ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ENGINEERING II

CVE 307

Ing. John Boateng Nkansah

Department of Civil Engineering, ATU
 Class Expectations

◼ To attend all lectures ON time

◼ LATENESS to class will not be tolerated

◼ To answer questions pertaining to the course of study during lectures

◼ To revise previous lecture notes prior to the next lecture

◼ Do NOT use your cell phone in class. It should be placed on silence or

switched off as you enter the lecture room

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Course Outline
1. SEWAGE TREATMENT
◼ Definition of basic elements including sewage, sullage, Sewer network and
appurtenances including manhole.

◼ Physical unit preparations including screen, grit chamber and primary

sedimentation tanks.

◼ Biological unit processes or biological treatment.

◼ Secondary sedimentation tanks and disinfection, chemical unit processes.

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 Course Outline
2. LOW COST SANITATION SYSTEMS AND SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
◼ Human excreta disposal

◼ Classification of latrines

◼ Water dependent on-site and off-site systems

◼ Septic tank construction, components and problems

◼ Disposal of wastes and foul water from within building

◼ Disposal systems

◼ Absorption trench
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Course Outline
2. LOW COST SANITATION SYSTEMS AND SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
◼ Seepage pits

◼ Contamination of water bodies and vegetation resulting from wastes and sewage
disposal.

◼ Diseases and disease causing vectors.

◼ Solid waste definition and characteristics

◼ Solid waste/refuse classification

◼ Storage and collection

◼ Haulage or transportation 5
 Course Outline
2. LOW COST SANITATION SYSTEMS AND SOLID WASTE MANAGEMEN
▪ Treatment and disposal including (Choice of disposal method, Sanitation landfill,
Composting, Incineration)

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 Basic definition in Sewage treatment
SEWAGE: It consists of wastewater discharged
from residences and from commercial,
institutional and public facilities that exist in the
locality

Sub-types of sewage are greywater (from sinks,

bathtubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes
washers) and blackwater (the water used to flush
toilets, combined with the human waste that it
flushes away)

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 Characteristics of sewage
Sewage contains

1. Pathogens e.g. bacterial, virus, protozoa, helminths, faecal coliforms (used as an

indicator for faecal pollution).

2. Solids: Settleable, non –settle able, and dissolved solids

3. Organic Matter: e.g. Amines, ammonia, organic sulphides

4. Non Organic matter: e.g. nitrates, phosphorus etc

5. Toxic and corrosive compounds: e.g. cyanides, heavy metals and insecticides

pesticides

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Reasons why sewage is treated before disposal.
Sewage is treated to protect the environment from;

1. High amount of suspended solid waste

2. Higher loads of organic matter and possible consequence of low oxygen in

receiving water bodies.

3. Higher amount of nutrients (Nitrogen and phosphorus) which may create

eutrophication.

4. Serious contamination by pathogenic organisms or from serious contamination

of water bodies by pathogenic organisms.

5. Substantial loads of hazards and non biodegradable compounds. 9

 Basic definitions in Sewage treatment
SULLAGE: It consists of wastewater from bathrooms, kitchens, washing places,
washbasins, etc.
SEWERS are the underground pipes that are used to carry sewage to the point of
discharge or disposal. Sewers can be Combined or separate (Sanitary, Storm)
1. Combined sewers: Use a single pipe to carry both wastewater and storm runoff
water to wastewater plants
2. Separate Sewers:
a. Sanitary sewers: Sanitary sewers carry wastewater from homes and businesses to
wastewater treatment plants. They consist of pipes, manholes, and pumping
stations.
b. Storm sewers: Storm sewers (also called surface sewers) carry rainwater and
melting snow from roofs and roads and channel it into streams, rivers, and other
bodies of water.
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Advantages of Combined sewers Disadvantages of Combined sewers
a. Handling and transportation of sewer is
a. It requires only one sewer. This
difficult.
reduces the cost of construction.
b. Load on the treatment plant is increased.
b. Because of the large diameter, cleaning
c. During heavy rains, it may flow out.
is easy.
d. They are large, which requires more area
c. Self-cleaning velocity can be easily
and gets easily silted.
achieved in this method.
e. Pollution of stormwater unnecessarily

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Advantages of Separate System Disadvantages of Separate System
a. It is more economical for the long term. a. Cleaning of two sewers have to be

b. If one sewer gets clogged, it doesn’t done.

affect another sewer system. b. Two sets of sewers are ultimately

d. It is more hygienic and pollution-free as costly to construct.

compared to combined and partially c. Confusion about the pipe can be there.
combined. d. Reconstruction process may disrupt
e. It mitigates the problem of flooding. the traffic, businesses, etc.

f. It allows the use of stormwater as a

resource.
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 Sewerage
◼ SEWERAGE: A sewerage system, or wastewater collection system, is a network of
pipes, pumping stations, and appurtenances that convey sewage from its points of
origin to a point of treatment and disposal. There are two main types; Separate and
Combined.

