VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELGAUM

ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

(Subject Code: BCV401)

LECTURE NOTES

(MODULE-1)
IV-SEMESTER

Mrs. Babitha B
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering

AJIET
A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(A unit of Laxmi Memorial Education Trust. (R))
NH - 66, Kottara Chowki, Kodical Cross - 575 006
 Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

Module -1
Introduction and Analysis of Plane Trusses
Introduction and Analysis of Plane Trusses: Structural forms, Conditions of equilibrium,
Compatibility conditions, Degree of freedom, Linear and nonlinear analysis, Static and
kinematic indeterminacies of structural systems, Types of trusses, Assumptions in analysis,
Analysis of determinate trusses by method of joints and method of sections.

Structures are built to facilitate the performance of various activities connected with
residence, office, education, healthcare, sports and recreation, transportation, storage, power
generation, irrigation, etc. We see a variety of structures in our midst. Some are monumental, some
residential, some commercial, some recreational, some mobile, etc. All of them have certain common
features; they form systems consisting of a load-resisting component, which is called super structure
and a load-dis- tributing component to the ground which is known as substructure.
All the structures should sustain the loads coming on them during their service life by
possessing adequate strength and also limit the deformation by possessing enough stiffness.
Strength of a structure depends on the characteristics of the material with which it is constructed.
Stiffness depends on the cross section and the geometrical configuration of the structure. A
structure is not a single entity; it consists of many parts that are assembled together as a system.
The parts are called elements or members. The loads coming on a structure degenerate into forces in
these elements because of the deformation they undergo. The members should be designed to resist
these forces induced in them as per the relevant codes of practices prevalent in a country. Besides, the
structure should be stable against overturning moments caused by some kind of horizontal loads
like that caused by earth- quake or wind. Moreover, all the loads applied on the structure should
be safely transmitted to the ground through its foundation. Therefore, safety is of prime
importance in the existence of structures. Because human beings occupy the structure eventually
one should not compromise on the safety aspect of the structure. Otherwise distress in the
structure will endanger lives of occupants. Transmission of loads coming on the global system
through its local members to the subsystem consisting of the foundation for eventual distribution
on the ground is called load path. Any interruption in the load path will lead to collapse of the
structure. So, the safety of a structure can be assured with the right choice of appropriate load
path.
Structural analysis, therefore, deals with the mechanism of degeneration of loads applied on
the system into local element forces, using various theories and theorems enunciated by eminent
engineers and investigators. It also deals with the computation of deformations these members

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suffer under the action of the induced forces.

FORMS OF STRUCTURES
We have constructed structures of many forms and shapes. All structural forms used for load
transfer from one point to another are three-dimensional (3D) in nature. Generally, they can be
categorized as linear forms (Fig. 1.1) and curvilinear

Fig. 1.1 Chicago downtown buildings (linear form).

forms (Fig. 1.2). The type of functions and aesthetics dictate the forms of structures. For
instance, linear forms are preferred for residential, official, and educational purposes. The
linear form is called skeletal structures. They are artic- ulated structures assembled with parts
consisting of linear elements, such as bars and beams, the connection between them being
bolted or riveted or welded.

Fig. 1.2 Balloon structure (curvilinear form).

Assemblage of members forming a frame to support the forces acting is called the framed
structure. A framework is the skeleton of the complete structure and it supports all intended
loads safely and economically. Some structural examples are frames [Fig. 1.3(a)], high-rise

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 Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

structures [Fig. 1.3(b)], trusses [Fig. 1.3(c)], industrial shed [Fig. 1.3(d)], bridge deck [Fig.
1.3(e)], plates [Fig. 1.3(f)], etc. Generally, these structures are two-dimensional (2D) lying in one
plane along two coordinate axes. However, the parts by which they are assembled are one-dimen-
sional (1D) lying in a single plane along one coordinate axis.

