In 1978, the birth of Louise Brown, the world’s first

test-tube baby, sparked moral outrage from the

public today.

Today, the high success rate of in vitro fertilization

has led to its acceptance as one of the probable
solution to fertility problems.

Find a partner and select five (5) words or terms in the concept map that will be shown
which are familiar to you. Using the three column table answer the first two columns.

Word / Term Initial Definition Upgraded Definition

Sexual Reproductive in Humans

Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MU83VWAvUf4

Humans begin their lives as a single cell. This single cell is formed by the fusion of two
sex cells – an egg and a sperm – from the parents. As you reach adolescence, your sex
organs mature and undergo changes to be able to produce sex cells needed to produce
new individuals. These sex cells contain structure called chromosomes that contain generic
information which carries unique inherited traits such as skin color or hair color.
Recall that human sex cells contain only half of the number of chromosomes of a
regular body cell (somatic). Each sex cell, which has 23 chromosomes, is a haploid (n), while
the regular cell, which has 46 chromosomes, is a diploid (2n). After the fusion of the egg and
the sperm, the resulting fertilized egg, known as zygote, contains 46 chromosomes. From a
biological standpoint, fertilization merges two sets of genetic information – one from the
father (through the sperm) and one from the mother (through the egg) – to create an
offspring that is genetically different from either parent.
Answer the following questions. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
1. What is the difference between a diploid cell and haploid cell?

2. How is each type of cell produced?

3. What are the examples of each type of cell?

Male Reproductive System

In sexual reproduction, the

diploid zygote is formed through
fertilization from the fusion of the male
(sperm) and female (egg) sex cells,
which are both haploid. The male
reproductive system produces sperm
cells (male gametes) and delivers
them inside the female reproductive
system. In males, the primary
reproductive organs are the testes
(singular: testis)
 The testes are oval-shaped organs found inside
a protective sac of skin called the scrotum. The
location of the testes in the scrotum, which is outside
the body, is very important for the proper development
of the sperm. Since the scrotum lies outside the
abdominal cavity, its temperature is one to three
degrees lower than the internal body temperature
(37°C), making it ideal for sperm production, which
requires a lower temperature.

The testes begin to produce sperm only after

males reach puberty. The testes are clusters of
hundreds of compartments with many tiny coiled
tubes called seminiferous tubules. Sperm cells are
produces in the linings of the seminiferous tubules
through meiosis. Meiotic division reduces the number
of chromosomes from 46 (2n) to 23 (n).

To regulate the function of the testes, two

hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary
gland found in the brain. The luteinizing hormone
(LH) stimulate the secretion of the sex hormone
testosterone, while the follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH), along with testosterone, and stimulates
sperm production in the seminiferous tubules.
Testosterone is produced by the Leydig cells found
between the seminiferous tubules. It is responsible
for the development of secondary male
characteristics during puberty such as deepening
of the voice, growth of facial hair, broadening of
Micrograph showing a cluster of Leydig cells
the shoulders, and the development of muscles.

At the onset of puberty, teenage boys start to produce sperm cells in their testes.
Thereafter, an adult male produces several hundred million sperm cells each day.
After being produces in the seminiferous tubules, the sperms mature and travel
through a series of tubes. They then enter a long coiled tube called the epididymis,
where they will mature until they are capable of swimming and moving.
The epididymis is also where most of the sperms are stored. Mature sperm cells travel
from the epididymis to another long tube called the vas deferens. The sperms then
exit the body through the urethra, a larger tube which, in males, is the same tube
through which urine passes and exits the body.

A mature sperm cell, which consists of three parts: a head that contains the
chromosomes, a mid-piece that contains mitochondria, and a long tail that is
responsible for the sperm’s movement.
 The head is made up of a nucleus
covered by a cap called acrosome,
which stores the enzymes needed to
penetrate an egg cell during
fertilization. The mid-piece contains
mitochondria that supply the energy
needed to propel the sperm through
the female reproductive tract. The tail
of the sperm is a powerful flagellum that
enables the sperm cell to move.

During their passage through the urethra,

sperms mix with the fluids produced by
neighboring glands – the prostate gland,
seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral
glands. The combined secretions of these
glands collectively called semen, which
nourishes the sperm cells.