◼ SEPARATE SYSTEMS: New wastewater collection facilities are designed as separate

systems, carrying either domestic sewage or storm sewage but not both.

◼ COMBINED SYSTEMS: Systems that carry a mixture of both domestic sewage and
storm sewage are called combined sewers. Combined sewers typically consist of large-
diameter pipes or tunnels, because of the large volumes of storm water that must be
carried during wet-weather periods.

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 Water Carriage System
◼ The two main types of water carriage systems are conventional sewerage and
unconventional sewerage, which consist of settled sewerage and simplified
sewerage

◼ It describes the normal system, which involves using deep excavation depth big
diameter pipe work and large manholes. Here the sewer gradient is the steeper
than simplified and settled sewerage system.

◼ The cost of constructing a conventional sewerage is very high and there is always
a need for an in house water supply. It is appropriate for middle to high- income
area with less dense population. It is design for self- cleansing velocities.

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Conventional sewerage system
◼ It describes the normal system, which involves using deep excavation depth big
diameter pipe work and large manholes.

◼ Here the sewer gradient is the steeper than simplified and settled sewerage system.

◼ The cost of constructing a conventional sewerage is very high and there is always
a need for an in house water supply.

◼ It is appropriate for middle to high- income area with less dense population.

◼ It is design for self- cleansing velocities.

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Conventional sewerage system

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 Unconventional sewerage system
Unconventional Settled Sewerage

◼ A system in which wastewater from one or more households is discharged into a

single compartment septic tank (usually called a solid interceptor tank). The settled
(solid free) effluent from septic tank is then discharge into shallow small – bore
gravity sewers.

Simplified Sewerage

◼ Simplified sewerage, also called small-bore sewerage, is a sewer system that collects
all household wastewater (blackwater and greywater) in small-diameter pipes laid at
fairly flat gradients. Simplified sewers are laid in the front yard or under the
pavement (sidewalk) or - if feasible - inside the back yard, rather than in the centre
of the road as with conventional sewerage. 18
Simplified Sewerage

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Sewer network and appurtenances
◼ Street inlets: The passages or openings through which storm water is admitted
and conveyed to the storm sewer or combined sewer are called street inlets.
The inlets are located by the sides of road pavement with maximum spacing of
30 m.

◼ Catch Basins: Catch basins are small settling chambers provided to stop the
entry of heavy debris into the sewer. These are constructed below the street
inlets.

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Sewer network and appurtenances

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 Man holes
◼ Man-holes: They are the masonry chambers which are circular or rectangular in
shape constructed on the alignment of a sewer line to enable a person to enter the
sewer for the purpose of inspection, cleaning and flushing of sewer.

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 Purpose of Man-hole
◼ To perform inspection, cleaning, and removal of any obstruction present in
the sewage line.

◼ The joining of sewers, the change of direction or the alignment of sewers can
be performed with the help of manhole.

◼ These have a perforated cover which helps the foul gases to escape. Hence it is
a good means of ventilation for the underground sewage system.

◼ Manholes help to lay the sewer line in the conventional lengths.

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Types of Manhole
The three main types of manhole depending on the depth are:
◼ Shallow Manhole: A shallow manhole has a depth ranging between 75 to 90 cm.
These are constructed at the start of a branch sewer or in an area where there is
not much traffic. The shallow manhole is provided with a light cover called as the
inspection chamber.

◼ Normal Manhole: These are provided at the sewer line with a heavy cover on its
top. It has a depth of 150cm. Normal manhole takes a square shape

◼ Deep Manhole: Deep manhole is provided at a depth greater than 150cm with a
very heavy cover at its top. The size can be increased and the facility for going
down is also increased
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Sewage Treatment

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 Table 4.1: major parameters characterizing municipal sewage
Contaminant Impact on the environment
Suspended solids Suspended solids can lead to sludge deposition and anaerobic conditions when
discharged into the environment.

Biodegradable Organics Discharged into the environment may lead to oxygen depletion to the development
of anaerobic conditions and odours.

Pathogens Communicable diseases can be transmitted by pathogenic Organisms in waste water.

This in particular holds if waste water reuse in agriculture or aquaculture is
practiced.

Nutrients Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential nutrients for growth of aquatic Life. N and P
can stimulate the bloom of algae resulting in reduced biodiversity of aquatic,
eutrophication life, oxygen depletion and toxicity problems.
Heavy metals It may have its consequences for disposal and reuse of sludge’s and waste water
Dissolved Inorganics Reduces agriculture crop production, as well as protein production in aquaculture.
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 Sewage Treatment
◼ Sewage is generated by residential and industrial establishments. It includes
household waste liquid from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, sinks, and so forth
that is disposed of via sewers.