Curvilinear forms as single entities mostly occupy a space. For structural analysis purposes
these structures are idealized as continuous system. Continuous system structures transfer loads
through the in-plane or membrane action to the boundaries. Assemblages of continuous members
like shells, domes, etc., are called continuous system. They are 3D structures. The examples for
continuous system are domes, shells, arches, cables, cylindrical members, cooling towers, space
crafts, aircrafts, etc. These are shown in Fig. 1.4. Structures in curvilinear form are called surface
structures.
The most suitable structural form is the one which provides satisfactory solutions to
functional, economic, sociological, aesthetic, and other requirements to the highest degree and
that can be economically and reliably built, using the most appropriate structural materials and
construction methods that are available.
On the basis of the dominant stress conditions developed under their most significant design
loads and conditions, structural forms may be classified as uniform stress forms and varying stress
forms. When the stress across a section is uniform over the depth of a member or over the
thickness of a panel, e.g., cables, arches, truss members, membranes, and shells, such a form is
called a uniform stress form. When the stress varies over the depth or thickness, from a maximum
compressive stress on one surface to a maximum tensile stress on the other, e.g., in the case of
beams, rigid frames, slabs, plates, etc., such a form is called a varying stress form.

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Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
The basic tool in structural analysis is the use of equilibrium equations which states that
the structure or part of it remains in its stationary position. Hence, if the entire structure is
considered, the reactions from the support and the loads on the structure should be in static
equilibrium. The equations of static equilibrium are as follows:
i) The summation of all the forces along any ais is zero.
ii) The summation of all the moments about any axis is also zero.
The equations of static equilibrium are based on Newton’s law. For a three-dimensional
system, the equations of equilibrium are as follows:
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 and ∑Fz = 0
∑Mx = 0 ∑My = 0 and ∑Mz = 0
For a two-dimensional system with x and y as the orthogonal axis, the equations of
equilibrium are:
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 and ∑M = 0
The above equilibrium conditions may be applied to a part of the structure also provided
that, in such case, apart from the external loads, the reactive forced from the removed part are
also considered.

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Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

Compatibility Conditions
Compatibility conditions means requirement of continuity, such as in joints where two or more
members meet. The following two compatibility conditions are to be satisfied at any joint:
1. The members meeting at a joint will continue to meet at the same joint even after
deformation takes place.
2. At rigid-joints, the angle between any two members remains the same even after
deformation takes place. The compatibility conditions will help in formulating additional
equations.
Statically Determinate and Indeterminate Structures
The structures are grouped into statically determinate and statically indeterminate structures. A
structural system which can be analysed by using equations of statical equilibrium only is called as
statically determinate structure, e.g., beams or trusses with both ends simply supported, one end
hinged and another on rollers and the cantilever type. A structure which cannot be analysed by
using equations of equilibrium only is called a statically indeterminate structure, e.g., fixed beams,
continuous beams, propped cantilevers. To analyse indeterminate structures, apart from using
equations of equilibrium one has to determine the various deformations and make use of
compatibility conditions. Indeterminate structures are also called redundant structures.

Difference between Determinate Structure and Indeterminate Structure

Determinate Structure Indeterminate Structure
1) The structure can be analysed by using equations 1) The structure can not be analysed by
of equilibrium (∑V=0, ∑H=0, ∑M=0) then it is using conditions of equilibrium, then it is
called statically determinate structure. called statically indeterminate structure.
2) The determination of internal force in structure 2) The determination of internal force in
do not require cross section area and moment of structure requires cross-sectional area
inertia. and moment of inertia.
3) There is no stress caused due to change in 3) Stresses are caused due to change in
temperature. temperature.
4) There is no stress caused due to settlement of 4) There is stress due to settlement of
supports. E.g., Simply supported beam, supports. E.g., Propped cantilever beam,
cantilever beam fixed beam.

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Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

Linear and Non-Linear Systems

A system is called a linear system if its material has linear stress-strain relationship and a small
deflection. In such cases, the law of superposition holds good. A system will be treated as a non-
linear system if its material does not have linear stress-strain relationship or its deformation is so
large that a change of geometry cannot be neglected in the analysis. If the non-linearity is due to
stress-strain relationship, it is called material non-linearity and if the non-linearity is due to
considerable changes in the geometry, it is called geometric non-linearity. In some cases, both
material non-linearity and geometric non-linearity need to be considered. Non-linear analysis is
lengthy and repetitive type with minor changes in each cycle. Hence, it is ideally suited for
computer-aided analysis.

