CHAPTER: – ONE

Research Methods: An Introduction

Research is most frequently used terminology in different academic and business institutions. Research as
conscious and creative human activity involves discovering and learning new things. Where there is a problem
there is always a research. It is an essential tool for understanding the events and structures of the social world.
Research can mean different things to different people. People have defined research differently according to
their perception. Here under we will see different definitions and perceptions of individuals about research
1.1. Meaning of Research
Different authors in many ways have defined the word research. Research commonly refers to a search for
knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement from known to unknown. It is indeed a voyage of
knowledge. For some people on the other hand research implies an art of scientific investigation to the state of
nature or phenomenon. Authors are increasingly adding new names and definition for different kinds of
research. However, to avoid confusion and unnecessary cumbersomeness let us confine ourselves to the
definitions of research given by selected authors.
Hertz provided the most simplified definition of research. His definition referred research to the original and
creative activities. According to him, Research is the application of human intelligence in a systematic
manner to a problem whose solution is not immediately available.
Woody on the other hand defined research as an activity comprises of defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deduction and reaching at conclusion to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.
An author called Klopsteg gives the most comprehensive definition of research. According to him; '‘Research
is original and creative intellectual activity, carried out in the laboratory, the library or in the field which
endeavors to discover new facts and to apprise and interpret them properly in the light of previous
knowledge. With constantly increasing understanding, it revises previously accepted conclusion, theories
and laws, and makes new application of its findings. Whether it seeks to extend knowledge for its own sake
or to achieve results with specific economic or social value, its raison de’tre is its contribution to human
welfare.
According to this definition, research is carried out not only in the laboratory but also it can be carried out in
different places like in the library and in the field as well. Research is not only original and creative activity. It
will not always discover new facts. It can also revise and verify the validity of previously accepted facts
theories and principles, which is the task of academic or basic research.
1.2. Motivation of doing research

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Research is not a trouble-free duty rather it is time consuming, tiresome and expensive undertaking. Despite
these all difficulties many people especially in academic institute would like to carry out research at least once
in their life. What are the possible motives of individuals to undertake research work?
The possible motives for doing research can be either one or a combination of the following:
 Desire to get degree with its consequential benefit. The graduate and postgraduate students are required to
carryout research project as a partial fulfillment to obtain their master and Ph.D. Degree. Research is
therefore, a prerequisite to complete their study.
 Desire to get respect and promotion (to own respect in society). In academic and research institutions
publication is crucial for promotion and academic rank. “Publish or perish” is a phrase commonly used in
experienced and well-established academic institutes. This implies an individual should carry out a
research activity and publish his findings in scientific or international journal in order to get respect and
academic rank. If not the individual will "perish" meaning no proportion or academic rank and hence no
respect is possible for that individual in the academic environment
 Desire to face a challenge in solving the unsolved problem. Concern over a particular problem initiates a
researcher.
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work. Doing or participation in some creative
activity will give some professional satisfaction to many individuals. Research will give this opportunity.
 Directive of government. Government sometimes gives directives to its employees to carry out a
particular study and investigation for better decision-making ground. Ideally any policy before
implementation requires detail study and analysis of its impact on different parts of the society.
 Employment condition. Some employers set as criteria at least one publication in international journal.

1.3 Managerial Value of Business Research

The prime managerial value of business research is that it provides information that improves the decision-
making process.
The decision-making process associated with the development and implementation of a business strategy
involves four interrelated stages:
1. Identifying problems or opportunities
2. Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities
3. Selecting and implementing a course of action
4. Evaluating the course of action

