International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS)

Vol. 15, No. 2, June 2024, pp. 1218~1226

ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v15.i2.pp1218-1226  1218

Analysis of nickel oxide as a counter electrode for dye-sensitized

solar cells using OghmaNano software

Nur Afiqah Hani Senin1, Iskandar Dzulkarnain Rummaja1, Muhammad Idzdihar Idris1,2,
Zul Atfyi Fauzan Mohammed Napiah1,2, Radi Husin Ramlee2, Marzaini Rashid3, Luke Bradley4
1
Faculty of Electronic and Computer Technology and Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Melaka, Malaysia
2
Micro and Nano Electronic Research Group (MiNE), Faculty of Electronic and Computer Technology and Engineering,
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Melaka, Malaysia
3
School of Physics, University Science Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia
4
Cyro-Electronics at School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle, United Kingdom

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), a promising green technology, convert
solar energy into electricity more cost-effectively than traditional solar cells.
Received Sep 25, 2023 While platinum (Pt) is commonly used in DSSCs, its high cost and toxicity
Revised Nov 27, 2023 limit practical applications. Recent research aims to develop low-cost counter
Accepted Dec 7, 2023 electrodes with high efficiency. Nickel oxide (NiO), a p-type semiconductor
with a wide bandgap, good transmittance, and suitable work function, emerges
as a potential alternative for counter electrode of DSSCs. In this work, DSSCs
Keywords: with NiO of thicknesses varying from 100 nm to 1000 nm were simulated to
determine its influence on photovoltaic performance using OghmaNano
Counter electrode software. The structure of simulated solar cells consists of NiO as counter
Doped nickel oxide electrode, zinc oxide (ZnO) as photoanode, N719 as dyes, electrolyte as
Dye sensitized solar cells charge carrier transport, and fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) as a contact layer.
Thickness There are five data of NiO used as an active layer. From the simulation results,
Zinc oxide NiO-doped gold exhibits the highest power conversion efficiency (PCE) of
15.95% at a thickness of 700 nm, while pure NiO shows the lowest PCE with
4.53% at a thickness of 600 nm. These results have demonstrated that NiO can
replace Pt as a counter electrode for DSSCs and doping plays a vital role in
increasing efficiency.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Muhammad Idzdihar Idris
Faculty of Electronic and Computer Technology and Engineering,
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM)
St. Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
Email: idzdihar@utem.edu.my

1. INTRODUCTION
There are many potentials uses for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC); thus, it has been the subject of
intense study over the past decade. These uses vary from renewable energy and flexibility to alternative energy
sources. Within inorganic DSSCs, the generation of electrical current can be summarized into 4 key steps:
i) Excitons are created when light photons are absorbed; ii) Then, excitons diffuse at the donor-acceptor
interface; iii) Subsequently, the exciton dissociates into charge carriers while relaxing with the help of charge
carriers; and iv) All electrons and holes flow to their respective cathode and anode contacts where the process
then repeats [1]-[3]. In DSSC, the counter electrode is an important layer as for example, in the redox
electrolyte formed of iodine and iodide, the counter electrode’s role is to transfer electrons from an external
circuit to the tri-iodide and iodine [4]. (Pt) is typically used as a catalyst because of its high conductivity and

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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  1219