Difference between Linear and Non-Linear Structures

Linear Structures Non-Linear Structures
1) A system is said to be Linear system if its 1) A system is called non-linear system if its
material has linear stress-strain relationship. material does not have linear stress-strain
relationship.
2) Linear system undergoes small deflection. 2) Non-Linear system undergoes very large
deflection.
3) Principle of superposition can be applied. 3) Principle of superposition cannot be applied.
4) Linear system allows investigations to make 4) In Non-Linear system these assumptions
certain mathematical assumptions and cannot be made.
approximations allowing for easier
computation of result.
5) Dimension and configuration do not change 5)Dimension and configuration changes on the
after the application of load. application of load.

Sign Convention
As the forces and displacements are direction-dependent we need to adopt a sign
convention to sum up the results of various actions. We adopt here the sign convention as
shown in Fig. 1.16 for a 3D structure. Here X, Y, and Z are the coordinate axes and are shown
in positive directions. When we move from X to Y in the horizontal plane, the Z-axis must
advance in its positive direction. This is called left-hand system. We assume that forces
directed along the positive direction of axes are positive. For a left-hand system the couple
should be a left-hand screw progressing in the direction of the coordinate axes. So, an
anticlockwise moment is taken as positive here.

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Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

DEGREES OF FREEDOM, DETERMINATE, AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

In this section, we now explain these terms that are frequently referred in structural analysis.

Degrees of Freedom
The degrees of freedom (DOF) can be defined as a set of independent displacements
that specify completely the deformed position and orientation of the body or system under
loading. Here, displacements include deflections and rotations as well. A rigid body that
moves in 3D space in linear directions has three translational displacement components as
DOFs. The rigid body can also undergo angular motion, which is called rotation. So, the body
has three rotational DOFs. Altogether a rigid body can have at most six DOFS, three
translations, and three rotations. Translation refers to the ability of a body to move without
rotating whereas rotation refers to its angular motion about some axis.
When a structure is loaded, the joints, also called nodes, will undergo unknown
displacements. These displacements are referred to as the DOF for the structures.

Determinate Structures
The conditions of equilibrium discussed in Section 1.5 are necessary and sufficient
conditions to establish the equilibrium of structures. When structures are loaded, they pass on
these loads to the support as reactions. The applied forces and the resulting reactions keep the
structure in equilibrium. However, these reactions are mostly unknowns. We normally evaluate
these reactions by using the equations of equilibrium. If all the reactions in a structure can be
determined strictly only by the application of equilibrium equations, the structure is referred to
as statically determinate. In other words, we can define a determinate structure as the one
which can be fully analysed and all internal forces and stresses determined through the use of
one or more of the six equations of equilibrium without recourse to stiffness, deflection, or
other criteria for analysis.
Given a set of forces and reactions in equilibrium, the structural geometry of
determinate structures takes care of itself. In other words, force–deformation compatibility for
such structures is automatically satisfied for any set of forces and reactions in equilibrium. For
example, the support reactions and hence, the moments and shears in a simple beam (Chapter
3) or a three-hinged arch (Chapter 20) can be found statically without paying any attention to
their deformed shapes. As may be verified easily, a determinate structure has only as many
support reactions as absolutely necessary for its stability. The removal of even a single reaction
makes the structure unstable.
Figure 1.17 shows the determinate structures. In Fig. 1.17(a), the frame has three

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support reactions which can be calculated easily by Eq. (1.1). The arch in Fig. 1.17(b) has four
support reactions against the three equations of equilibrium available for solution. So, it seems
that reactions cannot be computed statically. However, the condition that the moment at the
hinge C be zero provides the additional fourth equation for finding the four unknown reactions.
Such additional equations are called condition equations. A statically determinate structure may
also be defined alternatively as the one in which the number of unknown reactions R equals the
sum of the number of applicable equations of equilibrium n and that of the condition equations c,
i.e.,
R=n+c
Equation (1.3) is called the equations of statics.
The qualification ‘applicable’ is important because equilibrium equations which are
applicable to a problem need only be counted in assessing its determinacy. For example, in the
continuous beam as shown in Fig. 1.17(c), as the loading is only vertical, only two conditions,
namely, ∑FV = 0 and ∑M = 0 are applicable. Therefore, ∑FH = 0 is meaningless in the

absence of horizontal loads on the beam.