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1.4. Types of Research
Like its definition research has been classified differently. Generally research can be classified on the basis of
the following traits.
I. On the basis of the outcome of the research: Whether the research tries to solve a particular problem or
makes a general contribution to the knowledge, research can be
a) Fundamental Research:
Fundamental research is also called academic or basic or pure research. Such research is aimed at investigating
or search for new principles and laws. It is mainly concerned with generalization and formulation of a theory.
Fundamental research is organized only for the attainment of knowledge and truth. With change of time and
space, it is necessary to make a change in the fundamental principles in every branch of science; thus, this type
of research also verifies the old established theories, principles and laws.
In general, fundamental research is concerned with the theoretical aspect of science. In other words it studies
the laws of nature, with out or regardless of the immediate application of its findings. E.g.,
 The relationship between crime and economic status is an example of pure (academic)
research.
 Darwin Theory of Evolution
 Newton’s Law of Motion
 Einstein Theory of Relativity
b) Applied research
A research aimed at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a group or industry (business
organization). The results of such research would be used by either individuals or groups of decision-makers or
even by policy makers. While pure research discovers principles and laws, applied research discovers their
application in solving some social, economical or any other problems. E.g.,
 The improvement of safety in the working place
 The reduction of wastage in the working places is example of applied research.
Types of Applied researches
Social impact Analysis: - The major purpose of social impact assessment is to estimate the likely
consequences of a planned change. Such an assessment can be used for planning and making choices among
alternative policies. Researcher conducting social impact assessment examines many outcomes and often
works in an interdisciplinary research team.
Potential areas assessed in social impact analysis.
 Community service (School enrolment, speed of policy respond)
 Social conditions (crime rate etc)

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  Economic impact (change in income level)
 Demographic consequences (change in the mix of old and young people, population movement in
or out of the area)
 Environment impact
 Health outcomes
Evaluation research: - Evaluation research is widely used type of applied research that addresses the
question, “did it work?’ Evaluation is a process of establishing value judgment based on evidence. Evaluation
research measures the effectiveness of a program, policy, or way of doing something. Some example of
evaluation research questions is, does the new incentive scheme improve workers job performance? Does the
environmental policy improve the environmental problem of the city? Individuals involved in a policy or
program may conduct evaluation research for their own information or at the request of outside decision
makers.
There are two types of evaluation research; Formative and Summative. Formative evaluation is built in
monitoring or continuous feedback on a program used for program management. Summative (Collective
evaluation) looks at final program outcome.
Applied research being impact analysis or evaluation research uses two tools namely; Need assessment and
Cost Benefit Analysis.
Need assessment: A researcher collects data, to determine major needs and their severity. It is often a
preliminary step before deciding on a strategy to help people. A researcher may confirm dilemmas or difficult
issues. A good need assessment identifies both the expressed and less valuable needs of a target group, as well
as the more serious or widespread needs. A researcher must trace links among related needs to identify those of
highest priority.
Cost benefits analysis. This is commonly used in social impact analysis. Economists developed cost benefit
analysis, in which the researcher estimates the future costs and the expected benefits of one or several proposed
actions and gives them monetary values

II. On the basis of the purpose (The reason why a research is conducted) it can be-
a) Exploratory research (Pilot Survey)
It is also called preliminary research. As its name implied, such research is aimed at discovering, identifying
and formulating a research problem and hypothesis. When there are few or no studies that can be referred such
research is needed.
b) Descriptive Research

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The main purpose of such research is description of the state of nature or affairs, as it exists at present. In social
science and business research we often use the term ex-post facto research for descriptive research. The main
characteristic of such research is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what
has happened or what is happening. E.g.
 What is the absentee rate in a particular office?
 What is the qualification of different groups of employment?
 Frequency of shopping
 Preferences of people
Ex-post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes though they cannot control the
variables.
Goals of Descriptive research
 To provide an accurate profile of a group
 To describe a processes, mechanism or relationship
 To provide a verbal or numerical picture about a phenomenon
 To find information to stimulate new explanations
 To present basic background information on a context
 To create a set of categories or classify types
 To document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject
c). Analytic research
Analytical research on the other hand, goes beyond simple description of the state of nature. When a researcher
encounters an issue that is already known and have a description of it, you may begin to ask “why” things are
the way they are.
Analytical research uses facts or information already available, and analyzes them to make a critical evaluation
of the material. Not only describe the characteristics, but also it analyzes and explains why and how it
happened or is happening. The information or facts used here can be either Qualitative or Quantitative.
Goals of analytical research
 To determine the accuracy of a principle or a theory
 To find out which competing explanation is better
 To advance knowledge about an underling process
 To link different issues or topics under a common general statement
 To build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more completes
 To extend a theory or principle into new areas or issues
 To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction

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 E.g.,
 How can we reduce the numbers of complaints made by customers?
 How can we expand the range of our services?
 How can we improve the delivery times of our products?
Case studies
Case study is a type of analytical research in which a researcher examine many features of a very few elements
in-depth over duration of time. Case can be individual, group, organization, movement, events, or geographic
units. The data in case study are usually more detailed, varied and extensive. Mostly data involved are
qualitative data about a few cases. In a case study a researcher may intensively investigate one or two cases or
compare a limited set of cases focusing on a several factors1.
Tracer Study
Tracer study is also known as follow up study. It is a type of explanatory research that aims at investigating the
subsequent development of individuals after a specified treatment or condition. Tracer study is used to make an
investigation on the direction of movements and predicts what is likely to take place to the future. Tracer study
is designed to establish patterns of change in the past in order to predict future patterns or conditions by
analyzing data collected about subjects and environment. Common example of such study is that a researcher
may conduct a tracer study of the former graduates of the Faculty of Business and Economics to know
 Whether all of the graduates are employed or absorbed by the labor market
 Whether there is a mismatch between the training graduates received and the type of jobs they are
handling
 Whether there is a new environmental trends that justify the need of change
d) Predictive research
Such research goes beyond explaining why and how things happened. It predicts (forecast) the possible
(probability of happening similar situation in other places. It tries to explain about the probability of happening
similar thing in the future. E.g.,
 How would an increase in interest rate affect our profit margin?
 What type of packaging will improve the sales of our products?
III. On the basis of the process of research: That is, on the basis of data used in the research process research
can be
a) Qualitative research:

1
For more information refer chapter eleven or R.K.Yin (1995).

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Such research is applicable for phenomenon that cannot be expressed in terms of quantity. Things related to
quality and kind. Research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is an example of such research.
b) Quantitative research
Qualitative research is on the other hand is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. It is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable for phenomenon that can be expressed in term of quantity.

IV. On the basis of the environment in which the research is carried out research can be
a) Field research
It is a research carried out in the field. Such research is common in social science, agricultural science, history
and archeology.
b) Laboratory research
It is a research carried out in the laboratory. These are commonly experimental research.
Such researches are common in medical science, agriculture and in general in natural sciences
c) Simulation research
Such research uses models to represent the real world. Simulation is common in physical science, economics
and mathematics.
V. On the basis of the time required to complete the research, research can be
a) One -time research; It is a research limited to a single time period
b) Longitudinal research
Such research is also called on-going research. It is a research carried out over several time periods.
Common objectives of research
Any research activity is designed to discover and answer to questions through the application of scientific
procedure. It is an activity amid at finding out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered yet
or to verify or reject that the existing phenomenon (theory, principle or law) accepted as true.
Though each research study has its own specific objectives, any research has got the following common
(general) objectives.
 To generate new knowledge, principle and scientific law
 To review and synthesize existing knowledge. That is, to verify the validity of the previous work.
 To investigate some existing situation or problem
 To explain new phenomenon
 To examine the cause of the problem
 To examine the nature of the problem