Secretions of the Accessory Organs of the Male Reproductive System

Gland Functions of Secretion
Prostate Gland Alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acids in the female
reproductive system.
Seminal Vesicles Fluid rich in sugars that sperm cells use for energy.
Bulbourethral Glands Alkaline fluid that neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the
urethra.

The urethra leads the sperm cell through the penis, the male organ that deposits the
sperm in the female reproductive system during sexual intercourse or copulation.
During sexual excitation, blood rushes into the penis, making it rigid and erect.
Sperm exit the penis through ejaculation, the forceful expulsion of the sperm out of a
male’s body. After the semen is deposited in the female reproductive system, the
sperm cells swim until they encounter the egg cell.
If any of the sperm does not penetrate the egg cell, fertilization does not occur. On
average, about 3.5 mL of semen is expelled during ejaculation. It normally contains
300 to 400 million sperm cells, or about five to 10 million in just one drop, only a few
reach the egg cell because most of them die in the acidic environment of the female
reproductive tract.

For more information on this lesson visit this website:

http://www.innerbody.com/image_repmov/repo10-new3.html#full-description
TASK 3
Read the article in the link below. Answer the question and make a summary of the study
that includes the objective, materials, methods, results and conclusion of the study.
Impact of Alcohol on Male Reproductive Hormones

Question: What is the possible impact of alcohol on male hormones?

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1110569014000661

Female Reproductive System

The ovaries are the female reproductive structures responsible for producing eggs.
They are located inside the abdominal cavity located just slightly below the waist, with
one ovary on each side of the body. Like the testes, the ovaries produce hormones.
Estrogen, one of its hormones, triggers the development of secondary female
characteristics such as widening of the hips and the enlargement of the breast. Most
importantly, it stimulates egg development.
The onset of mature egg cell production among females starts around the ages of 11
to 14 years, during the first discharge of blood the vagina called menarche. Every
month thereafter, a normal adult female releases a mature egg cell or female
gamete in from one of her ovaries.
After the sperm has been deposited inside the female reproductive system during
copulation and after fertilization has occurred, the role of the male reproductive
system is complete. The female reproductive system, on the other hand, will begin its
role in nourishing and protecting the fertilized egg during nine months of
development. This is called gestation or pregnancy.

Sci-Bit:
The eggs cells are the biggest cell in a woman’s body. Even so, you would need 10
eggs cells to cover a pin head.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1110569014000661
All females are born with all the approximately two million egg cells they will produce
in their life- time. By the time a female reaches puberty, the number of egg cells would
have gone down to about 400,000.
Like sperm cells, egg cells contain 23 chromosomes (n) since eggs are also produces
through meiosis. During puberty, the increased production of hormones enables one
immature egg to complete its development each month. In the lifetime of a female,
out of the 400,00 egg cells at the start of puberty, only 300 to 500 will mature and are
then called ova (singular: ovum).

About every 28 days, an

ovum is released in an adult
female body. Hair like structures
called cilia sweep the ovum
from the ovary into either of the
fallopian tubes or oviducts.

Each fallopian tube is a

passageway through which an
ovum moves from the ovary to
the uterus. Smooth muscles that
line the fallopian tube contract
rhythmically to allow the ovum to move down the tube toward the uterus. It takes
three to four days for an ovum to travel inside the fallopian tube. If the ovum is not
fertilized at this stage, it dies within 24 to 48 hours.

During sexual intercourse, sperm cells

are deposited inside the vagina, a
passage that leads from the outside of
the female’s body to the entrance of
the uterus called cervix. If fertilization
occurs, the fertilized ovum, now called
zygote, travels down further and
implants itself in a hollow, first-sized,
muscular organ called uterus. During a
normal childbirth, a baby passes
through the cervix and leaves the
mother’s body through the vagina.
 Practical Science:

HOW DO YOU IF YOU ARE FERTILE?