Indeterminate Structures
Structures in which the reactions cannot be evaluated by the application of static
equilibrium equations alone are defined a statically indeterminate or hyperstatic structures.
They are also known as redundant structures. In these structures, the number of unknown
reactions is greater than the number of available equations of static equilibrium. However,
sometimes it is quite possible that the support reactions are statically determinate, but internal
forces remain indeterminate. For example, we consider a truss shown in Fig. 1.18(a). We will
discuss in Chapter 2 as how to evaluate the forces and reactions in a truss. Accordingly, the truss

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in Fig. 1.18(a) is statically determinate both for support reactions and forces in the members. In
contrast, the truss shown in Fig. 1.18(b) is statically determinate only with reference to the
calculations of support reactions.

We now consider, for example, a continuous beam (discussed in Chapter 9) shown in Fig. 1.19.
It has six unknown support reactions as shown in Fig. 1.18 as against three equilibrium
equations, namely, ∑FV = 0, ∑FH = 0, and ©M = 0 available for the determination of these

six reactions. Unless we deter- mine these six reactions, it is not possible to evaluate the
internal forces in the beam. Three extra equations should be set up to circumvent this
difficulty. We can develop these equations from the geometrical conditions. For example, we
can specify that the vertical deflections at B, C, and D are zero. These additional equations are
called equations of compatibility and their number determines the degree of indeterminacy D
of the structure. The reactions, for the solution of which the compatibility equations are
developed, are termed as redundant R.

It may be observed in Fig. 1.19 that the supports B, C, and D may be removed without
affecting the stability of the beam. This action reduces the beam into a determinate one which is
called a primary or released structure. So, we can conclude here that an indeterminate structure
has more support reactions than are absolutely necessary for its stability. This characteristic
may be used to deter- mine the degree of indeterminacy of structures. We can divide
indeterminate structures into three categories as follows:
1. Externally indeterminate structures
2. Internally indeterminate structures
3. Structures with combined indeterminacies.

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Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR STRUCTURES

We use wood, concrete, steel, etc., in the construction of structures. The load resistance
and deformation characteristics of structures significantly depend on the properties of these
materials. Each of these materials has different properties that should be taken into
consideration in the analysis and design of the structure. Typical stress–strain curve for these
materials is shown in Fig. 1.9. As is clear from Fig. 1.9, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of
different materials is different. Therefore, their resistance to loading, which depends on UTS, is
also varied. The initial slope of the curve for each material is different. This slope
characterizes the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus E of the material. The modulus of
elasticity of each material must be known for the calculation of dis- placement of structures.
As can be observed in Fig. 1.9 that each material in the initial stage behaves linearly,
i.e., the stress and strain are proportional up to a certain limit which is called an elastic limit.
This is also called a linear range. Subsequently, at higher stress the behaviour becomes non-
linear, i.e., there is disproportionate increase in strain for a corresponding increase in stress.
This zone is called a non-linear range. We call a system a linear structure when the stresses
developed in it are within the elastic limit, i.e., the stresses in the system lie within the linear
range. A system is called a non-linear structure if the stresses developed in it fall in the plastic
or a non-linear range. Such a classification is based on the behaviour of material. The
behaviour of a material in the plastic regime is characterized as material non-linearities for
representation in structural analysis.

In addition to material non-linearity, some structures may exhibit non-linear

characteristics in its overall behaviour due to changes in its shape under loading. This
necessitates that the structure should displace by a significant amount to maintain its overall
equilibrium. This kind of behaviour of the structure is called geometrical non-linearity. A
classic example of this type of non-linearity can be observed in cable structures discussed in
Chapter 21. Also, a cantilever structure shown in Fig. 1.10 is another example of geometric

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non-linearity.

