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i
Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and

Molecular Imaging for Physicists
ii
Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering

Series Editors: Kwan-Hoong Ng, E. Russell Ritenour, and Slavik Tabakov
Recent books in the series:
Advanced Radiation Protection Dosimetry

Shaheen Dewji, Nolan E. Hertel
On-Treatment Verification Imaging. A Study Guide for IGRT

Mike Kirby, Kerrie-Anne Calder
Modelling Radiotherapy Side Effects. Practical Applications for Planning Optimisation

Tiziana Rancati, Claudio Fiorino
Proton Therapy Physics, Second Edition

Harald Paganetti (Ed)
e-Learning in Medical Physics and Engineering: Building Educational Modules with Moodle
Vassilka Tabakova
Diagnostic Radiology Physics with MATLAB®: A Problem-Solving Approach

Johan Helmenkamp, Robert Bujila, Gavin Poludniowski (Eds)
Auto-Segmentation for Radiation Oncology: State of the Art

Jinzhong Yang, Gregory C. Sharp, Mark Gooding
Clinical Nuclear Medicine Physics with MATLAB: A Problem Solving Approach

Maria Lyra Georgosopoulou (Ed.)
Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging for Physicists –Three Volume Set Volume I:
Instrumentation and Imaging Procedures
Michael Ljungberg (Ed.)
For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Series-in-Medical-Physics-and-Biomedical-

Engineering/book-series/CHMEPHBIOENG
iii
Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and

Molecular Imaging for Physicists
Instrumentation and Imaging Procedures, Volume I
Edited by
Michael Ljungberg
iv
First edition published 2022

by CRC Press
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DOI: 10.1201/9780429489556
Typeset in Times
by Newgen Publishing UK
v
Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................................................ix
Editor Bio..........................................................................................................................................................................xi
Contributors.....................................................................................................................................................................xii
Chapter 1 The History of Nuclear Medicine.................................................................................................................1

Bo-Anders Jönsson
Chapter 2 Basic Atomic and Nuclear Physics.............................................................................................................15

Gudrun Alm Carlsson and Michael Ljungberg
Chapter 3 Basics of Radiation Interactions in Matter.................................................................................................39

Michael Ljungberg
Chapter 4 Radionuclide Production............................................................................................................................69

Hans Lundqvist
Chapter 5 Radiometry.................................................................................................................................................89
Mats Isaksson
Chapter 6 Scintillation Detectors..............................................................................................................................107

Per Roos
Chapter 7 Semiconductor Detectors.........................................................................................................................129

Per Roos
Chapter 8 Gamma Spectrometry...............................................................................................................................145

Christopher Rääf
Chapter 9 Properties of the Digital Image................................................................................................................175

Katarina Sjögreen Gleisner
Chapter 10 Image Processing......................................................................................................................................197

Johan Gustafsson
Chapter 11 Machine Learning....................................................................................................................................221

Karl Åström
Chapter 12 Image File Structures in Nuclear Medicine..............................................................................................237

Charles Herbst
v
vi
vi Contents
Chapter 13 The Scintillation Camera..........................................................................................................................251

Jonathan Gear
Chapter 14 Collimators for Gamma Ray Imaging......................................................................................................265

Roel van Holen
Chapter 15 Image Acquisition Protocols....................................................................................................................279

Jonathan Gear
Chapter 16 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) and SPECT/CT Hybrid Imaging................297
Michael Ljungberg and Kjell Erlandsson
Chapter 17 Dedicated Tomographic Single Photon Systems......................................................................................315

Jing Wu and Chi Liu
Chapter 18 PET Systems............................................................................................................................................333

Stefaan Vandenberghe
Chapter 19 Dead-time Effects in Nuclear Medicine Imaging Studies........................................................................343

Carlos Uribe and Anna Celler
Chapter 20 Principles of Iterative Reconstruction for Emission Tomography...........................................................355

Andrew J. Reader
Chapter 21 PET-CT Systems......................................................................................................................................389

Dimitris Visvikis
Chapter 22 Clinical Molecular PET/MRI Hybrid Imaging........................................................................................397

Bernhard Sattler
Chapter 23 Quality Assurance of Nuclear Medicine Systems....................................................................................427

John Dickson
Chapter 24 Calibration and Traceability.....................................................................................................................455

Brian E. Zimmerman
Chapter 25 Activity Quantification from Planar Images............................................................................................463

Chapter 26 Quantification in Emission Tomography..................................................................................................479

Brian F. Hutton, Kjell Erlandsson, and Kris Thielemans
vii
Contents vii
Chapter 27 Multicentre Studies: Hardware and Software Requirements...................................................................499

Terez Sera, Ronald Boellaard, Andres Kaalep, and Michael Ljungberg
Chapter 28 Preclinical Molecular Imaging Systems...................................................................................................515

Magnus Dahlbom
Chapter 29 Monte Carlo Simulation of Nuclear Medicine Imaging Systems............................................................533

David Sarrut and Michael Ljungberg
Chapter 30 Beta and Alpha Particle Autoradiography................................................................................................563

Anders Örbom, Brian W. Miller and Tom Bäck
Chapter 31 Principles behind Computed Tomography (CT)......................................................................................589

Mikael Gunnarsson and Kristina Ydström
Chapter 32 Principles behind Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)..........................................................................605

Ronnie Wirestam
viii
ix
Preface
During the spring of 2017, I was writing a review of a proposal for a book to potentially be published by CRC Press.
Upon closing the discussion with CRC Press regarding the result of this review, I was asked to be an editor for a
handbook of nuclear medicine, with focus on physicists of this field. After spending the summer thinking about a
relevant table of contents and related potential authors, I formally accepted the offer. I soon realized that the field
of nuclear medicine was too extensive to be covered in a single book. After consolidating with the publisher, it
was decided that instead of one book it would be best to develop three volumes with the titles, (I) Instrumentation
and Imaging Procedures, (II) Modelling, Dosimetry and Radiation Protection and (III) Radiopharmaceuticals and
Clinical Applications.
My vision was to create state-of-the-art handbooks, encompassing all major aspects relating to the field of Nuclear
Medicine. The chapters should describe the theories in detail but also, when applicable, have a practical approach,
focusing on procedures and equipment that are either in use today, or could be expected to be of importance in the
future. I realized that the topic of each chapter would be broad enough, in principle, to lay the foundation for individual
books of their own. As such, the chapters needed only cover the most relevant aspects of each topic. Therefore, this book
series will, hopefully, serve as references for different aspects relating to both the academic and the clinical practice of
a medical physicist.
I originally struggled with the definition of the word ‘handbook’. I did not want the chapters to serve as point-by-
point guidelines, but rather to function as independent chapters to be read more or less independently of one another.
Consequently, there is some overlap in the content between chapters but, from a pedagogical point-of-view, I do not see
this as a drawback, as repetition of key aspects may aid in the learning.
Volume I in the series of three books focuses primarily on the detection of radiation, beginning with an introduction
to the history of nuclear medicine. This introduction is followed by chapters emphasising basic physics, interaction
processes and radionuclide production, after which different types of detectors ranging from single ionisation chambers
to complex PET/CT and PET/MRI system are described. To get a better understanding of image-based nuclear medicine
systems characteristics, we then also describe properties of digital imaging, tools utilized for image access, processing,
and reconstruction, and discuss how to calibrate systems and accurately process data and extract quantitative informa-
tion. Due to the rapid increase in the use of machine learning, this topic is also covered in this volume. Lastly, since
hybrid SPECT/PET and CT/MRI systems are oftentimes used in combination, and such systems are likely to become
more widely used in the foreseeable future, two chapters are dedicated to describing the basic principles of CT and MRI.
These three volumes are the result of the efforts of outstanding authors who, despite the exceptional circumstances
related to the COVID-19 pandemic, have managed to keep to the deadline of the project –although, I must admit, there
were times when I questioned the feasibility of doing this. As COVID-19 hit, many of us were faced with unexpected
tasks to solve: distance teaching, restrictions and changes in administration, and sometimes also rapid modifications to
local procedures at departments and hospitals. Naturally, the combined effect of these interruptions impacted the time
available to dedicate to writing. However, despite these many challenges, we all did our utmost to complete the chapters
according to the deadline.
I would like to thank all authors for their contributions, which made these books possible. You have all done a phe-
nomenal job, especially considering the extraordinary circumstances we are currently faced with, but also considering
the fact that you all have other obligations of high priority. I would especially like to thank Professor Philip Elsinga,
who initially helped me define the content of the radiopharmaceutical section being prepared for Volume III. This sub-
topic of nuclear medicine is the one I have the least knowledge of, and I am therefore very grateful for the kind support
I received during the initial planning of Volume III.
I would like to thank CRC Press officials for entrusting me with the position as editor of this series of books. I would
also like to thank Kirsten Barr, Rebecca Davies and Francesca McGowan, who have been the points of contact for me
during these years.
It is also important to acknowledge two authors who are sadly no longer with us: Anna Celler, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, and Lennart Johansson, Umeå University, Sweden. Both were dear friends and great
scientists. Throughout the years, their work has made a huge impact in their respective fields of research.
ix
x
x Preface
Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to my wife, Karin, as well as to my beloved daughter Johanna, who
lives in Brisbane, where she is pursuing her PhD at the University of Queensland. Karin –I am so grateful for your
patience, especially during the intense period around Christmastime right before the submission of the manuscript for
this volume. I love you both very much.
Michael Ljungberg, PhD
Professor, Medical Radiation Physics, Lund
Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Access to colour images and support material: http://www.routledge.com/9781138593268

xi
Editor Bio
Michael Ljungberg is a Professor at Medical Radiation Physics, Lund, Lund University, Sweden. He started his
research in the Monte Carlo field in 1983 through a project involving a simulation of whole-body counters but later
changed the focus to more general applications in nuclear medicine imaging and Single Photon Emission Computed
Tomography (SPECT). As a parallel to his development of the Monte Carlo code SIMIND, he started working in 1985
with quantitative SPECT and problems related to attenuation and scatter. After earning his PhD in 1990, he received
a research assistant position that allowed him to continue developing SIMIND for quantitative SPECT applications
and established successful collaborations with international research groups. At this time, the SIMIND program also
became used worldwide. Dr. Ljungberg became an associate professor in 1994 and in 2005, after working clinically as a
nuclear medicine medical physicist, received a full professorship in the Science Faculty at Lund University. He became
head of the Department of Medical Radiation Physics in 2013 and a full professor in the Medical Faculty in 2015.
Besides the development of SIMIND to include a new camera system with CZT detectors, his research includes
an extensive project in oncological nuclear medicine and, with colleagues, he developed dosimetry methods based on
quantitative SPECT, Monte-Carlo absorbed dose calculations, and methods for accurate 3D dose planning for internal
radionuclide therapy. In recent years, his work has focused on implementing Monte-Carlo based image reconstruction
in SIMIND. He is also involved in the undergraduate education of medical physicists and biomedical engineers and is
supervising MSC and PhD students. In 2012, Professor Ljungberg became a member of the European Association of
Nuclear Medicines task group on dosimetry and served in that group for six years. He has published over a hundred
original papers, 18 conference proceedings, 18 books and book chapters and 14 peer-reviewed papers.
xi
xii
Contributors
Gudrun Alm Carlsson Brian F Hutton
Department of Radiation Physics, Linköping University, Institute of Nuclear Medicine, University College
Linköping, Sweden London (UCL), United Kingdom
Karl Åström Mats Isaksson
Centre for Mathematical Sciences, Lund University, Medical Radiation Sciences, Institute of Clinical
Lund, Sweden Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of
Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Tom Bäck
Medical Radiation Sciences, Institute of Clinical Bo-Anders Jönsson
Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Medical Radiation Physics Lund, Lund University,
Gothenburg, Sweden Lund, Sweden
Ronald Boellaard Andres Kaalep
Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine of Department of Medical Technology, North Estonia
the Amsterdam University Medical Centres, VU Medical Centre Foundation, Tallinn, Estonia
University Medical Center (VUMC), in Amsterdam,
Chi Liu
Netherlands
Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale
Anna Celler School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
Department of Radiology, University of British
Michael Ljungberg
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
Medical Radiation Physics Lund, Lund University,
Magnus Dahlbom Lund, Sweden
Ahmanson Translational Theranostics Division,
Hans Lundqvist
Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology,
Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology,
David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los
Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Angeles, USA
Brian W. Miller
John Dickson
Department of Medical Imaging, University of Arizona,
Institute of Nuclear Medicine, University College
Tucson, Arizona, USA
London Hospitals (UCLH) and University College
London, United Kingdom Anders Örbom
Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Oncology, Lund
Kjell Erlandsson
University, Lund, Sweden
Institute of Nuclear Medicine, University College
London (UCL), United Kingdom Christopher Rääf
Medical Radiation Physics, Department of Translational
Jonathan Gear
Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
Joint Department of Physics, The Royal Marsden
National Health Service Foundation Trust (NHSFT), Andrew J. Reader
Sutton, United Kingdom School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences,
King’s College London, United Kingdom
Mikael Gunnarsson
Radiation Physics, Skåne University Hospital, Malmö, Per Roos
Sweden Environment, Safety, Health & Quality (ESH&Q)
Division, European Spallation Source ERIC,
Johan Gustafsson
Lund, Sweden
Medical Radiation Physics Lund, Lund University,
Lund, Sweden David Sarrut
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS),
Charles Herbst
Université de Lyon, CREATIS lab; UMR5220, Inserm
Department of Medical Physics, University of the Free
U1206, Institut national des sciences appliquées
State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
(INSA) -Lyon, Université Lyon and Léon Bérard
Cancer Center, Lyon, France
xii
newgenprepdf
xiii
List of Contributors xiii
Bernhard Sattler Stefaan Vandenberghe

Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Medical Medical Image and Signal Processing, Ghent University,
Centre Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany Ghent, Belgium
Terez Sera Dimitris Visvikis
University of Szeged, Department of Nuclear Medicine, Director of Research Institut national de la santé et
Szeged, Hungary and European Association of Nuclear de la recherche médicale (INSERM), Faculte de
Medicine Research Ltd. Médecine Université de Bretagne Occidentale (UBO),
Brest, France
Medical Radiation Physics Lund, Lund University, Ronnie Wirestam
Lund, Sweden Medical Radiation Physics Lund, Lund University,
Lund, Sweden
Kris Thielemans
Institute of Nuclear Medicine, University College Jing Wu
London (UCL), United Kingdom Center for Advanced Quantum Studies and Department
of Physics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
Carlos Uribe
Functional Imaging, BC Cancer and Department of Kristina Ydström
Radiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Radiation Physics, Skåne University Hospital, Lund,
Canada Sweden
Roel van Holen Brian Zimmerman
Department of Electronics and Information Systems, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
xiv
newgenprepdf
1 The History of Nuclear Medicine

Bo-Anders Jönsson
CONTENTS
1.1 1890–1930: The Random Discoveries and Systematic Research............................................................................ 1
1.2 1930–1950: Discovery, Production, and Development of Radionuclides................................................................ 4
1.3 1950–1970: First Imaging Apparatus and Radiopharmaceuticals............................................................................ 7
1.4 1970–1990: Tomographic Techniques, Radioimmunology, and Dosimetry.......................................................... 11
1.5 1990–2010: Improved Imaging by Multi-Modality Systems and Novel Molecular Imaging................................ 12
References�� 13
This chapter provides a historic overview, primarily in chronological order, of those milestones and pioneer’s research
which have been relevant and important for the development of nuclear medicine and today’s status. The content is not
comprehensive, and a full review is beyond the purpose of this chapter. More detailed reviews are available elsewhere
[1–9] as well as articles referred to therein.
1.1 1890–1930: THE RANDOM DISCOVERIES AND SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH

Although the discovery of X-rays on 8 November 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923) is not directly
associated with nuclear medicine, it is truly the starting point for using radiation in medicine. Both diagnostic and thera-
peutic use in medicine of the unknown radiation were applied shortly after the discovery. The first public radiographic
exposure was demonstrated by Röntgen at a meeting of the Würzburg Physical Medical Society on January 23, 1896
[10, 11].
A few months later, another unknown type of radiation was discovered. On 26 March 1896, Antoine Henri Becquerel
(1852–1908] accidentally discovered an unknown phenomenon when examining fluorescence from uranium salts. With
the encouragement of his friend, Henri Poincaré, Becquerel attempted to determine if the rays were of the same nature
as Röntgen’s X-rays; however, he observed that the emitted radiation from the uranium penetrated black paper and
blackened a photographic plate without having to be exposed to light in advance [1, 2]. This unknown radiation was
first termed as “Becquerel rays”, but its origin was established later by Paul Villard (1860–1934) in 1900 while he was
studying radium salts. Villard’s radiation was named gamma rays in 1903 by Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937).
Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867–1934) and her husband Pierre Curie (1859–1906) discovered the same type of
penetrating radiation from uranium and named the phenomenon radioactivity in 1897. Furthermore, the Curie couple
discovered the elements polonium (Z=84) and radium (Z=88), where 226Ra for many years became a frequently used
‘panacea’ for various ailments, both in vivo and in vitro. Almost directly after these incredible discoveries, radiation
from different constructed X-ray tubes and the gamma radiation from 226Ra were used for various medical applications
as well as for enjoyment for some decades. In medicine, radium sources were used for brachytherapy or teletherapy for
almost the entire twentieth century. Röntgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901, while Becquerel and
the Curie couple were the Nobel Laureates in Physics in 1903 (Figure 1.1). Other Nobel Laureates with special rele-
vance to nuclear medicine are listed in Table 1.1.
DOI: 10.1201/9780429489556-1 1
2
2 Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging
FIGURE 1.1 Swedish stamps issued by the Swedish Post Office 1961 and 1963 in honour of the Nobel laureates 60 years earlier,
Röntgen (left) and Becquerel and Curie couple (right). Swedish Post Office.
Other scientists who highly influenced the further development of physics and chemistry and were important for
future applications were Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940), Ernest Rutherford, and Frederick Soddy (1877–1956).
Advised by Thomson, Ernest Rutherford in 1896 investigated the effects of X-rays on electrical discharges in gases. The
theories formulated based on his experiments enabled his colleague Thomson to discover the electron in 1897. Through
his studies pertaining to cathode tubes, it was evident that the stream of free particles observed was electrons. As is
well known, high-energy electrons that are slowing down constitute the basics for the generation of bremsstrahlung,
that is, X-rays used for different applications depending on the accelerating voltage. The existence of isotopes was first
suggested in 1913 by the radiochemist Frederick Soddy; however, Thomson was the first to use mass spectrometry and
demonstrated the presence of isotopes, that is, variants of the same chemical elements but with different numbers of
neutrons, in a non-radioactive substance.
An important chemist who pioneered the future of nuclear medicine was George de Hevesy (1885–1966), with his key
role in the development of radioactive tracers being the study of chemical processes such as those pertaining to the metab-
olism of animals. George de Hevesy performed research at several scientific laboratories during his career [12, 13]. In 1911,
de Hevesy worked with Rutherford at the Cavendish Laboratory, where Rutherford asked the young researcher to separate
radium-D (214Pb) that was present in large amounts of natural lead (Pb) in pitchblende. After lengthy trials he failed and
realized that the task could not be accomplished. However, as a result de Hevesy suggested the ingenious idea that a radio-
active element that is inseparable from a chemically identical element (isotope), can be used as an indicator for the same
stable element.
In springtime 1920, de Hevesy went to the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen and spent six years in an extensive
research programme, discovering hafnium (Copenhagen in Latin). He first applied a radioactive isotope, thorium-B (212Pb)
in a study pertaining to the solubility of lead salts. George de Hevesy realized that the method could be used to study bio-
logical processes. At that time, experiments in vivo were difficult because only toxic substances were available, and he
limited his first experiments for studying the uptake and distribution in a flowering plant, that is, the fava bean (Vicia faba).
However, in 1924, together with J.A. Christiansen and Sven Lomholt, he presented the first results from animal studies; 210Pb
and 210Bi were used. Additionally, this excellent scientist presented further discoveries when more human-friendly radio
isotopes became available [1, 12, 13].
Some harmful effects of radiation on tissues became evident quite soon after X-rays and radium were introduced for
medical use. However, biological effects were reliably explained only after several years. This also applies to methods
developed for the measurement of absorbed energy by suitable equipment, as well as any versatile definition of quantities
and units describing exposure to ionizing radiation. In the beginning of the 1920s, a Swedish physicist, Rolf Maximilian
Sievert (1896–1966), also known as the father of radiation protection, became one of the world-leading pioneers in med-
ical radiation physics. Sievert demonstrated characteristic scientific interest in radiation biology and radiation protection
[14]. Beginning in 1921, in his small private physics laboratory (Figure 1.2) in the Radiumhemmet, founded 1910 as the
first oncologic clinic in Sweden, and later at the Radiation Physics Department, Karolinska Institute, in Stockholm, Sievert
developed numerous techniques and equipment used for measuring radiation fields. He designed the Sievert integral and
a capacitor ion chamber that is also known as the Sievert chamber, among other inventions; furthermore, he established a
mobile measurement division [15].
3
The History of Nuclear Medicine 3
TABLE 1.1
Nobel Laureates with Relevance to Nuclear Medicine. “For the greatest benefit to humankind”: Alfred Nobel
(1833–1896)
Year Laureate Motivationa

1901 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen “in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the
remarkable rays subsequently named after him”
1903 Antoine Henri Becquerel “in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of
spontaneous radioactivity”
1903 Pierre Curie and Marie “in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches
Curie, neé Sklodowska on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel”
1906 Joseph John Thomson “in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on
the conduction of electricity by gases”
1908 Ernest Rutherford “for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of
radioactive substances”
1911 Marie Curie, neé “in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the
Sklodowska elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature
and compounds of this remarkable element”
1921 Albert Einstein “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the
photoelectric effect”
1921 Frederick Soddy “for his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances, and his
investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes”
1927 Arthur Holly Compton “for his discovery of the effect named after him”
1933 Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac “for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory”
1935 James Chadwick “for the discovery of the neutron”
1935 Frederic Joliot and Irene “in recognition of their synthesis of new radioactive elements”
Joliot-Curie
1936 Carl David Anderson “for his discovery of the positron”
1937 Clinton Joseph Davisson and “for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals”
George Paget Thomson
1938 Enrico Fermi “for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron
irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow
neutrons”
1939 Ernest Orlando Lawrence “for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it,
especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements”
1943 George de Hevesy “for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes”
1944 Otto Hahn “for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei”
1948 Patrick Blackett “for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith
in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation”.
1951 Sir John Douglas Cockcroft “for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated
and Ernest Thomas Sinton atomic particles”
Walton
1951 Edwin Mattison, McMillan “for their discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements”
and Glenn Theodore
Seaborg
1977 Rosalyn Yalow “for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones”.
1979 Allan M. Cormack and “for the development of computer assisted tomography”
Godfrey N. Hounsfield
Note: a The Nobel Prize Foundation (www.nobelprize.org).
In July 1928, the Second International Congress of Radiology was held in Stockholm, where topics discussed included
haematological diseases that frequently occurred among the X-ray personnel. At the meeting Sievert contributed signifi-
cantly to the discussions regarding radiation protection recommendations and dose limits; consequently, the International
Commission on Radiation Protection, ICRP, was established. Since its inception in 1928, the ICRP has published more
4
FIGURE 1.2 Rolf M. Sievert (1896–1966) in his private 5 m2 laboratory at the Radium Hospital in Stockholm, 1923. Courtesy of
Swedish Society of Radiation Physics.
than 145 (2020) publications with recommendations for radiation protection, including several for the nuclear medicine
field. In 1928, a quantity that can characterize a photon radiation field in air, that is, the Exposure, with the unit
Roentgen,1 R, was introduced and became an important quantity in radiation protection for a long time to come.
Except for the radium emanation (i.e., radon therapy by radioactive drinking water), used for both medical purposes
and in quackery, it was first of all external X-ray for diagnostics and therapy used in the half of the twentieth cen-
tury. It was not until the 1950s when the first standardization of absorbed dose estimation from internal emitters was
introduced. The use of radium water in vivo was halted, and regulations were quickly established after the tragic deaths
of individuals who deliberately or unknowingly ingested radium. Examples include the radium dial painters [16, 17]
and the quackery scandal that involved the death of prominent businessman Eben M. Byers by radiotoxicity after daily
consumption of radioactive water, ‘Radithor’, which contained radium isotopes and was sold by the William Bailey
Radium Laboratory in New Jersey [18].
1.2 1930–1950: DISCOVERY, PRODUCTION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIONUCLIDES

The first artificially produced radionuclide was presented in 1934 by Irene Joliot-Curie (1897–1956) and Fredric Joliot
(1900–1958) (Figure 1.3) after they have successfully produced Phoshors-30, 30P, by irradiating an aluminium target
with alpha particles from a radium-beryllium source.
α + 13
27
Al → 30
15 P + 01n followed by 15
30
P 25
 min
→ 14
30
Si + β + + ν
In addition to 30P, the couple produced 13N and 27Si, which all demonstrated a continuous spectrum of positrons. However,
the amount of activity produced was insufficient for any application. In the nuclear reaction, in addition to the 30P, a
1
Exposure (old unit: Roentgen) is only valid for photons in air and is the total charge (in Coulomb) produced per kilogram of air at NTP. 1 R in air
is approximately equivalent to 0.01 Gy in water.
5
FIGURE 1.3 Irène and Fredric Joliot-Curie, the inventors of the first artificially produced radionuclide, 30P, in their laboratory in
the beginning of the 1930s. Courtesy of: Bibliothèque nationale de France.
neutron is emitted, which was at first misinterpreted as a gamma photon. After additional experiments, James Chadwick
(1891–1974) presented a correct interpretation of these experiments in 1932, and the neutron was discovered. The dis-
covery of the neutron changed the radionuclide research scene, since it enabled artificial radionuclides to be produced
without an accelerator.
In the subsequent years, research intensified into fission and the neutrons emitted, in which both were
misinterpreted but later rectified. In 1939, Otto Hahn (1879–1968) and Friedrich Wilhelm ‘Fritz’ Strassmann
(1902–1980) reported that neutron irradiation of uranium resulted in the production of barium –the first evidence of
fission. Finally, in 1939 Frederik Joliot, Hans von Halban (1908–1964), and Lew Kowarski (1907–1979) published
evidence pertaining to a chain reaction by neutron multiplication due to fission. A few years later in 1942, Enrico
Fermi (1901–1954) demonstrated the first controlled chain reaction, which demonstrated the emission of neutrons
from 235U undergoing fission, and the basics for nuclear reactors were established. When the Second World War
began, nuclear physics became a military science, with its devastating consequences occurring at the end of
the war. However, later fission resulted in extensive civil nuclear power applications, and the neutrons became
an important component for scientific research at neutron facilities, as well as for the production of important
radionuclides for various medical purposes, such as Cobolt-60 and Cesium-137 for external beam therapy; and Xe-
133, Iodine-131 and later Molybden-99, which is used as the mother nuclide in a Technetium-99m generator, for
nuclear medicine. The first reactor-produced radionuclides for clinical applications became available in the United
States at the Oak Ridge reactor in Tennessee, soon after the end of Second World War in 1945, and at Harwell in
the UK from 1947, which became important for Europe [6].
In 1930, a few years before the Curie–Joliot couple demonstrated the first artificially produced radionuclide, Ernest
Orlando Lawrence (1901–1958) built the first successful cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley. The cyclo-
tron measured only 13 cm in diameter and accelerated protons to 80 keV. Together with Milton Stanley Livingston
(1905–1986), Lawrence continued developing the circular-type accelerator; in 1938, they presented their fourth 37-inch
cyclotron (Figure 1.4), which became another milestone for the production of ‘medical’ radionuclides, from the very
beginning, such as 11C and 32P. The latter began to be used, and still is, for the treatment of polycythemia.
6
FIGURE 1.4 Stanley Livingston and Ernest Lawrence in front of their 27-inch cyclotron developed in 1934 at the University of
California, Berkeley. Courtesy of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The Regents of the University of California, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory.
In 1935, after completing a professorship at the University of Freiburg (1927–1935), George de Hevesy went to the
Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen for a second stint (1935–1943). His primary interest was to identify radionuclides
that can be used as tracers in biological research. He managed to produce some kilobecquerels of 32P using a strong
Ra/Be source emitting slow-energy neutrons. George de Hevesy started a series of experiments in which different
32
P-labelled compounds were administered to animals to study the distribution and metabolism of the substances. This
radiotracer principle is the foundation of all diagnostic and therapeutic nuclear medicine procedures, and de Hevesy is
widely considered as the father of nuclear medicine. After the Nazi regime occupied Denmark, he felt unsafe and, in
October 1943 he fled to Sweden, where he continued his research at the University of Stockholm (Figure 1.5). George
de Hevesey was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1943. In 1948, he published a 556-page compilation about
available isotopes and their applications for research, entitled Radioactive indicators; their applications in biochem-
istry, animal physiology, and pathology [19].
In 1937, the element technetium (Z=43) was discovered by Carlo Perrier (1886–1948) and Emilio Segré (1905–1989).
In 1938, Glenn Theodore Seaborg (1912–1999) together with Segré identified the metastable isotope technetium-99m
(99Tcm). However, it was not until 20 years later that 99Tcm became available for use in nuclear medicine diagnostics, and
when the 99Mo → 99Tcm-generator was invented. Some other well-known radionuclides, that is, 60Co (1937), 131I (1938),
and 137Cs (1941) were discovered by Seaborg and colleagues.
A frequent user of the new Berkeley cyclotron was Joseph Gilbert Hamilton (1907–1957). For instance, he was the
first to study the dynamics and excretion of radioactive sodium in the human body. In 1938, Saul Hertz (1905–1950),
Arthur Roberts (1912–2004), and Robley D. Evans (1907–1995) administered 128I to rabbits and found a significant
uptake in their thyroid glands, more than nine times the concentration in the liver. From this study they predicted that
when higher amounts of activity became available, radioiodine would be a suitable radionuclide for the diagnosis and
therapy of the thyroid [20, 21].
Immediately after the discovery of 131I, it became an important radionuclide in diagnostic nuclear medicine, both for
examinations of the thyroid as well as a tracer in different iodine-labelled substances. The first paper pertaining to the
7
FIGURE 1.5 The father of radiation protection, Rolf Sievert (left), and the father of nuclear medicine, George de Hevesy (right) in
Stockholm (ca. 1950). Courtesy of Swedish Society of Radiation Physics.
diagnostic use of 131I in patients was published by Hamilton, Mayo Soley (1907–1949), and Evans, in 1939. The first
thyroid treatment using 131I was performed by Hertz in 1941 using a mixture of 90 per cent 130I and 10 per cent 131I, which
was administered to a female patient with hyperthyroidism.
The therapeutic application of 131I became prominent in the 1940s, resulting in a breakthrough in radionuclide
therapy after its discovery and introduction in the late 1930s. The first major achievement occurred in 1946 when 131I
was discovered to be a suitable radionuclide for diagnosing thyroid diseases, and Samuel M. Seidlin (1896–1955),
Leo D. Marinelli (1906–1974), and Eleanor Oshry (1920–2007) treated a patient with thyroid cancer using 131I. In the
next year, Benedict Cassen (1902–1972) used 131I to examine whether benign thyroid nodules could be differentiated
from malignant ones. The use of 131I for the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid diseases gradually spread worldwide.
In 1949 George Ansell and Joseph Rotblat (1908–2005) produced the first radioiodine scan of a patient with goitre
in Liverpool University’s physics department, using a collimated Geiger–Müller detector. Two years later, a scintil-
lation detector designed for brain studies and using 131I-fluorescein was developed by E.H. Belcher and H.D. Evans
[6]. In Sweden, inspired by a visit to the United States, Bengt Skanse (1918–1963) and Jan Waldenström (1906–1996)
introduced 131I for the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid illness around 1950, when nuclear medicine began to be used
at university hospitals [1, 22]. For examination of the localization of brain tumours prior to surgery, George Moore used
131
I-diiodofluorescein in 1947, whereas B. Silverstone used 32P in 1949. Another radionuclide, 198Au, was used by
Müller and colleagues in 1945 for intracavitary purposes.
In 1949 Leonidas D. Marinelli (1906–1974) presented early formulas for internal dosimetry, whereby he
described the relationship between radiation dosage (absorbed dose was not yet defined) and the concentration of
a radionuclide. He introduced two quantities, ‘equivalent roentgen’ and ‘differential absorption ratio’, where the
latter refers to the ratio between the concentration in a specific tissue to the average body concentration. Pertinent
information was presented in tables, as were some clinical applications and formulas for some of the specific
radionuclides available at the time [23].
1.3 1950–1970: FIRST IMAGING APPARATUS AND RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS

The 1950s was the decade when two ground-breaking workhorses in nuclear medicine were invented, that is, the rec-
tilinear scintigraph and the scintillation camera. It was also the decade when many 131I-labelled radiopharmaceuticals
were developed.
8
The company Abbott Laboratory began selling 131I-HSA 1950 and FDA-approved Na131I (sodium-iodine) for patient
use in 1951. In 1955, George V. Taplin used 131I-labelled rose bengal for scintigraph liver imaging, and 131I-hippuran to
measure kidney function using scintillation detectors. Other applications included a test with vitamin B12 labelled with
60
Co. Subsequently in 1953, Robert F. Schilling used other cobalt isotopes for studies of blood diseases, and in 1957
H. Knipping used 133Xe to measure lung ventilation.
For many years the only detector available for non-invasive gamma measurement was the Geiger–Müller detector.
When collimated, it could be moved step-by-step over the thyroid for ‘imaging’ using 131I. As this was an ineffective
detection method, physicists were looking for more efficient detector materials and instruments. The photoelectron
multiplier tube (PMT) was developed in 1940 by C.C. Larson and H. Salinger. In combination with a NaI(Tl) scintilla-
tion crystal it became the detector of choice for almost all measurements of gamma radiation in nuclear medicine and
paved the way for further development of better detector systems. The first scintillation detector consisted of a CaW-
crystal was constructed by Benedict Cassen and colleagues in 1950 and used for scintigraphy (imaging) of the thyroid
after administration of 131I. The detector was improved by the introduction of a larger NaI(Tl) crystal connected to a
PMT. The first medical detection of positron emission, that is, annihilation photons detected by two of NaI(Tl) detectors
connected in coincidence, was performed already in 1951 by Gordon Brownell (1922–2005) and William Sweet (1910–
2001), using 64Cu and 74As to localize brain tumours.
The instruments and counting methods were successively developed, and in 1951 Cassen and colleagues presented
the rectilinear scanner, that is, the scintigraph, which automatically positioned the detector and scan over an organ
[24–26]. The rectilinear scanner became important equipment in nuclear medicine departments worldwide and was
extensively used for imaging to produce a scintigram of organs such as the brain, lung, liver, spleen, and thyroid until
the 1980s. In 1951, the first rectilinear scanning device in the UK was developed at the Royal Cancer Hospital London
to image the thyroid gland [6]. In 1957, the first whole-body scintigraph was developed by a Swedish team comprising
Lars Jonsson, Lars-Gunnar Larsson (1919–2009), and Inger Ragnhult (1925–2006) [1, 22, 27] (Figure 1.6). The pri-
mary radiopharmaceuticals that dominated were 131I, 85Sr and 198Au. However, the acquisition time required for large
organs was lengthy, which made dynamic studies impossible. A solution to this had already come in 1952, when Hal
O. Anger (1920–2005) invented the pin-hole camera, which through a collimator projected an image on a NaI(Tl)
crystal in optical contact with photographic film [28]. A similar method was developed by Sven Johansson (1923–1994)
and Bengt Skanse (1918–1963) (Figure 1.7), but with a multiple parallel hole collimator, which increased the sensitivity,
yet insufficient for medical purposes [29].
FIGURE 1.6 The whole-body scintigraph developed by Lars Jonsson and Inger Ragnhult at the Isotope Laboratory, Karolinska
Hospital, Stockholm, which was later sold by LKB Ltd (left). An example of an 131I scintigram with low activity in the thyroid (a) and
metastasis in the right lung (b) after thyroid cancer treatment. The high activity in the left thigh (c) is an image artefact due to a
contaminated handkerchief after the patient coughed up activity. Courtesy of Swedish Society of Radiation Physics.
9
FIGURE 1.7 The first scintillation camera: (a) parallel hole collimator, (b) scintillation NaI(Tl) crystal and (c) holder for a
photographic plate developed by Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
A more significant step in the development of instrumentation in nuclear medicine was the development of the scin-
tillation camera in 1958 by Hal O. Anger. He replaced the film with an array of PMTs mounted on a large single NaI(Tl)
crystal. The origin of the registered gamma ray –that is, the scintillation in the crystal –was detected by weighting
together the signals from the PMTs. This apparatus, also known as the Anger camera or gamma camera, revolutionized
the field of nuclear medicine and was a real breakthrough for imaging, thereby enabling dynamic in vivo studies pos-
sible. The first Anger camera was installed at Ohio State University in 1962 by Nuclear Chicago and in subsequent years
at many hospitals in the United States and Europe. The technique is still the basis used in today’s single photon emission
computed tomography (SPECT) cameras, although extensive improvement has been achieved since then [3, 30].
The 99Mo → 99Tcm –generator (Figure 1.8) was developed in 1957 by Walter Tucker and Margaret Greene at the
Hot Laboratory Division, Brookhaven National Laboratory, managed by Powell Richards (1917–2010). After a sluggish
start, 99Tcm labelled to numerous substances became the world’s most widely used radionuclide for in vivo imaging, both
with planar scintillation cameras and SPECT. The mother-nuclide 99Mo is produced in specialized fission reactors for
radionuclide production. Other fission-produced medical nuclides include 32P, 51Cr, 90Y, 133Xe, 177Lu and 186Re.
In addition to this breakthrough and the subsequent development of instrumentation for imaging, the need for new
suitable radionuclides for the gamma camera became obvious by production in a cyclotron. Since the pioneering days,
many radionuclides have been developed mainly for diagnostics; many have disappeared completely, whereas others
have been established in recent years. Examples include 57Co, 67Ga, 111In, 123I, and 201Tl, which decay by electron capture
(EC) and emits γ -radiation. Positron emitters utilized in positron emission tomography (PET) imaging are 11C, 13N, 15O,
18
F, 64Cu, 68Ga, 110In, and 124I. Examples of radionuclides for therapy include β--emitters such as 32P, 90Y 131I, 153Sm, 177Lu,
198
Au, and 186Re, as well as some α -emitting radionuclides, for example, 211At and 223Ra [31].
10
( )
FIGURE 1.8 The first 99Tcm-generator prototype 99 Mo → 99Tc m → 99Tc , invented in 1958 at Brookhaven National Laboratory,
Upton, New York, by Walt Tucker, Powell Richards, and Margaret Greene. The 99Tcm pertechnetate solution is eluted as an ionic yield
from 99Mo bound to a substrate in the chromatographic column. Courtesy of Brookhaven National Laboratory.
The first medical cyclotron placed at a hospital for direct in-house production was built in 1955 at the Hammersmith
Hospital, London, followed by the first installation in an American hospital at the Washington University Medical
School in 1961. Subsequently, it was installed at many hospitals in the United States, and then worldwide. The number
of cyclotrons existing currently is estimated to be more than a thousand.
The increasing use of radiopharmaceuticals during the 1950s necessitated the establishment of special radiopharmacy
facilities at hospitals. Radioactive open sources were managed by hospital radiopharmacists, who used special equipment
for dispensing owing to high activities and emitted radiation. At this time, medical physics progressed considerably, and
a more formal academic society with a wider circle of members with interest in the field was necessitated, and many
important societies were established. Many well-educated and trained clinical physicists at the hospitals contributed
significantly to the development in the field of nuclear medicine in the subsequent decades.
A noteworthy aspect in nuclear medicine that is non-existent currently owing to newer fluorescent-antibody
techniques, is radioimmunoassay (RIA), which was developed in 1959 by Rosalyn Yalow (1921–2011) and Saloman
Berson (1918–1972) [32]. RIA is an in vitro nuclear medicine method for the quantitative measurement of small
amounts of substances in plasma, such as hormones. The method mainly uses the characteristic X-ray-emitting and
γ-emitting nuclide 125I (discovered by Allen Reid and Albert Keston in 1946), but also β- emitting nuclides such as 3H,
14
C, 35S, and 32, 33P.
The 1950s was also the decade in which internal dosimetry evolved. In 1956, G.L. Brownell and Gerald J. Hine
(1916–1987) together with Robert Loevinger (1916–2005) published a standard of absorbed dose estimations
from internal emitters and described early studies of compartmental analysis of radiopharmaceuticals. In 1965,
a committee named Medical Internal Radiation Dose (MIRD) was established within the Society of Nuclear
11
Medicine; its purpose was to develop standardized internal dosimetry procedures, improve published decay data
for radionuclides and enhance the data on pharmacokinetics of radiopharmaceuticals. The first report, MIRD
Pamphlet No. 1, was published in 1968 [33].
In 1961, David H. Ingvar (1924– 2000) and Niels A. Lassen (1926– 1997) introduced 133Xe for quantitative
measurements of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) using a system of multiple single NaI(Tl)-detectors [1]. In 1962,
David Kuhl (1929–2017) introduced emission reconstruction tomography, which was later further developed and
became the basis for image reconstruction in SPECT, PET and CT. Its reconstruction method was relatively simple, and
the rapid development of computer tomography, CT, by Godfrey Hounsfield (1919–2004) benefitted PET significantly.
New radiopharmaceuticals and applications were continually developed. In 1963, Henry Wagner (1927–2012)
introduced 131I-labelled albumin aggregates for imaging of lung perfusion, which was performed on himself by his
colleague Masahiro Lio. This was the first produced lung scan ever performed in a human being; subsequently, it
was performed on a patient with acute pulmonary embolism [34]. Furthermore, 131I-labelled albumin aggregates were
also used to study of the macrophage system in the liver by George V. Taplin (1910–1979). Another scintigraphy
study performed was 133Xe ventilation for pulmonary embolism by Wagner and colleagues in 1968. Additionally, C.L.
Edwards used 67Ga for tumour scintigraphy.
1.4 1970–1990: TOMOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES, RADIOIMMUNOLOGY, AND DOSIMETRY

In the early 1970s, a new radionuclide was introduced, that is, indium-111 (111In), which significantly affected nuclear
medicine imaging for many decades. Initially, 111In-chloride was used for the diagnosis of tumours and for bone marrow
scintigraphy. Subsequently, different 111In-chelates, 111In-oxine being the most prominent, were introduced for labelling
different types of blood cells for imaging of suspected inflammations, which was first described by Thakur in 1977 [35].
During the 1980s, tumour imaging using labelled monoclonal antibodies progressed considerably, and 111In became one
of the most important radionuclides.
During the 1970s, Gopal Subramanian and John McAfee introduced 99Tcm-labelled phosphates for imaging of bone
metastasis. David Kuhl performed the first human quantitative measurement of cerebral blood volume, and the first
stress-test myocardial scintigraphy was implemented by H. William Strauss. The use of 99Tcm radiopharmaceuticals as
instant kits was developed and increased during the 1970s. The first one was 99Tcm-DTPA for renography developed by
W. Eckelman and P. Richards. Elliot Lebowitz introduced 201Tl for perfusion studies of the heart wall. In 1973, David
Goldenberg demonstrated that radiolabelled antibodies can target and image human tumours in animals. Those anti-
bodies were further developed during the 1970s; their research was subsequently intensified by other researchers in the
following decade. In 1976, N. Firusian began using 89Sr for the palliative treatment of bone metastasis.
In 1975, Michel Ter-Pogossian (1925–1996) and colleagues presented a PET that used the filtered back projection
method of reconstruction. In the following year, John Keyes developed the first general-purpose SPECT camera, and the
first SPECT camera dedicated to brain studies was developed by Ronald Jaszczak. Subsequently, he developed a special
phantom for the quality-control purposes of SPECT or PET cameras, known as the Jaszczak Phantom.
Robert Loevinger (1916–2005) and M. Berman presented the general S-formalism of the MIRD in 1976 [36], for
the calculation of absorbed dose from internal radionuclides. Hitherto, 26 reports and 6 books have been published
by MIRD, including the MIRD-primer 1991, and subsequent pamphlets are important manuals for internal dosimetry
[33, 37].
In 1980, Stig Larsson (1943–2014), Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, developed the first complete SPECT
rotating scintillation camera system, which was further developed and commercialized by General Electric (GE 400T)
and became the technique routinely used in SPECT diagnostics [38].
In the 1980s, parallel to the continuing imaging instrumental development, a significant amount of research was
performed to obtain new radiopharmaceuticals and develop new diagnostic methods. Some examples include the
increased pursuit for the ‘magic bullet’, that is, to find suitable radionuclides and carriers for specific tumour local-
ization, for both for diagnosis and therapy. Two pioneering works often referred to are that by Jean-Pierre Mach and
colleagues (1981), who used radioiodine-labelled monoclonal antibodies for colon carcinoma, and that by Steve Larson
and Jeff Carrasquillo (1982), who treated malignant melanoma with 131I-labelled monoclonal antibodies.
One radiopharmaceutical that accelerated the acceptance and development of PET was 18F-FDG (2-uorodeoxy-D-
glucose), which, similar to many other radiopharmaceuticals, had been already developed at the Brookhaven National
Laboratory in 1978. However, it became as important as 99Tcm in nuclear imaging only after several decades. Two
successful radiopharmaceuticals for SPECT brain imaging that were introduced were 99Tcm-HMPAO (Ceretec®,
Amersham) and 99Tcm-ECD (Neurolite). These complexes cross the intact blood brain barrier and are trapped within the
12
brain parenchyma. In 1985, Peter Ell and colleagues published the world’s first cerebral blood flow image using 99Tcm-
HMPAO. Because both are liposoluble, they became an alternative to 111In-oxine for labelling of leukocytes for imaging
of unknown inflammations, as shown by Peters and colleagues (1988) [39].
1.5 990–2010: IMPROVED IMAGING BY MULTI-MODALITY SYSTEMS AND NOVEL