electrocute-lytic properties, but it comes at a high cost when used on a large scale [5]. The RF magnetron co-
sputtering method also prepared metal oxide bi-phase counter electrodes (Pt/NiO [6], [7] and Pt/TiO2 [7]).
However, high-efficiency Pt/NiO (or Pt/TiO2) bi-phase counter electrodes require costly vacuum technology
and precise process control. Currently, many researchers are focusing on p-type oxide semiconductors as hole
transport layers or counter electrodes. This is because tandem photovoltaic devices combine p-type oxide
cathodes with n-type oxide anodes, which can increase efficiency and decrease the cost of solar harvesting
systems [8].
The primary concern regarding platinum pertains to its elevated cost, which renders it unfeasible for
practical applications in real-world contexts. Therefore, this study introduces a novel solution for the counter
electrode by employing NiO as a cost-effective substitute. The objective of this substitution is to improve the
efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) by using the advantageous properties of NiO, such as its cost-
effective raw materials, excellent durability, and strong chemical stability, together with its promising electrical
and optical characteristics [9]-[11]. Furthermore, NiO is a p-type, high-work function semiconductor with a
bandgap of 3.6-4.0 eV [12]-[14]. NiO has previously been employed as an HTL in several prior studies to
improve the performance of CdTe, organic, DSSC, and perovskite solar cells [14]-[17]. In addition, an
interfacial layer (or HTL) is often inserted between the ITO anode and the p-type layers to collect the generated
holes and prevent minority carrier injection (electrons) [18]. However, NiO was used for DSSC counter
electrodes. Guai et al. [19] demonstrated a DSSC with a sulfur-doped NiO counter electrode that achieved a
power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 5.04%. Then, Okumura et al. [20] achieved a PCE of 5.11% with a
DSSC using NiO hybridized carbon film as the cathode. Wang et al. [21] achieved the highest PCE of 7.58%
for NiO/PEDOT: PSS as the counter electrode. Maitra et al. [22] showed that using nickel-doped molybdenum
oxide for the counter electrodes increased efficiency to 4.17%. However, DSSC counter electrodes made of
NiO and conductive polymers have not been studied yet till today.
This paper simulates DSSCs using NiO with varying thickness as the counter electrode using
OghmaNano software. The DSSCs with varying NiO thickness as a counter electrode were simulated using
OghmaNano software to investigate the potential of the materials. The OghmaNano is a general-purpose tool
for simulating optoelectronic and photovoltaic devices. This software uses finite differences algorithms to solve
the drift-diffusion equations for electrons and holes within devices. The DSSCs internal structure consists of
FTO/ZnO&N719/Electrolyte/NiO/FTO. The electrical stimulation only reaches the active layer, whereas, in
this simulation, the active layer only focuses on NiO [23]-[29]. The thickness of NiO was varied from 100 nm
to 1000 nm to deter-mine the optimal thickness to achieving the best the power conversion efficiency (PCE),
open circuit voltage (Voc), short circuit current density (Jsc), and fill factor. The OghmaNano results that an
optimal layer NiO is needed to maximize the PCE of the DSSC.

2. METHOD
2.1. OghmaNano simulation software
The OghmaNano simulation software is a general-purpose tool for simulating optoelectronics and
photovoltaic devices based on a drift-diffusion base. The OghmaNano developed by Dr. Roderick Mackenzie
of the University of Nottingham simulates several thin-film devices using drift-diffusion equations and other
electrical and optical models. Organic LEDs and perovskite solar cells are examples of thin film technologies
al-ready integrated into the system. This work uses this model to simulate the electrical and optical
characteristics of the active layer and is unique among similar pro-grammes in that it gives non-experts the
ability to create their own thin film devices from scratch. The software can simulate various phenomena,
including JV curves, impedance spectroscopy, and ray tracing. The I-V and J-V graphs are displayed using
simulation data to demonstrate the pattern of electron density when a voltage is ap-plied to the simulated device.
The significant aspects affecting its performance can be investigated to maximize the efficiency of organic
solar cells in converting light to electricity. The OghmaNano programmed simulates various layer thicknesses
of dye-sensitized solar cells and photons absorbed by the solar cells. The software manual contains a more
detailed description of model.

2.2. Electrical model

The electrical simulation consists of 5 distinct layers. The layers are FTO/ZnO&N719/Electrolyte
/NiO/FTO. OghmaNano simulated this dye-sensitized solar cell at various active layer thicknesses. Figure 1
illustrates all the layers in detail. The electrical stimulation only reaches the device's active layer, whereas the
thickness only focuses on NiO in this simulation. As a result, the fill factor (FF) can be calculated using (1),
where Jsc is located at the curve's simulation, and Voc is the maximum out-put voltage. The PCE (ⴄ) is given
by (2), where Pin denotes the light's power density and Pout indicates the electric power produced by the bulk
heterojunction solar device at its highest power point [30].

Analysis of nickel oxide as a counter electrode for dye-sensitized … (Nur Afiqah Hani Senin)
1220  ISSN: 2088-8694
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐽𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝐹 = (1)
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐽𝑠𝑐

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐹𝐹∗𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐽𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜂= = (2)
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛

In OghmaNano material databases, the data for NiO, ZnO&N719, and the electrolyte are not provided.
Therefore, five data (absorption and refractive index) for NiO from the previous research [23]- [34] were taken
and used as an active layer to compare the (PCE). Since the data for the refractive index ZnO with N719 is
unavailable, the refractive index from ZnO was used instead [35], [36]. The absorption coefficient (α) was
determined using the Beer-Lambert relationship as stated in (3), where A is the absorbance and t is the thickness
of the film [37]. The unit of thickness must be in meters to obtain α.