An important property of a linear structure is that when it is loaded, the stress in the
material increases along a linear path till the elastic limit in the material is reached. Suppose we
unload the structure or remove the load on the structure within this stage, the stress diminishes
and it retraces the same linear path and the structure returns to its original position without
leaving any residual deformation in the structure as shown in Fig. 1.11(a).
In contrast, the stress level in a non-linear structure goes beyond elastic limit and mostly
it remains in plastic regime. If the load is removed from the structure once the stresses have
crossed elastic limit, then the structure returns to the original position by a different path as
shown in Fig. 1.11(b) leaving some residual deformation in the structure. This is called a
permanent set.

STATIC AND KINEMATIC INDETERMINACIES OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Before analyzing a structure, the analyst must ascertain whether the reactions can be computed
using equations of equilibrium alone. If all unknown reactions can be uniquely determined
from the simultaneous solution of the equations of static equilibrium, the reactions of the
structure are referred to as statically determinate. If they cannot be determined using
equations of equilibrium alone then such structures are called statically indeterminate
structures. If the number of unknown reactions are less than the number of equations of
equilibrium then the structure is statically unstable.

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The degree of indeterminacy is always defined as the difference between the number of
unknown forces and the number of equilibrium equations available to solve for the unknowns.
These extra forces are called redundants. Indeterminacy with respect external forces and
reactions are called externally indeterminate and that with respect to internal forces are called
internally indeterminate.

A general procedure for determining the degree of indeterminacy of two-dimensional structures

are given below:
NUK= Number of unknown forces
NEQ= Number of equations available
IND= Degree of indeterminacy
NJ = Number of joints
IND= NUK – NEQ
Indeterminacy of Planar Trusses

Members carry only axial forces NEQ = 2NJ

NUK= NM+NR
IND= NUK – NEQ
IND= NM+NR-2NJ
Indeterminacy of 3D FRAMES

A member or a joint has to satisfy 6 equations of equilibrium NEQ = 6NM + 6NJ-NC (Number
of additional condition)
NUK= 12NM+NR
IND= NUK – NEQ
IND= 6NM+NR-6NJ-NC
Indeterminacy of 3D Trusses
A joint has to satisfy 3 equations of equilibrium
NEQ = 3NJ
NUK= NM+NR
IND= NUK – NEQ
IND= NM+NR - 3NJ

Stable Structure:
Another condition that leads to a singular set of equations arises when the body or structure is
improperly restrained against motion. In some instances, there may be an adequate number of
support constraints, but their arrangement may be such that they cannot resist motion due to

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applied load. Such situation leads to instability of structure. A structure may be considered as
externally stable and internally stable.
Externally Stable:
Supports prevents large displacements
No. of reactions ≥ No. of equations
Internally Stable:
Geometry of the structure does not change appreciably
For a 2D truss NM ≥ 2Nj -3 (NR ≥ 3)
For a 3D truss NM ≥ 3Nj -6 (NR ≥ 3)
Degree of freedom or Kinematic Indeterminacy

Members of structure deform due to external loads. The minimum number of parameters
required to uniquely describe the deformed shape of structure is called “Degree of Freedom”.
Displacements and rotations at various points in structure are the parameters considered in
describing the deformed shape of a structure. In framed structure the deformation at joints is
first computed and then shape of deformed structure. Deformation at intermediate points on the
structure is expressed in terms of end deformations. At supports the deformations
corresponding to a reaction is zero. For example hinged support of a two dimensional system
permits only rotation and translation along x and y directions are zero. Degree of freedom of a
structure is expressed as a number equal to number of free displacements at all joints. For a
two-dimensional structure each rigid joint has three displacements as shown in Fig. 1.5

In case of three-dimensional structure each rigid joint has six

displacements.
• Expression for degrees of freedom
1. 2D Frames: NDOF = 3NJ – NR NR ³3
2. 3D Frames: NDOF = 6NJ – NR NR ³6
3. 2D Trusses: NDOF= 2NJ – NR NR ³3
4. 3D Trusses: NDOF = 3NJ – NR NR ³6
Where, NDOF is the number of degrees of freedom
In 2D analysis of frames somet imes axial deformation is ignored. Then NAC=No. of axial
condition is deducted from NDOF

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Plane Trusses
Trusses are articulated frames used extensively in the construction of a variety of structures.
The spectrum consists of industrial sheds to airport hangers at one end and lean-to-roof to high-
rise buildings at the other. Different types of trusses and frames existing across the globe and
mostly they are constructed in wood and steel.