◼ Wastewater treatment, also called sewage treatment is the removal of impurities

from wastewater, or sewage, before it reaches aquifers or natural bodies of water
such as rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans.

◼ It used to be said that “the solution to pollution is dilution.” When small amounts
of sewage are discharged into a flowing body of water, a natural process of stream
self-purification occurs.

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 Sewage Treatment
❑ The size and capacity of wastewater treatment systems are determined by the
estimated volume of sewage generated from residences, businesses, and industries
connected to sewer systems as well as the anticipated inflows and infiltration (I&I)

❑ Sewage treatment is done in three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary treatment.

Primary Treatment
◼ In primary treatment, sewage is stored in a basin where solids (sludge) can settle to
the bottom and oil and lighter substances can rise to the top. These layers are then
removed and then the remaining liquid can be sent to secondary treatment. Sewage
sludge is treated in a separate process called sludge digestion.

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 Primary treatment
◼ Primary treatment removes material that will
either float or readily settle out by gravity.

◼ It includes the physical processes of screening,

comminution, grit removal, and sedimentation.

◼ Screens are made of long, closely spaced,

narrow metal bars.

◼ They block floating debris such as wood, rags,

and other bulky objects that could clog pipes or
pumps.

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Primary treatment
◼ Grit chambers are long narrow tanks that are
designed to slow down the flow so that solids such
as sand particles with a diameter of >0.2mm are
removed.

◼ Grit causes excessive wear and tear on pumps and

other plant equipment.

◼ Its removal is particularly important in cities with

combined sewer systems, which carry a good deal
of silt, sand, and gravel that wash off streets or
land during a storm.
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 Primary treatment

◼ Suspended solids that pass through screens and grit chambers are removed from the
sewage in sedimentation tanks.

◼ These tanks, also called primary clarifiers, provide about two hours of retention time
for gravity settling to take place.

◼ As the sewage flows through them slowly, the solids gradually sink to the bottom. The
settled solids—known as raw or primary sludge—are moved along the tank bottom by
mechanical scrapers.

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Secondary treatment
◼ Secondary treatment removes the soluble organic matter that escapes primary
treatment.

◼ It also removes more of the suspended solids. Removal is usually accomplished

by biological processes in which microbes consume the organic impurities as
food, converting them into carbon dioxide, water, and energy for their own
growth and reproduction.

◼ Removal of soluble organic matter at the treatment plant helps to protect the
dissolved oxygen balance of a receiving stream, river, or lake.

◼ There are three basic biological treatment methods: the trickling filter, the
activated sludge process, and the Waste Stabilization pond. 33
trickling filter
◼ A trickling filter is simply a tank filled with a deep bed of stones.

◼ Settled sewage is sprayed continuously over the top of the stones and trickles to the
bottom, where it is collected for further treatment.

◼ As the wastewater trickles down, bacteria gather and multiply on the stones. The
steady flow of sewage over these growths allows the microbes to absorb the
dissolved organics, thus lowering the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the
sewage.

◼ Air circulating upward through the spaces among the stones provides sufficient
oxygen for the metabolic processes.

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Advantages of trickling filters Disadvantages of trickling filters

Low energy requirement Poor performance if high quality effluent

(BOD<10) is required.
low sludge production rates Low potential for N and P removal

Simplicity in operation and consequently Rather inflexible: process control hardly

low running cost possible
Low capital investment cost Potential risk of mosquito breeding, odour
nuisance and filter clogging
Secondary sludge is easily thickened and Performance is seasonal as it is strongly
dewatered affected by temperature
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Activated sludge
◼ The activated sludge treatment system consists of an aeration tank followed by a
secondary clarifier.

◼ Settled sewage, mixed with fresh sludge that is recirculated from the secondary clarifier, is
introduced into the aeration tank.

◼ Compressed air is then injected into the mixture through porous diffusers located at the
bottom of the tank.

◼ As it bubbles to the surface, the diffused air provides oxygen and a rapid mixing action. A

◼ stir can also be added by the churning action of mechanical propeller-like mixers located
at the tank surface.

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Activated sludge
◼ Under such oxygenated conditions, microorganisms thrive, forming an active,
healthy suspension of biological solids—mostly bacteria—called activated sludge.

◼ About six hours of detention is provided in the aeration tank. This gives the
microbes enough time to absorb dissolved organics from the sewage, reducing
the BOD.

◼ The mixture then flows from the aeration tank into the secondary clarifier,
where activated sludge settles out by gravity.