1
MOLECULAR IMAGING
The SPECT systems were further developed and characterized as more robust rotation gantries and dual detectors. Dedicated
scintillation cameras for smaller organs, particularly in high-resolution cardiac imaging, were constructed based on the new
cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) solid-state detector technology. Methods for attenuation and scattering correction in SPECT
have evolved, enhancing the image quality and quantification and hence the diagnostic quality. At the end of the 1990s, the
SPECT systems were combined with low-dose and few-slice CT mounted on the same rotation gantry to perform patient-
specific attenuation correction through transmission measurements. Subsequently, SPECT and fully complete CT were
combined into hybrid SPECT/CT systems. Hence, the simultaneous acquisition of functional information from the SPECT
and anatomical information from the CT could be accomplished and, after image processing resulting in superimposed
images, so-called image fusion. The further development of SPECT in recent years in addition to the significant progress
in computing power has resulted in the introduction of the CZT solid-state detectors, replacing the PMT and special multi-
pinhole collimator, which is used in SPECT/MRI brain-imaging systems.
The progress of quantitative three-dimensional imaging using hybrid devices, that is, SPECT/CT, and PET/CT,
continued in the beginning of the twentieth century, whereas PET/MRI has been further developed in recent years.
Pre-clinical research has increased markedly, particularly that involving the use of small-animal imaging equipment as
miniature hybrid system copies of those used for clinical imaging [40].
Whole-body PET scanning was introduced in the beginning of the 1990s and began to be accepted as an important
imaging tool, which significantly affected nuclear-medicine imaging. In 1991, Ronald Nutt and David William
Townsend proposed the use of simultaneous PET and CT imaging, which yielded the diagnostic information of both
the organ physiology as well as its anatomy. However, their first prototype was first presented in 1998, and the first
commercial PET/CT was launched in year 2000 by CTI. Subsequently, hybrid PET/CT-scanners quickly became highly
valued imaging equipment for molecular imaging [41, 42]. In PET systems, the traditional scintillation material NaI(Tl)
was replaced by new crystal block detectors, first with BGO (bismuth germanium oxide) and later by cerium-doped
LSO (lutetium oxyorthosilicate) or LYSO (lutetium-yttrium oxyorthosilicate). The latter demonstrated much better
performances in terms of energy, spatial, and time resolution.
Nuclear medicine is no longer limited to the research and development of new radiopharmaceuticals and clinical
methods. By contrast, the field has progressed and now includes research in molecular biology and through labelled
biomarker visualization of the cellular function and the subsequent molecular processes in living organisms, including
human organs. The development of nuclear medicine and new modalities in molecular imaging has contributed to the
improvement in radionuclide therapy through the optimization of pre-clinical and clinical developments [43].
During the last two decades, the number of PET examinations has increased significantly with 18F-FDG being
the most used radiopharmaceutical. In 1998, the first study using 18F-FDG was conducted in PET imaging to
analyse chemotherapy response to predict the response to subsequent high-dose chemotherapy [44]. Another
positron-emitting radiopharmaceutical that is widely used is 18F-NaF (sodium fluoride). This agent has become an
alternative to 99Tcm-phosphate substances for skeletal scintigraphy, but the latter is still the most typically used.
The 18F-NaF was developed and used occasionally already in the 1970s; however, because it was expensive and
PET was rarely accessible at the time, 99Tcm-MDP was the preferred choice for many years [45]. Other positron-
emitting radionuclides that have been introduced after the millennium shift include 68Ga. It is mainly produced in
by the 68 Ge → 68 Ga generator system, and typically used for the diagnosis of neuroendocrine as 68Ga-DOTATOC
or 68Ga-DOTATOC [46, 47]. This radiopharmaceutical is often used in combination with radionuclide therapy
involving 90Y- or 177Lu- DOTATOC.
Patient dosimetry continued to develop parallel with the rapid growth of new instruments, radiopharmaceuticals, as
well as diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Already in 1987, the ICRP published a report regarding the radiation
doses of radiopharmaceuticals to patients with successive updates, as well as on reference computational phantoms in
2009 [9]. The ICRU published a report in 2002 regarding absorbed dose estimations in nuclear medicine [48], whereas
the MIRD committee continued to publish a number of new pamphlets, including the recently introduced concept
Biological Effective Dose, BED, in nuclear medicine [49, 50] and on the reliability of radiation dose estimations in
internal radionuclide therapy [51].
13
With this chapter’s modest overview of numerous milestones and breakthroughs in the field of nuclear medicine
for more than a whole century, the author wishes upon the reader many interesting hours of reading of the continuing
chapters of this book, and new self-improvements in the exciting field of nuclear medicine. Remember –our current
actions will be history tomorrow.
REFERENCES
[1]‌ S. Carlsson, “A Glance at The History of Nuclear Medicine,” Acta Oncologica, vol. 34, no. 8, pp. 1095–1102, 1995,
doi: 10.3109/02841869509127236.
[2]‌ T. F. Buddinger and T. Jones, “History of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging,” in Comprehensive Biomedical Physics,
T. F. Buddinger, Ed., Vol. 1, ed. Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, A. Brahme, Ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2014,
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newgenprepdf
15
2 Basic Atomic and Nuclear Physics

Gudrun Alm Carlsson and Michael Ljungberg
CONTENTS
2.1 The Atom and Its Nucleus...................................................................................................................................... 15
2.1.1 Understanding Radioactivity...................................................................................................................... 15
2.1.2 Nuclear Physical Symbols and Notations.................................................................................................. 17
2.1.3 Stable and Unstable Nuclides..................................................................................................................... 19
2.1.4 Electron Energy Levels.............................................................................................................................. 20
2.1.5 Nuclear Energy Levels............................................................................................................................... 22
2.2 Radioactive Decay.................................................................................................................................................. 24
2.2.1 Mass–energy Relationships........................................................................................................................ 24
2.2.2 Nucleus mass defect and bonding energy.................................................................................................. 24
2.2.3 Different Types of Instability..................................................................................................................... 24
2.2.4 Decay Scheme............................................................................................................................................ 25
2.2.5 α-decay....................................................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.6 β--decay...................................................................................................................................................... 27
2.2.7 β+-decay...................................................................................................................................................... 28
2.2.8 Decay by Electron Capture........................................................................................................................ 30
2.3 Interpretation of Decay Schemes........................................................................................................................... 32
2.3.1 137Cesium.................................................................................................................................................... 32
2.3.2 99mTechnetium............................................................................................................................................. 33
2.4 Radioactive Decay Time......................................................................................................................................... 34
2.5 Decay Chains.......................................................................................................................................................... 34
2.5.1 Complex Decay Chains.............................................................................................................................. 36
2.6 Radionuclide Data Sources.................................................................................................................................... 36
References........................................................................................................................................................................ 37
2.1 THE ATOM AND ITS NUCLEUS

2.1.1 Understanding Radioactivity
It is necessary to gain the basic knowledge regarding the nature of atoms to understand the effects of ionizing radiation
and its interactions with matter that are fundamental to the entire topic of nuclear medicine, and this chapter is a sum-
mary of the basic atomic and nuclear physics that are important for the further chapters in this book. More reading can
be found in, for example, the books of Evans [1], Attix [2], and Podgorsak [3].
The atom (Greek atomos = indivisible) is the smallest part of an element that maintains the identity of a sub-
stance, that is, its characteristics have well-described chemical properties. Individual atoms are too small to be directly
observed; however, by observing some of the characteristics of the atom, a simple yet useful and illustrative atomic
model has been developed. With this model, it is possible to explain many experimental observations that are relevant
for medical radiation physics.
DOI: 10.1201/9780429489556-2 15
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Anoplotheria, 290.
A n o p l o t h e r o ï d e n , II 304.
A n t h e r o z o ï d e n , 501.
A n t h r o p o ï d e n , 318.
A n t h r o p o g e n i e van Dr. Häckel, 37.
A n t h r o p o m o r p h e n , 41;
afleiding van den mensch van Afrikaansche —, 384.
Anthropopithecus, 421.
A n t i l o p e n , II 259.
Antilope euchore, II 259.
Antilope scoparia, II 259.
A p e n , de hersenen der — volgens het zelfde plan gebouwd als die van den
mensch, 39;
voorpooten der — homoloog en analoog met [495]de armen van den mensch,
33;
gelijkenis van den mensch op de —, 40;
— vierhandig, 41;
twijfel of de — werkelijk vierhandig zijn, 41;
verdeeling der —, 291;
pronken der — met hun naakte achterdeelen een bewijs vóór Darwin, II 376;
fossiele —, 416;
verwantschap tusschen — en menschen, 292;
gestaarte —, 318, 320;
ongestaarte —, 320.
A p e n m a a t s c h a p p i j e n , Dr. A. E. Brehm, over —, 218.
Apogon rex mulorum, 310.
Apophyses genianae, ontbreken van — aan de onderkaak van La Naulette, 47.
Appendiculariae, 301, 305.

Apterygii, 501.
A r a b i e r e n , individueele verschillen bij de —, 293.
A r c h e g o n i ë n , 501.
A r c h e n c e p h a l a , 289.
A r c h a e o l i t h i s c h e periode, 319.
Archaeopteryx, 297.
A r c h i - a n n e l i d e n , 300.
A r c t i s c h ras, 376.
A r c y , onderkaak uit de grot van —, 47.
Argonauta, verbreede eindplaten aan twee der vangarmen bij het wijfje van —,
529.
A r i ë r s , 379, 382, 407;

de — uit Noord-Europa afkomstig, 413.
A r i o - R o m a n e n , 382.
A r i s t o n , wedstrijd tusschen Eunomos en —, 571.
A r m e n , van een mensch homoloog en analoog met de voorpooten van een aap,
33.
A r m e n i ë r s , afbeeldingen van — op Egyptische monumenten, 371.
Aromia moschata, geur van —, 610.
Artiodactyla, orde der —, 290.
A s a f o e t i d a , door sommige menschen gaarne geroken, 611.
Ascidia, over de ontwikkeling van —, 297.
Ascidiae, 316, 319.
Ascoparea, 291.
A s s y r i ë r s , afbeeldingen van — op Egyptische monumenten, 372.
A t a v i s m e , 38;
— berust meestal op stilstand in de ontwikkeling, 38.
A t e r g o , verklaring van de uitdrukking —, II 348.
Ateuches sacer, het onveranderd blijven van — onbewijsbaar, 371.
A t h e n e r s , gouden Cicaden op het hoofd der —, 572.
A u e r h a a n , zie Tetrao urogallus.
„A u e r o c h s ”, II 257.
A u s t r a l i ë r s , 381;
schedelinhoud der —, 107;
afstamming der —, II 337.
A u s t r a l i s c h e r a s , 379, 380.
A u s t r a l o ï d e schedels in Europa gevonden, 338.
Autamoebae, 319.
A u t o c h t o n e n , de Atheners droegen gouden Cicaden in het haar om te

bewijzen, dat zij — waren, 572.
A u t o g e n i e , 314.
A v e s , 313.
A x o l o t l , 312.
A z i ë , Midden-, Wisents in —, II 257.
A z t e k e n , huisdieren der —, 265.
B.
B a a r d k o e k o e k e n , zie Bucconidae.
B a a r d v o g e l s , zie Capitonidae.
B a a r s , het voorkomen van hermaphrodiete voorwerpen bij de —, 309.
B a b b a g e , D., over de getalsverhouding der seksen bij wettige en onwettige

geboorten, 505.
B a e h r , E. von, over Haeckel’s biogenetische hoofdwet, 297.
B a k e r m a t , oorspronkelijke — van het menschelijk geslacht, 293.
Balanoglossus, kieuwspleten bij —, 301.
B a l f o u r , over segmentaalorganen bij haaien, 299, 300;

over Tunicata, 301.
Balistes, II 35;
vetula, ontstaan van het geluid van —, II 35;
aculeatus, II 35.
B a l l e n , vasa aberrantia van de—, 34.
B a l t i s c h e s t a m , 382.
B a l t i m o r e v o g e l , nestbouw van den —, II 174. [496]
B a n d b u n s i n g s , zie Rhabitogale.
B a r a b r a , 379.
B a r i n g , moeilijke — der blanke vrouwen, veroorzaakt door de vorderingen der

obstetrie, 100.
B a r t e l s , Max, over overtallige zogklieren, 104.
B a s k e n , 379, 381.
B a s - r e l i e f s met afbeeldingen van rassen in Egypte, 371.
B a s t a a r d e n tusschen blanken en van Diemenslanders en Nieuw-Hollanders,

376;
tusschen de menschensoorten, 380.
B a t e s o n , over Balanoglossus, 301.