It is quite obvious that a truss or a frame is an assemblage of bars or rods. Sometimes tubes,
angles, and channels are also used. We know that a bar is always subjected to a load along its
longitudinal axis. It can be a tensile force or a compressive force. We can join two bars with a
pin. They may be subjected to either a tensile force or a compressive force. In this
configuration as the bars are connected only at one end, the other ends are free and hence they
can rotate freely. Therefore, it forms an unstable system. Moreover, this arrangement cannot
resist any load. In order to position, fix the free ends and make the system to resist load, we
connect the free ends of both the bars by another bar with pins.
We know that a triangular configuration is a stable and rigid system. Therefore, the
triangular arrangement of bars provides a stable structure which can resist load without any
relative displacement between the bars. Loads are invariably applied only at joints. A truss can
either be in one plane or in space which constitutes multiple planes. A truss lying in one plane
is called a plane truss. In contrast, a truss lying in multiple planes or space is called space truss.
Plane trusses are used to support roofs and bridges. Roof trusses are often used as part
of an industrial building frame. In bridges, the truss is the main structural element.
The distance between the supports is called the span of the truss. The top member of a
truss is called top or upper chord. It can either be horizontal or inclined. Similarly, the bottom
member is called lower or bottom chord. Both the top and bottom chords are connected by
vertical and diagonal members. The space enclosed between the top and the bottom chord
members, and diagonals is called a panel. The pattern of bars arranged in a triangular
configuration is chosen to yield a light-weight, efficient, and load-bearing structure. The ends
of the bars are connected to gusset plates with the help of bolts or welds. Such connections are
called joints of the truss. Loads are applied only at these joints. Truss members act in direct
stress, i.e., tension or compression; they carry load efficiently and hence their cross sections are
relatively small and also slender.

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Types of trusses
Triangular configuration, which is the basic unit of a truss, can be extended to enclose more
space. Such an exercise will produce a variety of trusses that can be used in roofs as well as in
bridges. The common types of roof trusses are shown in figure.
1. Warren truss
2. Pratt truss
3. Bowstring truss
4. King post truss
5. Lenticular truss

1. Warren truss - Truss members form a series of equilateral triangles, alternating up and
down.

2. Pratt truss - Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to
100 m in span. In a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for
gravity loads. This type of truss is used where gravity loads and uplift loads are
predominant

3. Bowstring truss - Named for their shape, bowstring trusses were first used for
arched truss bridges, often confused with tied-arch bridges. Thousands of bowstring
trusses were used during World War II for holding up the curved roofs of aircraft
hangars and other military buildings.

4. King post truss - One of the simplest truss styles to implement, the king post consists of
two angled supports leaning into a common vertical support.

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5. Lenticular truss - have the top and bottom chords of the truss arched, forming a lens
shape. A lenticular pony truss bridge is a bridge design that involves a lenticular truss
extending above and below the road bed.

Assumptions in analysis

1. The members cannot develop moments at the ends.

2. The members are subjected to purely axial forces.
3. The connections to other members are perfectly pinned/hinged through frictionless pins.
4. Each member is of uniform cross-sectional area.
5. The entire structure is in one plane if it is a plane truss
6. Loads act at the joints only. Any loads that act between joints are split into equivalent
support end reactions and added to the joint loads.
7. Self-weight of the truss can be ignored or at least assumed to be equally distributed as loads
at the joints.
8. Even if the members are connected at the ends with gusset plates and welded, no fixity is
assumed. A nominal moment that actually develops due to imperfect hinge connection is
simply ignored.

Analysis of determinate trusses by method of joints and method of sections.