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Activated sludge
◼ The sludge is pumped out from a hopper at
the bottom of the tank. About 30% of the
sludge is recirculated back into the aeration
tank, where it is mixed with the primary
effluent.

◼ This recirculation is a key feature of the

activated sludge process.

◼ The recycled microbes are well acclimated

to the sewage environment and readily
metabolize the organic materials in the
primary effluent. 39
Waste stabilization ponds
◼ The term “waste stabilization pond” describes any shallow, man-made basin using
natural physical, chemical and biological processes to remove solids, organic
matter and nutrients and destroy pathogenic organisms from waste water.

◼ Sewage, lagoons or oxidation ponds can also be used to describe WSP’s

The major processes that occur in ponds are

◼ Buffering of fluctuating organic and hydraulic loading rate

◼ Primary settling of settleable solids to form a sludge/scum layer.

◼ Algal photosynthesis to generate oxygen

◼ Biodegrading of organic matter by aerobic/anaerobic bacteria

◼ Pathogen destruction by several interactive processes

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 Waste stabilization ponds
◼ Pond systems can be classified as a) Anaerobic b) Facultative c) Maturation Aerobic

Anaerobic ponds
◼ The anaerobic pond is the primary treatment stage and reduces the organic load in
the wastewater. The entire depth of this fairly deep man-made lake is anaerobic.

◼ Solids and BOD removal occurs by sedimentation and through subsequent anaerobic
digestion inside the accumulated sludge.

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Facultative pond
◼ These are ponds in which the stabilization of waste is brought about by a
combination of aerobic, anaerobic and facultative bacteria.

◼ Three zones exist in a facultative pond;

1. a surface zone where aerobic bacteria and algae exist in a symbiotic relationship.

2. An anaerobic bottom zone in which accumulated solids are decomposed by

anaerobic bacteria.

3. An intermediate zone that is partly aerobic and partly anaerobic, in which the
decomposition of organic waste is carried out by facultative bacteria.

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Aerobic Ponds (Maturation ponds)
◼ They are large, shallow earthen basins that are used for the treatment of waste water
by natural processes involving the use of both algae and bacteria.

◼ They are two basic types of aerobic ponds; the 1st type maximizes the production of
algae. These are limited to a depth of about 150-450mm.

◼ The 2nd type maximizes the amount of oxygen produced and pond depths are up to
1.5m.

◼ In both types, oxygen in addition to that produced by algae, enters the liquid
through atmospheric diffusion.

◼ To achieve best results with aerobics ponds, their contents must be mixed
periodically using pumps or surface aerators.
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 General Function of WSP’S
◼ Reducing biological oxygen demands (B.O.D)

◼ Removal of settleable, suspended and dissolved solids

◼ To generate oxygen through algal photosynthesis

◼ To biodegrade organic matter by aerobic/anaerobic

◼ To destroy pathogens by several interactive processes

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Advantages and disadvantages of waste stabilization ponds
Disadvantages
Advantages
◼ They require relatively low capital ◼ They require large areas for
investment when flat land is construction
available at reasonable price ◼ They have high algal content of the
◼ Ponds are easily maintained effluent

◼ They can absorb shock loads ◼ Evaporation losses

◼ They can produce stabilized sludge ◼ High potential odour if not

that can periodically be removed and maintained properly
used in agriculture. ◼ Mosquito nuisance

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 Tertiary treatment
◼ When the intended receiving water is very
vulnerable to the effects of pollution,
secondary effluent may be treated further by
several tertiary processes.

◼ For the removal of additional suspended solids

and BOD from secondary effluent, effluent
polishing is an effective treatment. It is most
often accomplished using granular media
filters, much like the filters used to purify
drinking water.

◼ Chlorine is added to kill bacteria 47

LOW COST SANITATION SYSTEMS

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 Water dependent on-site and off-site systems
◼ On-site treatment systems relies on decomposition of the organic wastes in
human excreta by bacteria. This can take place in a simple pit in the ground or in
specially designed tanks to promote the bacterial decomposition of the wastes.
Eg. Pour flush latrine, Septic tank

◼ Off-site treatment is the treatment of wastewater that has been conveyed using a
sewerage system. Large-scale off-site treatment of sewage and industrial
wastewater is most of the time preformed by wastewater treatment plants

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Generic classification of sanitation systems

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 1. WC septic tank system
◼ It is a watertight chamber for the retention, partial treatment and discharge
for further treatment.