An ovum can live for two or three days after it is released. Since ovulation normally
occurs around day 14 of the menstrual cycle, it means that an ovum can survive from
day 14 to day 17. Sperm can live approximately two/o three days in the female
reproductive system. This means that sperm released into the vagina around day 11 can
fertilize the ovum and bring about pregnancy. Hence, the period from around day 11 to
day 17 is the fertile period - that is, fertilization is possible during this period. Meanwhile
the remaining days make up the infertile phase of the menstrual cycle.

https://www.innerbody.com/image/repfov.html

Female Reproductive Cycles

Research and explain the difference between menstrual cycle and menstruation and
write your answer on the space below.
Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation

All females who have reached puberty will undergo monthly physiological cycles
known as ovarian and menstrual cycles. The ovarian cycle, which involves the ovary,
prepares the egg for maturation, while menstrual cycle, which involves the uterus, grooms
the uterus for a possible implantation and later on, pregnancy.

The ovaries prepare the female body each month to make pregnancy possible. This
series of events is collectively called ovarian cycle. The monthly release of an ovum from the
ovary is called ovulation. The released ovum is swept into the fallopian tube and begins to
move toward the uterus to await fertilization. The ovarian cycle spans about 28 days,
although it varies from female to female.

The ovarian cycle occurs in two distinct phases or stages: the follicular phase and the
luteal phase. These phases are regulated by the hormones produced by the hypothalamus
and anterior pituitary gland.
1. In an ovary, egg cells mature within follicles. A follicle is a cluster of cells that surrounds
an immature egg cell and provides nutrients and protection. During the follicular
phase of the ovarian cycle, hormones regulate the completion of an egg cell’s
maturation. The follicular phase begin when the anterior pituitary gland releases the
gonadotropins follicle stimulating hormones (FSH) and luteinizing hormones (LH) into
the bloodstream. These hormones, produces by gonadotropic cells, cause the follicle
to produce estrogen. Estrogen is a sex hormone that aids the growth of the ovarian
follicle in the ovary.
2. When the follicle bursts ovulation occurs.
3. After ovulation, the luteal phase begins. LH causes the cells of the ruptured follicle to
grow, forming a corpus luteum. A corpus luteum is a yellowish mass of follicular cells
that functions like an endocrine gland. LH causes the corpus luteum to secrete both
estrogen and progesterone. Progesterone is a sex hormone that signals the body to
prepare for fertilization.

Watch this video: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/period-pain/

 If fertilization occurs, the corpus
luteum continues to produce
progesterone for several weeks.
Otherwise, the production of
progesterone slows down and
stops the ovarian cycle. Aside
from the series of events that
occur in the ovaries, a different
monthly cycle, called menstrual
cycle, occurs in the uterus to
prepare it for implantation.

The normal menstrual cycle last for an average of 28 days. The events in the menstrual
cycle are controlled by the changing levels of estrogen and progesterone during the ovarian
cycle. Prior to and after ovulation, increased levels of estrogen and progesterone cause the
lining of the uterus to thicken and become a conducive place for a fertilized ovum.

If pregnancy does not occur, the levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease,
causing the lining of the uterus to be shed, which marks the end of the menstrual cycle. When
this happen, blood vessels break and bleeding occurs. A mixture of blood and dis- carded
tissues leaves the body through the vagina in a process called menstruation, which usually
occurs 14 days after ovulation.

At the end of the ovarian and menstrual cycles, neither estrogen nor progesterone is
being produced, this signals the pituitary gland to produces FSH and LH, starting the cycles
again. The production of estrogen and progesterone in women eventually declines around
their mid-40s. This begins the transition to the menopausal stage, when a woman no longer
ovulates and or becomes fertile.

Answer the following questions. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
1. What is ovulation and when does it happen?

2. What hormone is released by the ovaries? What is its purpose?

3. What happens when an egg is not fertilized?

 Are you tired of wearing eyeglasses or
contact lenses? Have you ever wished that
your vision were as clear as it used to be?
LASIK or laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis,
commonly known as laser eye surgery, is a
procedure used to treat people with vision
problems such as myopia (near-sightedness),
hyperopia (farsightedness), and astigmatism.
The procedure reshapes the cornea so that
the light that enters the eye is properly
focused onto the retina for the clearer vision.