Bathybius, 314;
geen levend wezen, 315.
Batrachii, niet voorkomende op Oceanische eilanden, 42.
Batrachus grunniens, II 35.
B a u m h a u e r , Mr. M. M. van, over de verhouding der seksen in Nederland, 505.
„B e a g l e ”, reis om de wereld van Ch. Darwin met het schip —, 149.
B e c k , Dr., over de geschiedenis van het ijzer, 373.
B é d o r , over het verbieden van het huwelijk aan mannen met vrouwelijke
borsten, 50.
B e e l d e n d e k u n s t e n , aanleg voor —, 232.
B e e r , 42.
B e g r i p van goed en kwaad, ontwikkeld uit de behoeften der maatschappij, 218.
B e h a a r d h e i d , verschil in — bij verschillende menschenrassen, 43.
B e i e r e n , verhouding der geboorten in —, 504.
B e l s a n t i , over lagere menschenrassen, 46.
B e k , hoornachtigen, de ontwikkeling van een — sleept de verdwijning der tanden

met zich, 42.
B e l g i ë , verhouding der geboorten in —, 504.
B e n i - H a s s a n , muurschildering in de grotten van —, 371.
B é r a n e c k , over het parietaalorgaan der reptielen, 35.
B e r b e r s , 379;
de Guanches met de — verwant, 44.
B e r g e n , Dr. T. M. ten, over den oorsprong der taal, 158.
B e s c h a v i n g , Mexicaansche, uit geen vreemde bron afgeleid, 261;

vroegste middelpunten van—, 405.
„B e t c h e a u x R o c h e s ”, schedels gevonden in het hol —, 50.
B e v e r , graven van een hol door den Europeeschen —, 149.
B e v o l k i n g , onderscheid tusschen wettelijke, feitelijke en werkelijke —, 506.
B e v r u c h t i n g der bloemlooze planten en kranswieren, 501.
B i a l o w i c z a , kudde Wisents in het woud van —, II 257.
B i b a n - e l - M o l o e k , vallei —, II 348.
B i c k e s , Kapt., over het betrekkelijke aantal der seksen bij wettige en onwettige
geboorten, 504;
over de geboorten in verschillende landen van Europa, 504.
B i k k e r s , J., over het spreken van doofstommen, 159.
B i l f i n g e r s , familie der —, 105.
Bimana, 289.
Bipinnaria, 307.
B i r m a , behaarde familie van —, 43.
B i s o n , Amerikaansche —, II 257.
B i s o n , Europeesche —, II 257;
beenderen van den —, 46.
Bison Europaeus, 46.
Bixia orellana, 100.
Biziura lobata, geur van —, 609.
B l a a s o p , 574.
B l a s i u s en Keyzerling, hun indeeling der Roestvogels (Insessores), II 88.
Blastaeada, 315, 319.
B l a u w b o k , II 259.
B l e e k b o k , II 259.
B l o e d , slagaderlijk, schoone kleur van het —, 529.
B l o e m d r a g e n d e gewassen, 501.
B l o e m l o o z e gewassen, 501.
B o c c a r d o , Prof. G., over de oorzaken die de getalsverhouding der seksen bij

den mensch bepalen, 503;
over de verhouding der mannelijke en vrouwelijke geboorten in
[497]verschillende landen van Europa, 505;
over de geboorten in Frankrijk, 504.
B o e m e r a n g , Australische —, 260.
B o h e m e , verhouding der seksen bij wettige en onwettige geboorten in —, 505.
B o i t a r d , over een aap die zijn oppasser verwondde, 40.
B o k k e n , melkgevende —, 50.
B o l e y n , Anna, overtallige tepels bij —, 104;

overtallige vingers van —, 105.
Bombycidae, stemtoestel der —, 609.
B o n , le, over verschillen in den omvang van den schedel, 108.
B o n p l a n d , Humboldt en —, over een man die zijn kind zoogde, 50.
B o n w i c k , over bastaarden op Van Diemensland, 376.
B o o m k r u i p e r s , II 174.
B o r r e b y , schedel van —, 388.
B o r n e o , bewoond door Lemuriden, 294;

geluidgevende visschen op —, II 36.
B o r n e o en Java, sabelsprinkhaan van — met groot muziekinstrument, 573.
B o r s t e l w o r m e n , 528.
B o r s t k l i e r e n , invloed van de ontwikkeling der — van den man op de
geslachtsdeelen, 42.
B o s c h - m o e r a s s e n van Suriname, II 34.
Bos bonasus, II 256.
Bos primigenius, II 256.
Bos priscus, II 256.
Bos Urus, II 256.
B o s j e s m a n n e n , 410;
steatopygie bij de vrouwen der —, 378.
B o u c h e r d e P e r t h e s , hij vestigt de aandacht op voortbrengselen van

menschelijke nijverheid, die tot een geologisch tijdperk, ouder dan het
tegenwoordige, opklimmen, 36;
hij vindt een menschelijke onderkaak in een gestratificeerde diluviale laag, 36.
B o u i l l e r , over de ziel der dieren, 220.
B o u r g e o i s , Abt, bewerkte vuursteenen gevonden door den — in het Calcaire

de la Beauce, 416.
B o u r g e o i s , Abt — en den heer Vibraye, nasporingen van den — omtrent den

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B o u w v a l l e n van Yucatan en Chiapas, de seksen verschillend gekleurd op de

—, II 377.
Box boops, 310;

— salpa, 310.
B r a b a n t , Noord-, zie N o o r d - B r a b a n t .
B r a c h y c e p h a a l , het Maleische ras en andere Aziatische stammen — en

evenzoo de orang, 294.
B r a n d e n b u r g , verhouding der mannelijke en vrouwelijke geboorte in —, 504;

verhouding der seksen bij wettige en onwettige geboorten in —, 505.
B r e e d s n u i t i g varken, Afrikaansch —, II 259.
B r e h m , Dr. A. E., over een Blunder-baviaan, 216;

over Cairina moschata, II 92;
over het gebruik dat de steenbok van zijn horens maakt, II 258;
over de afstamming van den Italiaanschen buffel, II 259;
over de betrekkelijke grootte der seksen bij den zeebeer, II 259;
over stinkdieren, II 302 v.v.;
over het geschreeuw van Hylobates agilis en de overige gibbons, II 347.
B r e s l a u , praeparaat op het museum te —, 377.
B r e s t e r , Dr. A., over een doofstommen Engelschen knaap, 160.
B r e w s t e r , Sir D., over de verhouding der seksen bij wettige en onwettige

geboorten, 505.
B r i t t a n j e , Groot-, wilde runderen in —, II 257.
B r i t t a n n i ë r s , 382.
B r o c a , Prof. P., over de onderkaak van la Naulette, 47;

over de scheenbeenderen uit de grot van Eyzies, 49;
over de ellepijpen uit de grot van Eyzies, 49;
over de grootte van den schedel, 109;
over Nieuw-Hollandsche mulatten; 376.
B r o m t o e s t e l l e n der Diptera, 574. [498]
B r o n c h i , zie L o n g p i j p e n .
B r o n s t i j d , 43, 373;
waarom zoo genoemd, 43.
B r o w n , over een Spanjaard met zes vingers, 105.
Bruta, orde der —, 290.
Bucconidae, II 174.
B u c h a n a n W h i t e , over geluidgevende vlinders 608.

B ü c h n e r (Dr. L.), over Darwin’s godsdienstige denkbeelden, 9;
over den fossielen mensch, 44;
over mieren, 289;
over het geestelijk proces bij het hoogere dier, 220;
over de geestvermogens der dieren, 220.
Bucerotidae, II 95, 174.
B u f f e l , Indische —, II 259.
B u f f e l , Italiaansche —, zijn Afstamming, II 259.
B u i d e l d i e r e n , 318, 320, 420.
B u i d e l r a t t e n , 318, 320.
„B u l l - F r o g ”, II 36.
B u n s i n g , het fretje een albino van den gewonen —, II 147.
B u r d a c h , over vrouwelijke borsten, 50.
B u s k , de heer, onderzoekingen van — omtrent scheenbeenderen uit de grotten

van Gibraltar, 49.
B i j e n , taal der —, 160;

dooden of verjagen der mannelijke — in het najaar, 215.
B i j e n v r e t e r s , zie Meropidae.
C.
C a d z o w w o u d , park in het —, II 258.
C a e s a r , over den Wisent en den Urus, II 256.
Cairina moschata, II 94.
C a l c a i r e d e l a B e a u c e , bewerkte vuursteenen gevonden in het —, 294.
C a l a v e r a s c o u n t y , schedel gevonden in —, 295.
C a l i f o r n i ë , oude sporen van den mensch in —, 37;

tertiaire menschenbeenderen in —, 295;
fossiele menschenschedel in — gevonden, 372;
steenen wapenen in —, 373.
C a m b r i s c h e periode, 319.
Cameleon vulgaris, 35.
C a n a r i s c h e eilanden, oorspronkelijke bewoners der —, 44.
C a n n s t a d t , mensch van —, 420;

ras van —, 318, 411.
C a p e l l e , Dr. H. van, over de grenslijn tusschen het Aziatische en het

Australische geologische gewest, 376.
Capitonidae, II 174.
Capra aegagrus, II 259.
Caprimulgidae, II 95.
C a r b o n n i e r , over vischnesten, II 34.
C a r l e t (Prof. G.), over het stemorgaan der cicaden, 572.
C a r n a c , Menhirs bij —, 385.
Carnivora, orde der —, 289.
C a r p e n t i e r - M é r i c o u r t , over een man die een kind zoogde, 50.
C a r t e s i u s , zijn theorie omtrent de geestvermogens der dieren, 217.
Cartilagines Wrisbergianae bij de negers, 383.
C a s t r a t i e , invloed der — op de ontwikkeling der horens, II 258.
C a t a p h r a c t i e , II 35.
Catarrhinae, kenmerken der —, 290.
Catoblepas Gnu, II 253.
Cavia Cobaya, II 362.

C a z a l i s d e F o u d o u c e , over tertiaire bewerkte vuursteenen, 422.
Cebidae, 290, 291.
C e b r a s s a , over de sterfteverhouding der Joden en Europeanen in Algerië, 502.
C e l e b e s , bewoond door Lemuriden, 294.
C e n t r a a l - A m e r i k a , hiëroglyphen van —, 409.
Centropus, II 174.
Centropristis hepatus, 310.
Cephalochorda, 302.
Cephalodiscus, 302.
C e p h a l o p o d e n , klasse der —, 528;

seksueele kenmerken bij de —, 529.
Cephalopus mergens, II 253.
Certhiadae, II 95.
Certhiola, II 174.
Cervus alces, II 249. [499]
Cetacea, 290.
Chaetophora, 528.
C h a m a n t , beenderen uit de dolmen van —, 49.
C h a m b e r l a i n , R. H., over de Japansche Aino’s, 377.
C h a m p n e y s , over overtallige zogklieren, 104.
Characeae, 501.
Characiniden, II 35.
Charaxes jasius, muskusgeur van —, 609.

C h a r t l y , park van —, wilde runderen in het —, II 250.
Chasmorhynchus, II 95.
Chauliodus, 35.
C h a u v i n , Mej. de, brengt embryo’s van Salamandra atra buiten het

moederlichaam tot volkomen ontwikkeling, 312.
C h e l l e s , periode van —, 423;

ras van —, 318.
Chelonia, geluid van —, 608.
C h e v r e u i l , over een steenperiode in China, 262.
C h i a p a s , verschillende kleur der seksen op de bouwvallen van —, II 377.
C h i l l i n g h a m c a s t l e , wilde runderen in het park van —, II 251.
C h i m p a n z e e , 318, 320;
afbeelding der hersenen van den — door Schroeder van der Kolk en Vrolik, 39;
woonplaats van den —, 41, 294;
— den mensch hoe langer hoe meer ongelijk naarmate hij meer tot den
volwassen toestand nadert, 45;
gemiddelde schedelinhoud van den —, 108.
C h i n a , steenperiode in —, 262;
oudheid der geschiedenis van —, 406.
C h i n e e s , het schoonheidsgevoel van een — wijkt van het onze af, 611.
C h i n e e s c h e vrouwen, misvormde voeten der —, II 335.
C h i n e e s c h e en Engelsche taal, bewijzen voor de moeilijkheid van een eerste

algemeene taal, 167.
C h i n e e z e n , 381;
gemiddelde schedelinhoud der —, 107.
Chironectus pictus, II 34.
Chlamydera maculata, lusthoven der —, 160.

C h o a k - k a m a , 40.
C h o r d a d o r s a l i s , 149.
Chordata, 301.
Chrysotis festiva, invloed van het voedsel op de kleuren van, II 93.
C h u d r i n s k y , over ingewanden van menschen, 384.
C i c a d e n , gezang der —, 571;

Grieksche sage over het ontstaan der —, 571;
stemorganen der —, 572.
Cicindela campestris, geur van —, 610.
Cicindela hybrida, geur van —, 610.
C i r c a s s i ë r s , 379.
C i v e t k a t , zie Viverra civetta.
Clamatores, II 95.
C l a r k , Hamlet, over de Saüba van Rio de Janeiro, 289.
Climacteris, II 174.
C l o a c a , 42;
voorkomen van een — bij een vrouw, 106.
Cobitis fossilis, II 35.
Cobitis taenia, II 35.
Coelenterata, een onderrijk, geen klasse, 528.
C o e l e n t e r a t e n , voorouders der gewervelde dieren, 300.
C o e l o m z a k k e n , vergelijkbaar met de darmuitstulpingen der Nemertinen, 300.
C o e n o l i t h i s c h e tijdvak, 320.
C o h e n Jr., M. M., over bruiloftsgebruiken in Drenthe, II 376.