◼ This system is a wet on site sanitation method. It is used in areas where

1. Compact soil condition result in low infiltration rates

2. High ground water tables prevail

3. There are densely populated locations with limited availability of infiltration

space

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1. WC septic tank system

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 Working principle of Septic tank
◼ A septic tank has to be designed in such a
way to provide ideal conditions for:
1. Settling of Suspended Solids: A liquid
retention time of at least one day with quiescent
condition is normally provided for the
suspended solids to settled the bottom (sludge)
or float to the surface (scum layer).
2. Stabilization and Storage of solids: A sufficient
volume is to provide for anaerobic solid
digestion and for storage of the digested sludge
so that the frequency of desludging can be
minimised.
3. Scum Storage: Sufficient storage for the
accumulation of the scum blanket.
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 Design of septic tank
◼ The general criteria for septic tank are to provide for at least a day hydraulic
retention time.
◼ Commonly are the third of the tank volume is reserved for the accumulation of
sludge and another one third for providing scum storage and open space.
◼ Only 1/3 of the septic tank volume is reserved for the hydraulic retention of raw
sewage.
◼ To ensure at least a day hydraulic retention just before desludging, the design
should be based on three- day hydraulic retention time at the start up of the
septic tank.
◼ Septic tank volume dimension are fellows
◼ Usually liquid depths in septic tank are between 1 to 2m.
◼ Length to breath ratio is 1:2 or 1:3

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 Design of septic tank
◼ The specified per capital volume of a S= Annual sludge accumulation rate
septic tank required can be calculated
25l/cap year when receiving black water
from
only; 40l/ cap year when receiving grey
◼ Cs=N*F*S*+Q*Tm water
◼ Where: ◼ Q= Waste water flow in 1/cap day.
◼ Cs= Specific Septic tank volume 100/cap day for house connection black and
(m3/Capital) grey water together; 40- 80/cap day for
◼ N= Number of years between public stand post; black and grey water
desludging (min 2 years) together; 15- 40/cap day, when only
◼ F= 1 if temperature is above 10c in receiving black water.
coldest month. ◼ Tm= Minimum required hydraulic
◼ F= 1.33 if temp is below 10c in coldest retention time
month

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◼ The effective design volume of a septic tank can now easily be calculated by
multiplying the number of users with Cs.

◼ Ueff = P*Cs (m)

◼ The volume calculated by this method is only the volume below the influent and
the effluent pipes. Any empty space or space or scum is not yet included.
Normally a clearance of approximately 25-30cm is being provided between top
level and the influent and effluent pipes of the tank.

◼ Septic tanks can be design as one, two or three chamber compartments. In two
compartments septic tank the volume of the first part is usually twice that of the
second. In a three – chamber compartment the total volume is distributed as ½,
¼ and ¼ respectively. 57
 Advantages and disadvantages of using septic tank
Advantages Disadvantages
No risk clogging Water is needed
No odour emission Relatively high in total annual cost
No mosquito nuisance

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 Classification of latrines
1. Aqua Privy
◼ The conventional aqua privy consists
essential of a squatting place situated above
the pit.

◼ The water seal is made by means of a drop

pipe (100- 105mm) that extends to at least 10-
15 cm below the water level pit.

◼ To maintain the water seal it is important

that the pit is completely airtight and enough
water is used for flushing to make up the
water losses and maintain the water seal
properly 59
 BUCKET LATRINE
◼ The bucket latrine consists of a squatting
plate immediately above of 20-30 litres Advantages Disadvantages

capacity into which faeces and urine fall. Not Suitable for Bad smell/odour areas
densely populated area
◼ The bucket is to be emptied by night soil Minimal risk ground Are breeding sites for
collectors, who replace the bucket at the water pollution mosquitoes
Sustainable solution High operating cost
backside of the latrine.
for (semi) arid regions
◼ Sometimes provision are made to the It has potential for Health risk imposed
reuse on collectors of fresh
brain of the urine into a sock away in excreta
order to reduce the required frequency
for replacing bucket.
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 Pit latrine
◼ They have super structure directly on the pit.
This type of toilet facility has no vent pipe.
◼ They are used in areas with low population
density, where the area is not restricted and
land is available.
◼ Advantages: They are cheap; quick to
construct; operate without water; and easily
under stood.
Constraints: They are unsuitable where the
water table is high, soil is too unstable to dig
or ground is very rocky; and often have
odour

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 VIP latrine
◼ The Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrine
is an improved pit latrine designed to
minimize odour and flies.

◼ A vent pipe is incorporated into the design

to remove odourous
gases from the pit.

◼ This should ideally be situated outside the

latrine interior

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VIP latrine

◼ Advantages: Odour and flies are reduced; and a good quality long-term solution.
Constraints: VIPs are difficult and expensive to construct properly; design and
operation are often not fully understood; construction may take time; dark
interior may deter young children from using the latrine; design does not deter
mosquitoes; and there is an increased odour outside.