Body Control and Response

The nervous system controls and interprets all the activities that happen in the body.
It enables you to move, to changes in the environment by accomplishing four basic
functions.
1. Gathers information both from the outside world and from inside the body.
2. Sends information to muscles, glands and organs so they can respond correctly.
3. Transmits information to the processing areas in the brain and spinal cord.
4. Processes information to determine the best response.
The nervous system keeps the body working properly despite the constant changes
that take place around it. These changers are called stimuli (singular: stimulus).
 Neuron: The Message Carrying Unit of the Nervous System
The nervous system is constantly active. It buzzes with messages that run to and from
every part of the body. Every second, hundreds of these messages are carried by strings of
special cells called neurons or nerve cells. Neurons are the basic functional units of structure
and function of the nervous system. They carry information through the nervous system in the
form of nerve impulses.
Neurons are the cells in our body that are responsible for transmitting electrical signals
through the nervous system. The ability to move or feel the world around us all starts as an
impulse sent by a neuron. This process helps us see, taste, touch, and move. In order to
instantly facilitate these bodily processes, highly specialized neurons are used to transmit
these signals and coordinate the body.

Although neurons come in all shapes and sizes, they share certain characteristics or
features. Like other cells in the body, a neuron also has a nucleus, a cytoplasm (axoplasm in
neuron), and organelles.
The largest part of the neuron is the cell body. The cell body contains the nucleus (a
large dark structure), which controls all the activities of the cell. Think of the cell body as the
switchboard of the message-carrying neuron. Unlike other cells, the cytoplasm of the neuron
extends into two types of fiber-like structures.
Running into this switchboard are one or more tiny, branching, threadlike cell body. A
long, taillike fiber that extends from the cell body, called the axon, carries messages away
from the cell body. The myelin sheath covers the axon, which speeds up the travel of the
nerve impulses. Each neuron has only one axon, but it can have many dendrites. Dendrites
are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body. Like antennae, dendrites receive and
process signals from the axons of other neurons. The axon splits into many feather-like fibers,
called axon terminals (ends), at the far end. Axon terminals pass on messages to the
dendrites of other neurons. They are usually found some distance from the cell body.
Neurons vary in structure, function, and genetic makeup. Given the sheer number of neurons,
there are thousands of different types, much like there are thousands of species of living
organisms on Earth.

However, there are four major neuron forms. Each combines several elements of the basic
neuron shape.
Multipolar neurons. These neurons are able to receive impulses from multiple
neurons via dendrites. The dendrites transmit the signals
through the neuron via an electrical signal that is spread
down the axon.
Unipolar neurons. These neurons have a single long axon that is responsible for
sending electrical signals. The axon in unipolar neurons is
myelinated, which allows for rapid signal transmission.
Bipolar neurons. These neurons send signals and receive information from the
world. Examples include the neurons in the eye that receive
light and then transmit signals to the brain.
Pseudo-unipolar These neurons relay signals from the skin and muscles to the
neurons. spinal cord. They are the primary neurons responsible for
coordinating movement of the arms and legs using input
from the brain.
There are three types of neurons in the nervous system each with their own specific functions.

Sensory Neurons
Sensory neurons are also called afferent neurons because their functions to receive
stimuli from receptors. The sensory neuron in your finger then transmits impulses to the
sensory neurons, until the impulse reaches the next type of neuron, the interneuron.
These neurons helps you taste, smell, hear, see and feel things around you.
Sensory neurons are triggered by physical and chemical inputs from your
environment. Sound, touch, heat, and light are physical inputs. Smell and taste are
chemical inputs.
For example, stepping on hot sand activates sensory neurons in the soles of your
feet. Those neurons send a message to your brain, which makes you aware of the
heat.

Interneurons
Interneurons are also called connector neurons or association neurons. They “read”
the impulses sent by sensory neurons. That is why the interneurons are found in the
spinal cord and the brain.
They’re the most common type of neuron. They pass signals from sensory neurons
and other interneurons to motor neurons and other interneurons. Often, they form
complex circuits that help you to react to external stimuli.
For instance, when you touch something sharp like a cactus, sensory neurons in your
fingertips send a signal to interneurons in your spinal cord. Some interneurons pass
the signal on to motor neurons in your hand, which allows you to move your hand
away. Other interneurons send a signal to the pain center in your brain, and you
experience pain.