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  To provide solution to a problem
 To construct or create a new procedure and new system
 A combination of any one of the above
1.5. Research and Scientific method
For clear understanding of the term research, we better know the meaning of scientific method. The two terms,
research and scientific methods are closely related. The researcher is not interested in particular results; rather
he is interested in the repeatability and validity of results and their application to more complicated and general
solutions.
Research methodology and technique are mostly different from one science to another or can be different from
research to research. The philosophy common to all research methodology and technique is called Scientific
methods.
As Pearson (1968) put it, “the scientific method is one and the same in the branches (science) and that method
is the methods of all logically trained minds”
Steps in scientific method
As we have said scientific method is the philosophy common to all research methodology and technique in any
research in any branch of science. The steps in scientific methods are summarized as follows.
1. Observation: the first or initial step in the scientific method is a minute and careful observation of
the subject matter of research.
2. Recording: The next step to observation in scientific method is a careful recording of all
information (data) obtained in the first step, i.e., observation.
3. Classification: the collected data (information) have to be classified and organized. This is a
serious step; according to “the classification of facts, the recognition of their sequence and relative
significance, is the function of science”. The classification implies systematically arranging and
organizing the recorded data on the logical basis so that they will become viable for the analysis and
to make generalization.
4. Generalization: It is an extension of general laws and principles on the basis of the pattern
exhibited by the classified material. This general law is known as scientific law.
5. Verification: the scientific method does not stop only at the formulation of general law. The
general principle must be also verified. The validity of scientific principles can be confirmed by
examination.
Forms of scientific methods
There are six primary forms of scientific methods.

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Induction: the movement of knowledge from particular facts to general rule or principle. To make
generalization based on our knowledge from a particular event or assessment.
E.g. Socrates is mortal and Socrates is a man; therefore, man is mortal.
Deduction: a movement in knowledge from a general rule to a particular case.
E.g. Man is mortal and Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal
Historical: historical method is a back ward movement in knowledge to trace the cause of a phenomenon.
Darwin theory of evolution and Marx’s law of economic determinism are example of historic forms of
scientific method.
Comparative: This method is used for the analysis and comparison of two contemporary (coexisting and
present) phenomenon. It is always undertaken in order to discover new facts or relations.
Studies of two government or political system
Structural: a study of what a things, what are its outline and significant feature is a structural study (the
composition of a thing)
Anatomy is a structural study
Functional: in contrast to the structural method, functional method studies the processes and their cause, that
is, how and why of a thing.
Physiology is a good example
Methods versus Methodology
In this material most frequently we come across to the term research methods and research methodology and
research. Some literature use this terms interchangeably. To avoid confusion the definition and differences of
these terms are given as follow. Their usage throughout the text is based on these definitions.
Research Techniques: Refers to the behavior and instruments we use in performing research operation such as
making observation, recording data, techniques processing data and the like.
Research Methodology: can be understood as all those approaches and techniques that are used in conducting
a particular research. Research methodology; thus, refer to the techniques researchers use in performing
research operations.
Research methodology can be put into three groups:
 The first group include approaches or techniques of data collection
 The second group consists of those statistical techniques used to established relationship between
variables
 The third group consists of those techniques involved in evaluating the accuracy of the result
obtained

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Methods: is a way to systematically solve the research problem. Method can be understood as a science of
studying how research is done scientifically.
It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methodology and techniques how to conduct
research but also the methods. that is, researcher not only need to know how to develop certain indices or test,
how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square or in general how to
apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methodology or techniques, are
relevant and what would they mean and indicate the way. Researcher also needs to understand the assumption
underlining various techniques.
Generally speaking, one can say that research methods have many dimension and research methodology
constitute only a part of the research methods.
1.6. Research Processes
Before starting the details of research methods, it is appropriate to have a brief overview of the research
processes. Research processes consist of a series of actions or steps, which are necessary to successfully carry
out research activities.
The research processes consist of a number of closely related activities. These activities (steps) can overlap
continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence. The first step can determine the nature of the
last step to be undertaken. These steps are not separate and distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other
in any specific order Kothari (1990).
However, the following order of steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research processes.
 Identification and Formulating the research problem
 Extensive literature survey
 Developing working hypothesis
 Preparing the research design
 Determine sample design
 Collecting data
 Execution of the project
 Analysis of the data
 Hypothesis testing
 Generalization and interpretation
 Reporting the result

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