C o l l e d e l V e n t o , sporen van den tertiairen mensch te —, 295.
Colisa, nest van —, II 34.
Colobus, 318.
Colopteridae, II 95.
C o m p e n s a t i e van groei, 42.
Conger, 309.
C o n s c r i p t i e , invloed der — op een menschenras, 100.
C o n t i n e n t a l e eilanden, waardoor zij zich kenmerken, 42.
C o p e , Prof., over Anaptomorphus homunculus, 296.
C o p e p o d e n , orde der—, 528.
Coraciadae, II 95.
C o r o n e l , Dr. S., over het verschil [500]der levens-verhoudingen tusschen Joden

en Christenen, 503.
Corpora Wolffiana, 34.
Corpus callosum, ontbreekt soms in de hersenen van den mensch, 106;

gemis van — bij de Lyencephala, 289.
C o r p u s c u l a t a c t u s der apen, 41.
C o r r e l a t i e , wat men onder — verstaat, 37;

— van homotype deelen, 37;
— tusschen haar, huid en oogen bij den mensch, 38;
— tusschen de lengte van het hoofd en die der ledematen, 38;
verband tusschen — en sympathetische aandoeningen, 312.
Corvidae, II 95.
Corvina dentex, II 35.
Corvina ocellata, II 35.

Corvina ronchus, II 35.
Cotingidae, II 88.
Cottus scorpius, II 35;

knorrend geluid bij —, II 35.
Coturnix, II 215.
Craniota, 313.
C r e t i n s , 320.
C r o - M a g n o n , schedel van —, 388.
C r o m l e c h , 385.
Crossopterygii, 317.
C r u s t a c e e ë n , de Raderdieren met de — vereenigd, 528.
Cryptogamae, 501.
Ctenophora, 528.
C u n n i n g h a m , over de ruggegraat bij menschen en apen, II 106;

over geluidgevende vlinders, 608.
Cursores, 501.
C u v i e r , zijn meening omtrent het maaksel der hersenen van de apen, 39.
C y c l o s t o m e n , 314, 316.
Cygnus nigricollis, II 224.
Cynocephalus Mormon, 150.
Cynocephalus leucophaeus, 150.
Cynocephalus porcarius, verwondt zijn oppasser, 40.
Cyprinoidei, II 35.
Cyprinus barbus, II 35.
Cyprinus phoxinus, 513.
Cyprinus tinca, II 35.
Cypselidae, 95.
C z e c h e n , 382.
D.
Dactylopterus, II 35;
— volitans, II 35;
— orientalis, II 35.
D a g h e s t a n e r s , 379.
„D a l - r i p a ”, 510.
D a n s e n bij de mannetjes van verschillende dieren, 529.
D a r e s t e , C., zijn proeven tot kunstmatige vorming van anomalieën en

monstruositeiten, II 396.
D a r m k a n a a l , 42.
D a r m u i t s t u l p i n g bij Balanoglossus, 301.
D a r m l a r v e , 316.
D a r r e n , verkeerdelijk hommels genoemd, 217.
D a r w i n , Ch., over de „Afstamming van den Mensch”, 1;

over het spiritisme, 235;
over de eenheid van het menschelijk geslacht, 404;
zijn verklaring van de kunstmatige misvorming der voeten bij de Chineesche
vrouwen, II 348;
bouwstoffen tot de zegepraal der leer van — door tegenstanders geleverd, 574.
D a r w i n , F., over de „Afstamming van den Mensch”, 2.
Deilephila elpenor, lengte der wrijfplaat enz. bij —, 608.

D e k h a n - v o l k e n , 379.
D e l a u n a y , Abt, nasporingen van den — omtrent den tertiairen mensch, 295.
D e l a u n a y , Dr., statistische beschouwingen over schedels, 109.
D e l a w a r e - v a l l e i , steenen werktuigen uit de —, 408.
D e m o g e r o n t e n bij Cicaden vergeleken, 571.
D e n d r i t e n , 44.
D e n e m a r k e n , verhouding der mannelijke en vrouwelijke geboorten in —, 504.
D e n i k e r , J., over steatopygie van vrouwen, 378.
D e n i s e , vulkaan van —, fossiele menschenbeenderen in de lava van den —,

295. [501]
D e n i s e , mensch van —, 420.
D e s c a r t e s , over de pijnappelklier, 34.
D e s m a n s , zie Myogale.
D e s n o y e r s , insnijdingen op fossiele beenderen gevonden door —, 295.
D e v o n i s c h e periode, 319.
D i a s t e m a tusschen de tanden bij sommige menschenrassen, 109.
Dicotyledones, 218.
Dicotyledones Polypetalae, 218.
Didelphyus, 320.
Didus, 501.
D i e m e n s l a n d , Van, bastaarden op —, 376.
D i e n s t p l i c h t i g h e i d , invloed der — op een menschenras, 100.
D i e r e n , vorschachtige —, zie Batrachii.

D i e r l i j k e voorouders van den mensch, 318.
D i e r t y p e n , elders verdwenen — in de zuidspitsen der vastelanden, 419.
D i g g e r - I n d i a a n , 372.
D i k h u i d i g e D i e r e n , zie Pachydermata.
D i l u v i a l e D i e r e n , afbeeldingen van — door tijdgenooten vervaardigd, 36.
D i l u v i a l e tijdvak, 372.
D i l u v i u m , 320;
vuursteenen wapenen gevonden in het —, 36;
bewijzen van het bestaan van den mensch gedurende het —, 36, 294;
gedurende het — leefde de mensch reeds tegelijk met uitgestorven diersoorten,
37.
D i n o t h e r i u m , beenderen van — in de sables de l’Orléanais, 295.
Dinornis giganteus, beenderen van —, 262.
Diodon, II 35.
Dionychopus niveus Mén., 609.
Dipneusta, 313, 317, 319.
Diptera, stemorganen der — door seksueele teeltkeus ontstaan, 574;

geluiden van —, 570.
Dircenna, 570.
Discomedusae, 528.
Discoplacentalia, 318;
gezamenlijke voorouders van de —, 318.
D o h r n , Dr., over de afstamming der gewervelde dieren, 299.
D o l m e n , 385;
werktuigen in de — gevonden, 385;
— door de Khasia’s gebouwd, 386.
D o l m e n s , van Chamant en Maintenon, beenderen uit de —, 49;
volk der —, woonplaatsen van het —, 386.
D e k s i e ’s, II 34.
D o l i c h o c e p h a a l , alle volken van Afrika en evenzoo de chimpanzee en de

gorilla —, 294.
D o n g o l a , bewoners van —, 379.
D o n g o l e e z e n , 607, II 381.
D ö n i t z , over het stemorgaan van Dionychopus niveus Mén., 609.
D o o d s h o o f d - u i l , piepend geluid van den —, 607.
D o o d s h o o f d - v l i n d e r , stem van den —, 607.
D o o f s t o m m e n , 320;
overerving opgemerkt bij de spreekorganen van —, 159.
D o o r s c h i j n e n d h e i d der wangen, door seksueele teeltkeus verkregen, 529.
D o r a n , over overtallige zogklieren, 104.
Doras, II 25;
— maculatus, II 35.
D o r n , Dr. E., over „Wolfskinder”, 221.
D o w l e r , over den ouderdom van een menschenschedel, 372.
D r a v i d a - r a s , 379, 380.
D r a v i d a ’s, 381;
wijken niet terug voor de blanken, 387.
D r e n t h e , overmaat der mannelijke geboorten in —, 508;

getalsverhouding der levenloos geborenen in —, 508;
der wettig en onwettig geboren jongens en meisjes in —, 509;
getalsverhouding der seksen in —, 506;
der mannelijke en vrouwelijke geboorten in —, 508;
oorkonden van Keizer Otto den Groote omtrent de jacht in —, II 257;
bruiloftsgebruiken in —, II 376.
D r i l , 150.
D r o o m e n , een bron van godsdienstige denkbeelden, 163.
Dryopithecus, 416. [502]
Dryopithecus Fontani, niet nader met den mensch verwant dan de thans levende
anthropomorphen, 296.
D u f o s s é , over de geluiden van visschen, II 36.
D u i f , een verstandige —, II 147.
D u i k e r , II 259.
D u i m , der apen, 231.
D u i t s c h e wetten en jachtberichten, oude — over den Wisent en den Urus, II

257.
D u i t s c h e r s , 382;
gemiddelde schedelinhoud der —, 107.
D u p o n t , Edouard, over de onderkaak van la Naulette, 47.
D ü r e r , Albrecht, schilderij van —, 372.
D w e r g s t a m m e n , lange haren bij —, 43.
E.
Echidna, 318.
Echinodermata, een onderrijk, geen klasse, 528.
Edentata, 290, 420, II 259.
E d w a r d s , Milne, over de placenta der Lemuriden, 292.
E e l t p l e k k e n der apen, 291.

E e n d , Muskus —, II 94.
E e n d e n , wilde, II 34.
E e n h o e v i g e Dieren, 290.
E e k h o o r n t j e , aschgrauw —, zie Sciurus cinereus;

zwart—, zie Sciurus niger.
E g u i s h e i m , schedel van —, 44, 388.
E g y p t e , klimaat van — onveranderd gebleven, 389;

schedels uit —, 108.
E g y p t e n a r e n , oude, 379;
oude —, rastype der — van Philae af tot Ghizeh toe op alle monumenten de
zelfde, 371;
of de seksen bij de oude — al dan niet verschillend gekleurd waren? II 377;
uit het Noorden gekomen —, 413.
E g y p t i s c h e Koningsgraven, II 348.
E g y p t i s c h e monumenten, menschenrassen afgebeeld op —, 372;

de seksen op de — verschillend gekleurd, II 377.
E g y p t i s c h e rijk, oudheid van het —, 400.
E i , het gekliefde —, 315.
E i g e n s c h a p p e n die niet op materiëelen grondslag rusten, 219.
E i l a n d e n , Canarische —, oorspronkelijke bewoners der —, 44.
E i l a n d e n , oceanische en continentale —, 42.
E i l a n d e n , koraal-, 42.
E i n d p l a t e n , verbreede — bij het wijfje van Argonauta, 529.
E i s i g , over de afstamming der gewervelde dieren, 299.
E l a n d , zie Cerves alces.
Eleotragus arundinaceus, II 259.

Elephas antiquus, 423.
Elephas meridionalis, mededeelingen van C. Vogt, over het gelijktijdig leven van
den mensch en —, 295.
Elephas primigenius, 110, II 259.
E l l e p i j p e n uit de grot van Eyzies, 49.
E m a i l v i s s c h e n , 317.
E m b r y o , corpora Wolffiana of primordiaalnieren van het —, 34;

misvormingen ten gevolge van stilstand in de ontwikkeling van het —, 38;
— van Salamandra atra en Hylodes martinicensis bij de voorouders dier soorten
larve, II 223.
E m b r y o ’s der gewervelde dieren, 149.
E m b r y o n a l e ontwikkeling van de apen en van den mensch, 293.
E m e r y , over de nevenoogen der Scolepiden, 35.
E m i g r a t i e , een krachtig palliatief tot leniging der sociale ellende, II 396.
E n g e l a n d , verhouding der geboorten in —, 504.
E n g e l s c h e knaap, eigenaardigheid in het spreken bij een doofstommen —,

160.
E n g e l s c h e n , gemiddelde schedelinhoud der —, 107, 108.
E n g e l s c h e n en Tahitiërs, de bevolking van het eiland Pitcairn bestaat uit

bastaarden tusschen —, 377.
E n g i s , schedel van —, 388. [503]
Enteropneusta, 316.
E o c e n e periode, 296, 320.
E o l i d e n , doorschijnendheid der —, 529.
E o s , gemalin van Tithonus, 571.