Motor Neurons

Motor neurons, also called efferent neurons, transmit impulses from the brain and
spinal cord to the effector cell or organ such as the muscles, organs and glands.
When motor neurons receive a signal from the interneuron, they stimulate as effector
to generate the reaction for the stimulus.
Motor neurons play a role in movement, including voluntary and involuntary
movements. These neurons allow the brain and spinal cord to communicate with
muscles, organs, and glands all over the body.
There are two types of motor neurons: lower and upper. Lower motor neurons carry
signals from the spinal cord to the smooth muscles and skeletal muscles. Upper
motor neurons carry signals between your brain and spinal cord.
When you eat, for instance, lower motor neurons in your spinal cord send signals to
the smooth muscles in your esophagus, stomach, and intestines. These muscles
contract, which allows food to move through your digestive tract.
 Write the answer in the following activities in a separate sheet of paper.
I. Explain the different parts of a typical neuron and its functions. Fill out the table below.
Parts of a Neuron Function
Dendrite

Soma or Cell Body

Axon

Axon Terminal

Myelin Sheath

II. Accomplish the concept map below on the three types of neurons.

Sensory Neurons

Interneuron

Motor Neurons

Responding to a Stimulus

Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfokof2YMVU

Signals are important on our lives. They carry information that tells us to listen, relax,
stop, or be alert. At every moment, the nervous system carries thousands of signals through
our body in the form of the nerve impulses.
A nerve impulse is a wave of chemical and electrical signal that is conducted along
the membrane of a neuron. It travels from sensory neurons to interneurons to motor neurons.
When a nerve impulse travels along a neuron or from one neuron to another, it does so in
the form of electrical and chemical signals.
 The nerve impulse
enters the neuron through
the dendrites and travels
along the length of the
axon. The way by which a
nerve impulse travels from
one neuron to another is a
little complex.
Neurons do not
touch one another, nor
do they touch effector
organs. Instead, there is a
tiny gap called a synapse
between two adjacent
neurons and between
neurons and effectors.

Somehow, the
nerve impulse must
“jump” through the gap.
A nerve impulse is
“ferried” across the
synapse by a chemical
signal. This happens when an impulse reaches the end of the axon, sending information
across the synapse in the form of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters, which are
stored in small sacs. When a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal, the sacs fuse with the
axon’s membrane and release its neurotransmitter molecules into the synapse.

The molecules then diffuse across the synapse and bind the receptors in the next
neuron or effector cell. The electrical signal that brought the nerve impulse to this point shuts
down, and the chemical signal takes the nerve impulse aboard, moving it across the synapse
to the next neuron along its route. The
chemical signal then triggers the
electrical signal again, the whole
process is repeated between the next
neurons until the nerve impulse reaches
its destination – the effector neuron –
which then triggers the organ muscles to
respond accordingly.

This process is very efficient since

for a certain, everything happens in a
matter of seconds! One of the simplest
responses of the nervous system is called
a reflex. It is an automatic response to a
change in the environment.
 Divisions of the Nervous System

The nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system and
peripheral nervous system. The two divisions of the nervous system working together as a
team to monitor, coordinate, and control the activities of the entire body.

- The central nervous system (CNS) is the command

center of the entire body; it processes information
and sends instructions to other parts of the body. All
the information gathered by sensory receptors is
delivered to the central nervous system in the form
of nerve impulses.
- The CNS processes the information and responds
by sending nerve impulses to the motor nerves of
the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Interpreting
the information and issuing appropriate commands
are the responsibility of the two parts of the central
nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord. The
brain is the main control center of the central
nervous system. It transmits and receives messages
through the spinal cord. The spinal cord provides
the link between the brain and the rest of the body.
 Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wyoQ86Pe6X8

The brain is an important and delicate organ that is protected by and encased in a
bone called the skull. The brain is also wrapped in three layers of connective tissue
that nourishes and protects it.
It is also bathed with fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that cushions it against
sudden impact such as bumps or tumbles. The brain appears gray because it is mostly
composed of gray matter, which is because of the presence of billions of cell bodies.
Underneath this gray matter is white matter, which is due to the myelinated axons.
Despite the presence of billions of neurons, the mass of the brain is about 1.4 kilograms
only. The brain is divided into three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain
stem.