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 Pour-flush latrines
◼ Pour-flush latrines rely on water to act as a
hygienic seal and to help remove excreta to
a wet or dry disposal system.

◼ The most simple pour-flush latrines use a

latrine pan incorporating a shallow U-bend
which retains the water.

◼ After defecation, a few litres of water

must be poured, or thrown, into the bowl
in order to flush the excreta into the pit or
sewerage system below
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 Effluent disposal
SOAK AWAY PIT

◼ The content of septic tank or Aqua privy ◼ Seepage pit are normally 2 to 5m deep
can be transported into soak away pits. and has diameter of 0.7 to 2.0m.

◼ Here factor such as Infiltration rate, ◼ Depending on the stability the wall can
ground water table and soil permeability be lined, with bamboo mats or by brick
must be considered. with open joint to allow for infiltration

◼ A double soak away pit used alternatively into the soil.

can provide time for soil recuperation and ◼ Rock fill behind the lining prevent
restoration of the initial infiltration rates quick clogging of the soil

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◼ Effective infiltration area of
seepage pit A=h*d* π (m)
◼ d= diameter of pit, h= filling
depth of the pit, π = constant
= 3.14

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 Absorption field (trench bed)
◼ Larger effluent flows are to be disposed of by a system of trench or drain fields.
Absorption trenches consist of open drainage tiles (100mmdimeters) laid on a 0.5
to 10 of rock fills (20- 50mm grading). The effluent infiltrate into the soil
surrounding the trench with the effective infiltration area as 0.5 to 0.9m/m trench.

◼ The maximum length should not exceed no - 45m. Care should be taken of the
trench (0.15-0.30%) to ensure a fair distribution of total load over the entire
trench. If more trenches area being used the minimum distances in between is
1.5m to avoid any interference, reducing in infiltration capacity per m.

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68
 SANITATION INFECTIOUS DISEASES

1. Pathogen: disease –causing organism conventionally applied to viruses and

bacteria. The host is said to be infected.

2. Parasite: an organism that is dependent on another organism (the host) for at least
part of its life cycle, it does not necessarily harm the host normally the parasite is
much smaller than the host but may be present in much greater numbers.

3. Incidence: relates to the number of new cases that occur over a defined period

4. Prevalence is an indication of the number of people actually suffering from a

disease at a particular time (i.e. it takes into account the time period of suffering).

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◼ Incidence = no. of new cases/no. of people exposed in a defined period
◼ e.g. 3 cases/ 1000 or 5cases/ 100,000 people per year
◼ In situations where there is an epidemic (or epidemic) and emergency
action is required, a shorter time period may be used.
◼ e.g. 5 cases/ 10,000 per week or 20 cases/ 5,000 per day.
4. Prevalence = no. of people actually sick at any one time/no. exposed
◼ e.g. 5 cases/10,000 or 2% of the population (at any one time)
◼ Prevalence=incidence × mean duration of infection
◼ For instance if the incidence of an infection is 3cases/ 1000 per year and the
illness last, on average, for 6 months or half a year, then the prevalence is:
◼ 3/1000×1/2= 0.15%
◼ However if the illness lasted for 10 years rather than 5 months the
prevalence would be:
◼ 3/1000× 10= 3%
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◼ Endemic: infection is constantly present within the population and persists at
reasonably stable level of prevalence.

◼ Epidemic: there is a sudden increase in incidence (rare for most diseases); can occur
when disease is introduced into an area when there is no/low protective immunity.

◼ Pandemic: very high incidence spread across countries (very few, notably plagues,
malaria, cholera, HIV &AIDS.

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 Water related diseases
1. Water – borne Diseases
Infections in this category spread through drinking water/food contained by excreta
etc. Cholera, typhoid and ascariasis fall in this category. When sewage is not properly
treated or disinfection is not satisfactory, such diseases can spread.
2. Water – washed diseases
Diseases category are caused by lack of proper hygiene due to water scarcity.
Examples of such diseases are skin/ eye diseases (due to lack of water to wash body)
or lice / flea born diseases (due to lack of water to wash clothes).
3. Water- based Diseases
In this category, water provides the habitat for intermediate host or parasite. One
typical example is shistosomiasis. This disease is caused by the discharge of human
faeces or urine to the water body where there are snails which serve as the
intermediate host.

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 Water related diseases
◼ Water – related Vector borne Diseases

◼ The example of this category is malaria and filariasis. Such diseases are transmitted
by insects (e.g. mosquitoes) which propagate in water. Provision of good drainage
system as well as avoidance of causal water pools will help control mosquitoes
breeding.