Epigastrium, II 346.
Epiglottis, 383.
E p i p h y s e , zie P i j n a p p e l k l i e r .
E r a s m u s , over de sage van Tithonus en Eos, 572.
Eriocomi, 380, 381.
Eriodoridae, II 95.
E s k i m o ’s, 381; woonplaats der —, 376;

hun voorvaderen met de tegenwoordige Papoea’s verwant, 375;
gelijkenis tusschen — en enkele Indianenstammen, 375.
Esox lucius, II 36.
Estrelda, II 174.
E t r u r i ë , schedels uit —, 108.
E u n o m o s en Ariston, wedstrijd van —, 571.
Euplocami, 330, 381.
Euprepia, geluid van —, 608.
E u r o p a , oorspronkelijke wilde bevolking van — door het blanke ras verdrongen

en uitgeroeid, 388;
verhouding der mannelijke en vrouwelijke geboorten in —, 504.
E u r o p e a n e n , 379.
E u r o p e a n e n en Amerikanen, verschil tusschen —, 388.
Eurylaemidae, II 174.
Euthycomi, 380, 381.
E v a n s , Joseph, hij bevestigt de opgave van Boucher de Perthes omtrent

vuursteenen wapenen, gevonden in het diluvium der Somme-vallei, 36.
E y z i e s , grot van —, 44;
geraamten uit de grot van —, 44;
schedels van —, 388.
F.
F a l c o n e r , Dr., hij bevestigt de opgave van Boucher de Perthes omtrent

vuursteenen wapenen, gevonden in het diluvium der Somme-vallei, 36.
F a l l a h , 379.
F a l u n s d e l a To u r r a i n e , bewerkte vuursteenen uit de —, 295.
F a m i l i e , naaste — van den mensch, 299.
F a m i l i e t a a l bij verschillende volken, 175.
F a m i l i e t r e k k e n tusschen verschillende rassen, 387.
F a r r e r , over klanknabootsing, 156.
F a u d e l , Dr. P., ontdekker van den schedel van Eguisheim, 46.
F a u n a , pelagische — der Glasdieren, 528.
F a z a n t , Konings—, II 173.
F a z a n t , Koper—, II 173.
F a z a n t , Reeve’s —, II 173.
F a z a n t , Soemmerring’s —, II 173.
F e i t e l i j k e bevolking, 506.
F e l l a h , 379.
F e l l a h ’s, woningen der Egyptische —, 151;

de type der — stemt soms met die der oude Egyptenaren overeen, 371.
F e l l a t i n , 379.
F e r r i è r e , het Darwinisme, 160.

Fiber zibethicus, II 304.
F i n n e n , 381.
F l o r e n c e , schedel van —, 388.
F l o w e r , zijn onderzoekingen omtrent de hersenen der apen, 39.
F o c k e , over de verhouding van wettig geborenen, 510.
F o e l h , 379.
F o e l a n , 379.
F o e l a ’s, 379, 381.
F o e l b e , 379.
F o e t u s , misvormingen ten gevolge van stilstand in de ontwikkeling van den —,

38.
F o s s i e l e apen, 416.
Fovea centralis in het oog der apen, 41.
F r a i p o n t , over in België gevonden skeletten, wier schedels overeenkwamen

met den Neanderdalschedel, 49.
F r a n k f o r t , verhouding der seksen bij wettige en onwettige geboorten te —,

505;
sterfteverhouding der Joden en Christenen te —, 502.
F r a n k r i j k , verhouding der mannelijke en vrouwelijke geboorten in —, 504;

verhouding der seksen bij [504]wettige en onwettige geboorten in —, 505.
F r a n s c h e n , gelijkheid in kenmerken van Galliërs en —, 387.
F r e n u l u m , ontbreekt bij de Hottentotsche vrouwen, 377.
F r e t j e , 147.
F r i e s l a n d , getalsverhouding der seksen in —, 506;

getalsverhouding der mannelijke en vrouwelijke geboorten in —, 508;
getalsverhouding der levend en levenloos aangegevenen in —, 508;
der wettig en onwettig geboren jongens en meisjes in —, 509;
overmaat der mannelijke geboorten in —, 508.
F r i e z e n , 382.
Fringillidae, II 95.
Fritilaria (Appendicularia) furcata, 304.
F ü h l r o t t , Dr., ontdekker van den Neanderdalschedel, 44.
Fulgora candelaria, 572.
„F u n c t i o n s w e c h s e l s ”, „Princip des —”, 298.
F u r f o o z , schedel van —, 388.
G.
G a l e n , 382.
G a l k l i e r e n , schoone kleur der — bij de Eoliden, 529.
G a l l i ë , de grens tusschen Germanen en niet-Germanen in — onveranderd

gebleven, 387.
G a l l i ë r s , 382.
Gallinaceae, 501, II 222.
G a n o ï d e n , 314, 317, 319.
G a p e r s , zie Anastomus.
G a s t e r o p o d e n , liefdepijlen bij de —, 529;

klasse der —, 528.
G a s t r a e a d e n , 315, 319.
Gastrula, 316, 319.
G a u d r y , A., over fossiele apen, 416.
G e b e r g t e n , onderzeesche—, 42.
G e b o o r t e n , verhouding der — in verschillende landen van Europa en aan de
Kaap de Goede Hoop, 504;
verhouding der seksen bij wettige en onwettige —, 505.
G e e s t e l i j k verschil tusschen mensch en dier, II 147.
G e e s t v e r m o g e n s der microcephalen, 155;

ontwikkeling der — bij hagedissen, II 36;
hooge ontwikkeling der — bij een duif, II 147;
Wallace over de hoogste — van den mensch, 226;
— bij wilden weinig ontwikkeld, 227.
G e g e n b a u r , Prof., over de afstamming der gewervelde dieren, 299.
G e h e u g e n bij dieren, 150.
G e l a a t s h o e k der verschillende menschenrassen, 379.
G e l d e r l a n d , overmaat der mannelijke geboorten in —, 506;

getalsverhouding der seksen in —, 506;
der mannelijke en vrouwelijke geboorten in —, 508;
getalsverhouding der levend en levenloos aangegevenen in —, 508;
der wettig en onwettig geboren jongens en meisjes, 509.
G e l o o f , kiemen van het — aan geheimzinnige wezens bij dieren, 161.
G e l u i d , piepend — van Acherontia atropos, oorzaak van het —, 607;

— der Diptera, 570;
trommelend — van Balistes aculeatus, oorzaak en nut van het —, II 35, 36;
— als lokmiddel voor seksueele doeleinden, II 36.
G e l u i d g e v e n d e v i s s c h e n , II 35.
G e l u i d v o o r t b r e n g e n d orgaan der schorpioenen, 530. G e n e r a t i o

s p o n t a n e a , Häckel over —, 314;
proeven van Pasteur over —, 314.
G e o f f r o y S t . H i l a i r e , Isidore, over het verschil tusschen mensch en dier,

218.
G e o r g i ë r s , 379.
Gephyrea, 302.
G e r a a m t e n , fossiele menschelijke —, 44.
G e r m a n e n , gemiddelde schedelinhoud der —, 107;

de jacht van den Urus bij de — volgens Caesar de roemrijkste, II 256.
G e s c h i e d e n i s , organische — der aarde, tijdvakken en geologische periode

van de —, 319. [505]
G e s c h r e e u w van Hylobates agilis en der overige Gibbons, 347.
G e s l a c h t , menschelijk —, grondvormen van het — volgens de oude

Egyptenaars, II 348.
G e s l a c h t s d e e l e n , weinig ontwikkeld bij mannen, wier borstklieren zoo

ontwikkeld zijn, dat zij melk geven, 42, 50.
G e s l a c h t s d r i f t , niet levendig bij mannen met vrouwelijke borsten, 50.
G e s p l e t e n v e r h e m e l t e , het — een misvorming ten gevolge van stilstand in

de ontwikkeling, 38.
G e t a l s v e r h o u d i n g der seksen bij den mensch, 504.
G e u r van sommige dieren, 609, II 303.
G e u r s c h u b b e n van vlinders, 609.
G e v o e l , godsdienstig en zedelijk — alleen bij den mensch, 218.
G e v o e l s k l a n k e n , 156.
G e w e r v e l d e D i e r e n , zie Vertebrata.
G e w e t e n , bij wilden, 260.
G h e b e l - e l - A s s a s s i f , vuursteenen werktuigen van den —, 262.
G i a r d , Prof. A., over de stamverwantschap tusschen de zakpijpen en de

gewervelde dieren, 297.
G i b b , G. Duncan, over het verschil in den larynx bij den neger en den blanke,
383.
G i b b o n , 320.
G i b b o n s , woonplaats der —, 41, 294;

geschreeuw der —, II 347.
G i b r a l t a r , scheenbeenderen uit de grotten van —, 49;

schedel van —, 388.
G i e r e n , muskusgeur der — in den paartijd, II 94.
G i e r z w a l u w e n , zie Cypselidae.
Gingko biloba, 415.
G l a s d i e r e n , pelagische Fauna der —, 528.
G o a j i r e n , huwelijken bij de —, 99.
G o d s d i e n s t , groote rol van den — bij de ontwikkeling der muziek, 229.
G o d s d i e n s t i g gevoel, oorsprong van het —, 162.
G o e d e n k w a a d , begrip van — niets absoluuts, 218.
G o e r a m i , nest van den —, II 34.
G o m a r a , over de volken in het noorden van Mexico, 261.
G o r i l l a , 318, 320;
woonplaats van den —, 41;
gemiddelde schedelinhoud van den —, 108;
voet van den — en den mensch, 293.
G o t h e n , 382.
G o u b e r , Prof., over een man met luchtzakken aan het strottenhoofd, II 302.
G o u d , het algemeenste metaal bij de Macrobiërs, 431.
G o u r e a u , over de veldsprinkhanen, 574.
G r a a f , de, over de pijnappelklier, 34.

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Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and

Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering

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Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and

First edition published 2022

Chapter 1 The History of Nuclear Medicine.................................................................................................................1

Chapter 2 Basic Atomic and Nuclear Physics.............................................................................................................15

Chapter 3 Basics of Radiation Interactions in Matter.................................................................................................39

Chapter 4 Radionuclide Production............................................................................................................................69

Chapter 6 Scintillation Detectors..............................................................................................................................107

Chapter 7 Semiconductor Detectors.........................................................................................................................129

Chapter 8 Gamma Spectrometry...............................................................................................................................145

Chapter 9 Properties of the Digital Image................................................................................................................175

Chapter 10 Image Processing......................................................................................................................................197

Chapter 11 Machine Learning....................................................................................................................................221

Chapter 12 Image File Structures in Nuclear Medicine..............................................................................................237

Chapter 13 The Scintillation Camera..........................................................................................................................251

Chapter 14 Collimators for Gamma Ray Imaging......................................................................................................265

Chapter 15 Image Acquisition Protocols....................................................................................................................279

Chapter 17 Dedicated Tomographic Single Photon Systems......................................................................................315

Chapter 18 PET Systems............................................................................................................................................333

Chapter 19 Dead-​time Effects in Nuclear Medicine Imaging Studies........................................................................343

Chapter 20 Principles of Iterative Reconstruction for Emission Tomography...........................................................355

Chapter 21 PET-CT Systems......................................................................................................................................389

Chapter 22 Clinical Molecular PET/​MRI Hybrid Imaging........................................................................................397

Chapter 23 Quality Assurance of Nuclear Medicine Systems....................................................................................427

Chapter 24 Calibration and Traceability.....................................................................................................................455

Chapter 25 Activity Quantification from Planar Images............................................................................................463

Chapter 26 Quantification in Emission Tomography..................................................................................................479

Chapter 27 Multicentre Studies: Hardware and Software Requirements...................................................................499

Chapter 28 Preclinical Molecular Imaging Systems...................................................................................................515

Chapter 29 Monte Carlo Simulation of Nuclear Medicine Imaging Systems............................................................533

Chapter 30 Beta and Alpha Particle Autoradiography................................................................................................563

Chapter 31 Principles behind Computed Tomography (CT)......................................................................................589

Chapter 32 Principles behind Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)..........................................................................605

Access to colour images and support material: http://www.routledge.com/9781138593268

List of Contributors xiii

Bernhard Sattler Stefaan Vandenberghe

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1.1 1890–​1930: THE RANDOM DISCOVERIES AND SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH

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Chapter 19 Dead-time Effects in Nuclear Medicine Imaging Studies........................................................................343

Chapter 22 Clinical Molecular PET/MRI Hybrid Imaging........................................................................................397

1.1 1890–1930: THE RANDOM DISCOVERIES AND SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH

1.2 1930–1950: DISCOVERY, PRODUCTION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIONUCLIDES

1.3 1950–1970: FIRST IMAGING APPARATUS AND RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS

1.4 1970–1990: TOMOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES, RADIOIMMUNOLOGY, AND DOSIMETRY

1.5 990–2010: IMPROVED IMAGING BY MULTI-MODALITY SYSTEMS AND NOVEL