The cerebrum makes up 85 percent of the

human brain, making it the most
noticeable part of the organ. It is also
what most people often refer to when
they see a picture of the brain.
The surface of the cerebrum is called the
cerebral cortex, which is lined with deep,
wrinkled grooves that increase the
surface area so that more thinking
activities can occur. This is the area where
earning intelligence, and judgment
occur.
Aside from this enormous task, the cerebral cortex also controls all the voluntary (under
one’s control) activities of the body.
In addition, it shapes the attitudes, emotions, and even the personality of an
individual.
 The cerebrum is divided into two halves.

Each hemisphere controls different kinds of

mental activity.
- The right hemisphere is associated with
artistic ability.
- The left hemisphere is associated with
mathematical or logical ability.

Note that each half controls the movement

of and sends sensation to, the opposite side.

Using the picture below, determine if you are right brained or left brained or you are more
inclined to science and math or arts and literature and write why you say so.

The cerebellum is the second largest part of the

brain and it is located behind the brain stem. It
coordinates the actions of the muscles and
maintains balance so that the motor
movements of the body can smoothly, steadily,
and efficiently. Balance, equilibrium and
posture are coordinated by the cerebellum.
Your cerebellum oversees complicated
movements, posture, and balance. It
coordinates different muscle groups and fine-
tunes movements with practice, like hitting a
golf ball or hockey puck. Because of it, walking
can be a smooth, continuous motion.
 The brain stem connects the
spinal cord to the rest of the brain.
It sits toward the bottom of your
brain and is part of your central
nervous system.
Your brainstem helps regulate
some body functions, including
your breathing and heart rate.
The brainstem also controls your
balance, coordination and
reflexes.

THREE DISTINCT REGIONS MAKE UP THE BRAIN STEM:

1) The medulla oblongata controls involuntary actions such as heartbeat,
breathing, and blood pressure.
2) The midbrain processes visual and auditory reflexes.
3) The pons helps control respiratory functions.
TWO OTHER IMPORTANT STRUCTURES ARE FOUND IN THE BRAIN STEM:
1) The thalamus serves as a relay station by directing incoming messages from
the spinal cord to the appropriate parts of the brain.
2) The hypothalamus, on the other hand, monitors internal conditions such as
water content and temperature. It acts as the link between the endocrine and
nervous systems.

Watch this video: https://www.spine-health.com/video/cervical-nerve-anatomy-animation

The spinal cord is a tubelike organ

of neurons and blood vessels. It is
located inside the backbone and
is about 1.8 cm wide, nearly the
same size as a garden hose.
Aside from the bones of the spine,
the spinal cord is also covered
with protective membranes
called meninges.
The spinal cord relays nerve
impulses to and from the brain.
Impulses from the peripheral
nervous system are carried to the
spinal cord, which then brings the
message to the brain. The brain, in turn, sends impulses down the spinal cord to the
motor nerves of the peripheral nervous system.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) links the central system (brain and spinal cord) to
the rest of the body. It is made up of a network of bundled rope like structures called
nerves, which extend or branch out from the central nervous system to the different
organs of the body.
The PNS gathers and delivers information to and from the central nervous system. The
peripheral nervous system consists of 43 pairs of nerves that arise from the brain and
spinal cord leading to organs throughout the body.

Many of the nerves in the PNS are under the

direct control of the conscious mind. The part of
the peripheral nervous system that stimulates
skeletal muscles under your conscious control is
called the somatic nervous system.