1. Method of Joints - The free-body diagram of any joint is a concurrent force system in which
the summation of moment will be of no help. two equilibrium equations can be written as
ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0.
This means that to solve completely for the forces acting on a joint, we must select a joint
with no more than two unknown forces involved. This can be started by selecting a joint
acted on by only two members. We can assume any unknown member to be either tension or

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compression. If negative value is obtained, this means that the force is opposite in action to
that of the assumed direction. Once the forces in one joint are determined, their effects on
adjacent joints are known. We then continue solving on successive joints until all members
have been found.
2. Method of Sections - In this method, we will cut the truss into two sections by passing a
cutting plane through the members whose internal forces we wish to determine. This method
permits us to solve directly any member by analyzing the left or the right section of the
cutting plane.
To remain each section in equilibrium, the cut members will be replaced by forces equivalent
to the internal load transmitted to the members. Each section may constitute of non-
concurrent force system from which three equilibrium equations can be written as ΣFx=0,
ΣFv=0 and ΣM=0. Because we can only solve up to three unknowns, it is important not to
cut more than three members of the truss. Depending on the type of truss and which
members to solve, one may have to repeat Method of Sections more than once to determine
all the desired forces.

Numerical Problems
1. Determine Degrees of Statical indeterminacy and classify the structures.

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Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

Problems on method of joints

1. Find the force acting in all members of the truss shown in Figure T-01. using methods
of joints.

ΣMD=0
3AV+50(1) =80(0.75)
AV=3.33 kN

ΣFH=0
AH=80 kN

ΣMA= 0
3RD=50(2) +80(0.75)
RD=53.33 kN

At joint A
ΣFV=0
3/5FAB=3.33
FAB=5.56 kN tension

ΣFH=0
FAE+45FAB=80
FAE+45(5.56) =80
FAE=75.56 kN tension

Dept. of Civil Engineering 20 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

At joint B
ΣFH=0
FBC=4/5 FAB
FBC=4/5 (5.56)
FBC=4.45 kN

ΣFV=0
FBE=3/5 FAB
FBE=3/5 (5.56)
FBE=3.34 kN compression

Joint E
ΣFV=0
35FCE=FAE
35FCE=3.3435
FCE=5.57 kN tension

ΣFH=0
FFE+4/5 FCE=FAE
FFE+4/5 (5.57) =75.56
FFE=71.11 kN tension

At joint F

ΣFV=0
FCF=50 kN tension

ΣFH=0
FDF=FFE
FDF=71.11 kN tension

At joint C

ΣFH=0
4/5 FCD+4/5 FCE+FBC=80
4/5 FCD+4/5 (5.57) +4.45=80
FCD=88.87 kN compression

ΣFV=0
3/5 FCD=3/5 FCE+FCF
3/5 (88.87) =3/5 (5.57) +50
53.3 = 53.3

Dept. of Civil Engineering 21 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

At joint D

ΣFH=0
4/5 FCD=FDF
4/5 (88.87) =71.11
71.1=71.1 check

ΣFV=0
RD=3/5 FCD
53.33=3/5 (88.87)
53.3=53.3 check

Summary

FAB=5.56 kN tension
FAE=75.56 kN tension
FBC=4.45 kN tension
FBE=3.34 kN compression
FCD=88.87 kN compression
FCE=5.57 kN tension
FCF=50 kN tension
FDF=71.11 kN tension
FFE=71.11 kN tension

2. The structure in Fig. T-02 is a truss which is pinned to the floor at point A, and
supported by a roller at point D. Determine the force to all members of the truss.
using method of joints.

Dept. of Civil Engineering 22 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

Solution

ΣMD=0
6RA=5(12) +3(20)
RA=20 kN

ΣMA=0
6RD=1(12) +3(20)
RD=12 kN

At joint A
ΣFV=0
21/ √5 FAG=RA
21/ √5 FAG=20
FAG=21.82 kN compression

ΣFH=0
FAB=2 / 5 FAG
FAB=2 / 5 (21.82)
FAB=8.73 kN tension

At joint G
ΣFV=0
21/ √5 FBG+12=21/ √5 FAG
21/ √5 FBG+12=21/ √5 (21.82)
FBG=8.73 kN tension

ΣFH=0
FFG=2 / 5 FAG+2 / 5 FBG
FFG=2 / 5 (21.82) +2 / 5 (8.73)
FFG=12.22 kN compression

Dept. of Civil Engineering 23 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