𝛼 = 2.303𝐴/𝑡 (3)

Figure 1 shows the layer of the solar cells where fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) is the contact layer.
FTO is a practical, transparent layer that absorbs UV light and transmits electrons [38]. The thickness of the
active layer is critical in a solar cell, where the NiO layer is the material layer used for converting photons into
electrons and holes [18].
Table 1 shows the layer thickness and type of layer for each layer of the simulated DSSCs. To study
the effect of different types of NiO (NiO doped with La (1) and (2), NiO doped with gold, Co-doped with NiO,
and NiO pure) as counter electrodes in DSSC, all layers were fixed at 100 nm. The thickness of the counter
electrode was varied from 100 nm to 1000 nm with 100 nm step.
Table 2 shows the electrical parameters changed for layer ZnO&dye, electrolyte, and NiO. All the
parameters were extracted from data in literature [39]-[41]. Since OghmaNano software cannot simulate the
widest bandgap, the layer of ZnO&dye and electrolyte were also set as an active layer, but only the thickness
of NiO was varied. Hence, the large bandgap makes the minority carriers go to zero. Due to the large band gap
of ZnO&dye, the minority carrier concentration is neglected within the simulations.

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the simulated DSSC

Table 1. Layer editor in OghmaNano simulation

Layer name Thickness Material Layer Type
FTO 10-7 FTO Contact
ZnO&Dye 10-7 ZnO&N719 Active layer
Electrolyte 10-7 Electrolyte Active layer
NiO 10-7–100-7 NiO Active layer
FTO 10-7 FTO Contact

Table 2. Electrical parameters used in OghmaNano simulation

Parameter ZnO&Dye Electrolyte NiO
Electron mobility (m2v-1s-1) 0.01 [40] 10-5 [41] 2.8e-05 [42]
Hole mobility (m2v-1s-1) 0.0025 [40] 10-5 [41] 2.8e-05 [42]
Relative permittivity (au) 9 [40] 3.5 [41] 11.7 [38]
Number of traps (bands) 0 0 0
Electron affinity (eV) 3.9 [43] 3.79 [41] 1.64 [42]
Bandgap (eV) 2.37 [43] 1.6 [41] 3.8 [42]

Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 15, No. 2, June 2024: 1218-1226
Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  1221

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this section, the research findings will be presented and a comprehensive discussion will be
provided. The findings of this study are effectively communicated by employing various visual aids such as
figures, graphs, tables, and other graphical representations [42], [43]. These visual aids are strategically utilized
to improve the reader's understanding and interpretation of the results. The present discussion has been
structured into various sub-sections in order to facilitate a comprehensive examination of the research findings,
their implications, and any potential limitations that may arise.

3.1. Electrical simulation

This section discusses the results obtained from the simulation using OghmaNano software of dye-
sensitized solar cells using NiO as a counter electrode. The simulation results were divided into the electrical
and optical simulations. Different types of NiO, which are NiO doped with La (1) and (2) [44]-[46], NiO doped
with gold, Co-doped with NiO, and pure NiO, were used in the simulation to observe how the different
composition of the NiO layer influences the PCE, Voc, Jsc, and fill factor. As well as this, the impact of
different thicknesses of NiO on the performance of DSSC was also investigated.
The data in Figure 2(a) show the effect of different thicknesses on the performance of various types
of NiO on the PCE. As can be observed in Figure 2(a), NiO-doped gold has the highest PCE with 15.95%,
followed with NiO doped La (1) at 13.77%, NiO-doped La (2) at 8.26%, Co-doped NiO at 5.23%, and lastly,
pure NiO with 4.53%. In several earlier research publications, NiO has been employed as a high-temperature
layer (HTL) to improve the performance of CdTe, organic, and perovskite solar cells [40]-[47].
The data in Figure 2(b) shows the current density, J as a function of applied voltage, V for DSSCs
with the optimized thickness of the counter electrode. Table 3 summarizes the optimized parameters of Voc,
Jsc, fill factor, and PCE effect for all DSSCs with different NiO types. As can be seen from the table, all solar
cells have high open-circuit voltages (Voc) greater than 0.85 V. The optimized thickness of the counter electrode
is around 600 and 700 nm. Gold and La-doped NiO counter electrodes exhibit relatively higher efficiency
than Co-doped and pure NiO. These results agree with the experimental results reported where Gold-doped
NiO [26]. The highest PCE is gold-doped NiO with 15.95% at 600 nm and lowest PCE is pure NiO, with 4.53%
at 700 nm.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. The result of PCE: (a) effect of NiO layer thickness on PCE and
(b) J-V characteristic curve at maximum efficiency point

Table 3. The values of Voc, Jsc, FF, and PCE for the NiO
Material Thickness Jsc (mA/m2) Voc (V) FF (%) η (%)
Pure NiO 600 -52.808 0.987 0.869 4.533
Lanthanum-doped NiO (La: Nio) (a) 700 -160.72 01.02 0.837 13.77
Lanthanum-doped NiO (La: Nio) (b) 600 -97.54 1.003 0.844 8.2571
Gold-doped NiO (Gold:NiO) 700 -194.56 1.027 0.836 15.95

3.2. Optical simulation

The same device structure of dye-sensitized solar cell: FTO/Zno&dye/electrolyte/NiO/FTO were used
for the optical simulation by OghmaNano software to investigate the generation rate and absorbed photon