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The four types of water – related transmission routes for infections and the preventive
strategies appropriate to each
Water related disease Preventive strategy

Improve quality of drinking water

a) Water –borne diseases Prevent use of unprotected sources
b) Water- washed diseases Improves accessibility and reliability of water supply
Improves hygiene
Increases water quantity used

c) Water-based diseases Reduce need for contact with infected water

Control snail population
Reduces contamination of surface water
a) Water-related Vector borne Diseases Improve surface water management
Destroy breeding sites of insects
Reduce need to visit breeding sites
Use mosquito netting
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DISEASES HOST CAUSATIVE MODE OF SYMPTOMS OF PREVENTION AND
AGENT TRANSMISSION DISEASES CONTROL
MALARIA Man Plasmodium Bite from an anopheles Fever, general weakness, Use mosquito nets, dispose
female mosquito. changing body temperature, off an open can at the refuse
headache, nausea, loss of site, and fill all small pools of
appetite, anemia, vomiting water within the community
and diarrhea. with earth and clean drains,
use insecticides.
BILHARZIAS River snail Schistoma/ Bathing in infested Weak joints, blood stool and Promotion of good water
Blood fluke water urine, pains in urination facility, avoid swimming and
bathing in infested water.

CHOLERA Man Vibrio cholera Contact with Severe diarrhea, Proper disposal of waste,
contaminated food and dehydration, body weakness avoid eating contaminated
water, contact with vomiting and nausea. food heat all leftover food
infested hand

GUINEA Water Infested person Swollen legs, fever, Boil or filter water before
WORM releasing it into water headache, loss of appetite, using
body through bathing
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DIARRHOEA Man Contact with General body Proper disposal of
contaminated food weakness, liquid and solid
and water, contact vomiting, waste, avoid eating
with infested hand. watery stool. contaminated food

TYPHOID Man Samolena Coming into contact Perforation of Wash hands after
typhii with contaminated intestines, visiting the
food, digesting toxins fever, insomnia, VIP/Urinal, cover
from Samolena loss of appetite all food/foodstuff,
typhii. and death. proper disposal of
liquid and solid
waste.

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 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Definition of solid waste
◼ All the waste arising from human and animal activities that are normally solid
and discarded as useless or unwanted.
Classification of solid wastes
1. Residential or household waste consisting of leaves, food waste, paper, glass, etc.
The composition of domestic waste may vary with location, season, economic
conditions, climate and many factors.
2. Commercial waste due to activity of offices, markets, hotels, etc.
3. Industrial waste including food-processing residue, ash, plastic, packaging waste.
4. Building construction waste such as bricks, stones, sand, concrete, plastics, wood
shavings, etc.
5. Hospital wastes compose of blood, limbs, part of human body, etc.

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◼ Bulky waste including trees, furniture, telephone poles,
etc.
◼ Hazardous waste comprising of explosives, radioactive
materials, toxic materials, etc.

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Stages in solid waste management
◼ In solid waste management has
the following stages to be
expected.

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 Waste generation
◼ The amount of waste generated is used in designing primary and secondary
storage facilities, in selecting waste generation routes and disposal facilities.

Waste generation methods

House to House method: Mostly applicable in developed countries. In this method

plastic bags are given to households to fill and collected later. Knowing the household
size, the per capita per day generation can be calculated.

Area method: when the population density of an area is known and the quantity of
waste generated is also known then this method can be used.

Material mass balance: This method is used in the industries to determine the waste
generated. The materials coming into the industry is accounted for hence this minus
the consumption gives the estimated waste generation. 80
 Storage facilities
◼ Primary storage facilities: waste baskets, rubber bags, plastic containers, buckets,
bamboo, wood or metal bins etc, they are used to store refuse in the household
before it is sent to secondary storage or transported to the disposal site. It
depends on the conditions in the community.

◼ Secondary storage: this is the point where waste is transported mostly to the final
disposal site. It may be a concrete enclosure pipe , skip, mini containers trailer,
masonry structures, roll on-off containers, space or communal bins etc.

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Collection facilities/vehicles
Primary collection facilities: include hand carts, animal drawn carts, power
tillers, rickshaw trolleys, wheel barrows, Borla taxis, etc.

Rickshaw trolley power tiller

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Hand carts Animals drawn carts
◼ These are driven by men at the markets ◼ These are driven by animals such as
places and some low income areas in donkeys and ass.
Accra. Advantages
Advantage ◼ Suitable for use in small towns, where
◼ Used as primary refuse collection traffic density are low.
vehicles in areas that are inaccessible to ◼ Affordable in low income settlement
motor vehicles such as low income areas ◼ Can manage less accessible communities
and high density settlements with where bigger cannot manage
narrow roads.
◼ Maintenance cost is low.
◼ Disadvantages
◼ Littering on the streets
◼ Limited radius within which it can
operate
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Secondary collection facilities are mostly vehicles. They include tipper trucks,
tractors, roll on-off trucks, container trucks, compactor trucks, etc