At joint B
ΣFV=0
21/√5 FBF=21/√5 FBG
FBF=FBG
FBF=8.73 kN compression

ΣFH=0
FBC=FAB+2 / 5 FBG+2 / 5 FBF
FBC=8.73+2 / 5 (8.73) +2/ 5 (8.73)
FBC=15.71 kN tension

At joint F
ΣFV=0
21 / √5 FCF+ 21/ √5 FBF= 20
21 / √5 FCF+21 / √5 (8.73) =20
FCF=13.09 kN compression

ΣFH=0
FEF+2 / 5 FCF= 2 / 5 FBF+ FFG
FEF+2 / 5 (13.09) =2 / 5 (8.73) +12.22
FEF=10.48 kN compression

At joint C

ΣFV=0
21/ √5 FCE=21/ √5 FCF
FCE= FCF
FCE=13.09 kN tension

ΣFH=0
FCD+25FCE+25FCF=FBC
FCD+25(13.09) +25(13.09) =15.71
FCD=5.24 kN tension

At joint E
ΣFV=0
21 / √5FDE=21 / √5FCE
FDE=FCE
FDE=13.09 kN compression

ΣFH=0
FEF=25FCE+25FDE
10.48=25(13.09) +25(13.09)
10.5=10.5 check

Dept. of Civil Engineering 24 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

At joint D

ΣFV=0
RD=21 / √5 FDE
12=21/ √5 (13.09)
12=12 check

ΣFH=0
FCD=2 / 5 FDE
5.24=2 / 5 (13.09)
5.24=5.24 check

Summary

FAB = 8.73 kN tension

FAG = 21.82 kN compression
FBC = 15.71 kN tension
FBF = 8.73 kN compression
FBG = 8.73 kN tension
FCD = 5.24 kN tension
FCE = 13.09 kN tension
FCF =13.09kN compression
FDE = 13.09 kN compression
FEF = 10.48 kN compression
FFG = 12.22 kN compression

Dept. of Civil Engineering 25 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

Problems on method of sections

1. From the truss in Fig. T-01, determine the force in members BC, CE, and EF.

Solution

ΣMA=0
3RD=50(2) +80(0.75)
RD=53.33 kN

From the FBD of the section through a-a

ΣME=0
0.75FBC+2RD=0.75(80) + 1(50)
0.75FBC+2(53.33) = 60+50
FBC=4.45 kN tension answer

Dept. of Civil Engineering 26 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

ΣMC=0
0.75FEF=1(RD)
0.75FEF=53.33
FEF=71.11 kN tension answer

ΣFV=0
3 / 5 FCE+50=RD
3 / 5 FCE+50= 53.33
FCE=5.55 kN tension answer

2. The roof truss shown in Fig. T-03 is pinned at point A, and supported by a roller
at point H. Determine the force in member DG.

Solution

ΣMA=0
8RH=2(55) +4(90)+6(45)
RH=92.5 kN

From section to the right of a-a

x+2 / (1.5) = (x+4) / 2.5
2.5x+5=1.5 x+6
x=1 m

ΣMO=0
(x+2)(5 /√41 * FDG)+x RH= (x+2)(45)
(1+2) (5 / √41 * FDG)+ 1(92.5) = (1+2)(45)
(15 / √41) FDG+92.5=135
(15 / √41) FDG=42.5
FDG=18.14 kN tension answer

Dept. of Civil Engineering 27 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Determine Degrees of indeterminacy and classify the structures.

2. Determine Degrees of Kinematic indeterminacy

3. The truss in Fig. T-03 is pinned to the wall at point F, and supported by a roller at point C.
Calculate the force (tension or compression) in members BC, BE, and DE using method of
sections.

Dept. of Civil Engineering 28 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

4. The structure shown in Figure is pinned to the floor at A and H. Determine the magnitude of
all the support forces acting on the structure and find the force in member BF.

5. The truss pinned to the floor at D, and supported by a roller at point A is loaded as shown in
Fig. Determine the force in member CG. use method of joints

Dept. of Civil Engineering 29 AJIET Mangaluru

Analysis of Structures – BCV401 Module 1

6. Compute the force in all members of the truss shown in Fig. using method of joints.

Dept. of Civil Engineering 30 AJIET Mangaluru