
Job in General (JIG): Despite dissatisfaction with pay and promotion, overall job
satisfaction is high (mean satisfaction: 1.20), with 85% of employees citing intrinsic
rewards like recognition and meaningful work as key factors. High JIG satisfaction
buffers dissatisfaction in specific areas.

Limitations of the Job Descriptive Index (JDI)

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) emphasizes five distinct dimensions of job
satisfaction: work, pay, promotion, supervision, and coworkers. Although these
dimensions encompass essential areas of job satisfaction, they may neglect other
significant factors, such as work-life balance and organizational culture.
Incorporating these additional dimensions could yield a more holistic understanding
of employee attitudes. This limitation underscores the possibility that the JDI may
overlook critical elements that influence job satisfaction (Kinicki et al., 2002).
The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) primarily emphasizes individual perceptions of job
satisfaction, neglecting to consider broader organizational or contextual factors that
may influence employee attitudes. Aspects such as organizational policies,
economic conditions, and team dynamics are not explicitly assessed, potentially
resulting in an incomplete understanding of the determinants affecting satisfaction
levels (Kinicki et al., 2002).

Conclusion
In conclusion, the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is a widely recognized and validated
instrument for measuring job satisfaction across five key dimensions: the nature of
the work itself, compensation, opportunities for promotion, supervision, and
relationships with co-workers. The tool's simplicity and reliability render it an
essential resource across various sectors, including military organizations, small
businesses, and multinational corporations. Empirical research indicates that the JDI
effectively captures employees' attitudes toward their jobs, thereby providing
valuable insights into areas such as compensation, career advancement, and
workplace relationships. However, despite its strengths, the JDI has certain
limitations, particularly its emphasis on specific facets of job satisfaction while
neglecting broader organizational or contextual factors. Future research could
enhance the JDI by incorporating additional dimensions that are currently absent
from its framework, such as work-life balance and organizational culture. In this
regard, it is important to note that the JDI continues to play a significant role in
employers' efforts to assess and improve employee engagement, retention, and
organizational commitment.