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 Waste collection methods
◼ Door to door collection: it is system that ◼ Communal collection: householders
the crew enters each premise, takes out discharge their waste at predominant
the container and set it back after locations containing some from
emptying the waste into the collection communal storage facilities and refuse
vehicles. collection vehicles visit the site at
◼ Advantages frequent intervals usually once daily to
◼ Level of service is good remove accumulated waste.
◼ No householder partakes in the operation ◼ Advantages
carrying of refuse bins. ◼ It reduces considerably the number of
◼ Disadvantages sources from which waste has to be
collected
◼ Collection cost is high
◼ Collection cost is low
◼ Crew invade privacy
◼ Disadvantages
◼ Householders may have to walk long
distances to the communal collection 87
Disposal methods
Open dumping
◼ In this method, the solid waste collected
from the town deposited in the low lying
land, usually on the outskirts of the town.
Since the “open dumping” are uncovered
these attracts flies, insects and rodents
(rats) and odour are produced.

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Incineration
◼ Incineration is the process whereby solid is converted into gaseous liquid or
solid waste with a subsequent release of energy. Combustion is normally used
here-the chemical oxidation with stochiometric or excess amount of air. There
are three types of thermal conversions. They are:
◼ Combustion: Thermal process of solid waste, using chemical oxidation, with
stochiometric or excess amount of air.
◼ Pyrolysis: Thermal combustion of solid waste into fuel in the complete absence
of air
◼ Gasification: Partial combustion of solid waste with sub stochiometric
conditions to generated combustible gas rich CO, H and gaseous hydrocarbons

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Composting
◼ Composting is the biological decomposition of organic substances available in the
waste, under controlled conditions to produce a stable material that can be
applied as fertilizer.
◼ Rotting, putrefaction, etc are natural processes that take place in a controlled
manner.
◼ Factors that affect the process includes pH, C:N, Turning, moisture, aeration,
particle size etc.
◼ The compost thus formed under controlled conditions a brown peaty material.
There are two systems by which compost can be produced:
◼ In the anaerobic system, anaerobic bacteria perform the work in the absence
oxygen to methane. The disadvantages of anaerobic system are:
◼ The process is slow, extending over a period of 4-12 months
◼ It produces offensive odour

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◼ In the aerobic process, the compost
is produced by aerobic bacteria.
High temperature is produced, but
odours are absent and the compost
is formed rapidly.
◼ In both methods of composting the
following steps are involved:
sorting, shredding or grinding,
windrow making, turning and
bottom aerating.

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 Sanitary landfill
◼ This is a modified form of open
dumping. It is a process by which solid
waste is placed in the surface soils of
the earth. This includes monitory of
incoming waste stream, placement and
compaction of waste and installation of
landfill environmental monitoring and
control facilities.

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Components of a landfill
◼ Cell: the volume of material placed in a landfill during one operational period
usually one day. It includes the solid waste deposited and the daily cover material
surrounding it.
◼ Lift: a complete layer of cell over the active area of landfill
◼ Land fill gas: this is the mixture of gases found in a landfill. The bulk includes CH4
and CO3 the principal products of the anaerobic decomposition of biodegradable
organic fraction of the waste in the landfill. Other includes atmospheric nitrogen,
ammonia and trace organic compounds.
◼ Landfill liners: they are materials (natural and manufactured) that are used to line
the bottom and below grade sides of a landfill. They usually consist of layers
compacted clay geomembrane, burnt brick material design to prevent migration of
landfill leachate and landfill gas.

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◼ Landfill control facilities: these are facilities used to monitor and control migration
of landfill liners, leachate collection and extraction systems, daily and final covers.
◼ Leachates: is the liquid that has percolated through solid waste, has extracted
dissolved or suspended materials and collects at the bottom of a landfill. It contains
mainly BOD and COD materials, heavy metals, suspended solids, pH, colour,
odour, nitrogenous compound and E-coli.
◼ Landfill collection and extraction systems: these are facilities / gadgets (pipe
systems and wells that collect the leachate and gas produced in the landfill site. It
prevents leachate seepage into the ground water and the exposure of gas into the
atmosphere
◼ Daily and final covers: these are materials used for covering the cell of a landfill as
well as the overall cover for the landfill. It prevents flies and rodents from visiting
the site.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
◼ The process is completely sanitary ◼ A large area is required

◼ Highly skilled personals are not required ◼ Transportation cost is high due to

◼ Land can be safely overloaded without landfill locations

causing any problems ◼ Causes fire hazards due to the

◼ Converts low lying marshy waste land formation of methane in wet weather.

into useful area.

◼ Natural resources are returned to soil and

recycled

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