The somatic nervous system is also

responsible for the mediation of spinal reflexes,
which are involuntary. Spinal reflexes are
extremely rapid; they involve the spinal cord and
the PNS but not the brain.
The part of the peripheral nervous system that is not under the direct control of the
conscious mind is called autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system
controls body activities that are involuntary – that is, those that happen automatically
without thinking about them.
The autonomic nervous system directs motor nerve fibers in smooth muscles, cardiac
muscles, and the glands. Contractions of the heart and movement of smooth muscles
surrounding the small intestine are activities under the control of the autonomic
nervous system.
The nerves of the autonomic nervous system have two divisions that have opposite
effects on the organs they control. Their antagonistic nature maintains stability in the
body by keeping the activities in balance.
Parasympathetic Division Sympathetic Division
- Most active under normal conditions; - It dominates in times of physical and
it keeps the body functioning even emotional stress or whenever the body
when the person is not active requires some action.
- It brings the blood pressure, breathing - It controls the “fight-or-flight” response
rate and heart rate back to normal. during stressful situations such as the
nervousness you may experience when
speaking before an audience or taking a
surprise quiz.
- It also increases blood pressure, heart rate
and breathing rate
 83
Prevention, Detection and Treatment of Diseases of the Nervous System
Infections of the Nervous System

It is an acute infection and inflammation of

the brain. It is usually caused by a virus such
as herpes simplex virus (HSV) and
enterovirus, and in rare cases, by bacteria or
amoeba. Patients experience fever, severe
headache, coma, seizure and convulsions.
The infection commonly afflicts children, the
elderly, and those with weak immune
systems.

Many people with mild encephalitis cam

fully recover. In severe cases – which can be fatal – patients are confined in a hospital so
their vital signs and fluid intake can be monitors to prevent further inflammation. Certain
antiviral drugs and corticosteroids are used to treat most forms of encephalitis.

It is an inflammation of the meninges and

the membranes surrounding the brain and
the spinal cord. The swelling triggers the
symptoms triggers the symptoms of
headache, fever, and stiffness of the neck.
Meningitis is a contagious disease caused
by viral, bacterial, or fungal infections. Viral
meningitis is fairly common and less life-
threatening, whereas bacterial meningitis
requires serious medical attention since
severe cases can lead to paralysis, brain
damage, coma or death.

It is a viral infection transmitted through

bites by infected animals such as dogs
and cats. The rabies virus can spread from
the point of the bite area, specifically from
the muscle, then to the nearby nerves and
the brain.
Once it reaches the brain, it is fatal in
almost all cases. The brain infection
causes the patient to experience
abnormal excitability, aggression, and in
later stages, paralysis and death.
It is important to be vaccinated immediately before the symptoms of the infection
develop.
It is a disease caused by certain
bacteria found in soil contaminated
with animal waste. It is often
introduces into the body via open
wounds. Inside the body, the
bacterium clostridium tetani releases a
neurotoxin that affects the muscles
and nerves.
The toxin can further spread via the
bloodstream and lymph system,
leading to generalized muscle spasms. Because the jaw muscles are affected early in
the disease, tetanus is also known as lockjaw. It can be prevented by immunization.

Nervous System and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by damage or death of neurons in
specific parts of the brain or spinal cord which could lead to dysfunction and
disabilities.
These diseases are broadly categorized into two classes – conditions affecting
memory such as Alzheimer’s disease, and conditions causing problems with
movement such as Parkinson’s disease.

It is a brain disorder associated with seizures,

involuntary movement, and loss of
consciousness.
Severe symptoms can cause patients to
repeatedly twitch their arms and legs during
an attack. Although there is no known cure,
some available treatments include
medication and special diets to reduce the
frequency and intensity of the attacks.

It is a progressive disease of the nervous

system that affects the patient’s movement.
It is named after English physician James
Parkinson who first described the disorder. It is
characterized by gradual development of
initial symptoms, such as slurring of speech
and reduced ability to move the muscles of
the face to show different expressions and to
swing the arms when moving.
The advances stage of the disease is characterized by the well-known symptoms of
muscular rigidity and resting tremor, an involuntary and rhythmic muscle movement
even when the person is at rest. Parkinson’s disease has no cure yet, but medication
can be given to manage symptoms.
It is a condition characterized by severe
mental deterioration which gets worse
over time. Patients experience a
decrease in their brain size, which results
from the degeneration of brain cells,
causing a decline in memory and
mental function.
In the case of Alzheimer’s disease,
misfolded proteins called prions cause
the formation of plaques and tangles in
the neurons, inhibiting or ceasing their
normal function.
This could lead to dementia, a disorder in which a patient’s memory declines and
he/she eventually loses intellectual capacity and social skills, there is no known cure
for Alzheimer’s disease, but some medication and management strategies are used
to improve well-being of patients.