Analysis of nickel oxide as a counter electrode for dye-sensitized … (Nur Afiqah Hani Senin)
1222  ISSN: 2088-8694

distribution with the DSSC. The highest PCE and the lowest PCE were compared in the optical simulation.
Figure 3(a) show the generation rate profiles of gold doped NiO and Figure 3(b) show the pure NiO as an active
layer at the optimized thickness of 700 and 600 nm, respectively. It is evident that the generation rate of gold-
doped NiO DSSSC is higher compared to the pure NiO DSSC. Interestingly, the generation also occurs at the
gold doped NiO interface.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Generation rate profiles of (a) gold:NiO and (b) pure NiO as an active layer at the optimized
thickness of 700 mm and 600 mm, respectively

Figure 4(a) represents the absorbed photon distribution of NiO-doped gold at a thickness of 700 nm,
corresponding to the maximum value of PCE. In the DSSC with a ZnO&dye thickness of 100 nm, the
distribution of the absorbed photon is close to the electrodes. If photon energy exceeds the active layer's
bandgap, charge carrier generation and collection potential increase, resulting in a higher fill factor. In a cell
with an active area of 700 nm, most absorbed photons have wavelengths ranging from 300 nm to 500 nm.
Since photons with longer wavelengths cannot bridge the bandgap, many absorbed photons are required to
achieve optimal power conversion efficiency.
As we can see from Figure 4(b), this finding reveals that increasing active layer thickness enhances
photon absorption in DSSC, while decreasing the PCE as the in-creased active layer thickness increases photon
absorption and excitation, increasing the electron and hole density The greater thickness of the active layer
facilitates the extended movement of excitons from their generation point to eventual dissipation. However,
within this denser structure, the risk of recombination is heightened due to the restricted mobility of ions,
electrons, and holes. Consequently, it is imperative to strike a delicate equilibrium between these contrasting
effects. The findings from our simulations indicate that augmenting the thickness of NiO contributes to an
enhancement in the overall performance of DSSC. The photon absorption is maximal near the electrode, with
the smallest reflective value and maximum in the centre of the active layer [48].

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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  1223

The tunable energy bandgap interface in the solar cell allows the photovoltaic layer to produce
electron-hole pairs. The ZnO&dye layer attracts the electrons, while the NiO layer attracts the holes [49]. As a
consequence of this, it is important to emphasize once more that the number density of available photons
passing through the layer can be affected by the following factors: (1) absorbed photons in all previous or same
layers; (2) photons successfully converted into free carriers in all previous layers; and (3) reflected photons
from the ITO surface.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4. Absorbed photon distribution in an active region of: (a) gold-doped NiO and (b) pure NiO as an
active layer at the optimized thickness of 700 and 600 nm, respectively

4. CONCLUSION
DSSCs structure of FTO/ZnO&N719/Electrolyte/NiO/FTO was simulated using OghmaNano
simulation software. The effect of different types of NiO was studied with varying thicknesses from 100 nm to
1000 nm to find the highest efficiency. From the simulation results, gold-doped NiO has the best power
conversion efficiency of 15.9% compared a PCE of 4.53% for pure NiO. The recombination rate of electron
pairs and holes was discovered to depend on the thickness of the active layer. Therefore, gold was the best
material for the counter electrode to be doped with NiO to achieve the best DSSC efficiency.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and Universiti Teknikal
Malaysia Melaka through the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme with Project No
FRGS/1/2022/TK08/UTEM/02/6. Author also acknowledges the provider of free version of OghmaNano
software.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Nur Afiqah Hani Senin is a graduate research assistant in the Faculty of

Electronic and Computer Technology and Engineering at Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka (UTeM) in Melaka, Malaysia. She holds a B.Eng. degree in electronic engineering
from the same university and is currently pursuing an M.Sc. in electronic engineering at
UTeM. Her research interests encompass semiconductor and solar cell technology. She can
be contacted at email: m022210004@student.utem.edu.my.

Iskandar Dzulkarnain Rummaja is a graduate research assistant in the Faculty

of Electronic and Computer Technology and Engineering at Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka (UTeM) in Melaka, Malaysia. He holds a B.Eng. degree in electronic engineering
technology (industrial electronics) from the same university and is currently pursuing
an M.Sc. in electronic engineering at UTeM. His research interests are semiconductors, thin
film, solar cells, renewable energy technology, internet of things (IoT) and artificial
intelligence (AI). He can be contacted at email: iskandardzulkarnain964@gmail.com.

Analysis of nickel oxide as a counter electrode for dye-sensitized … (Nur Afiqah Hani Senin)
1226  ISSN: 2088-8694

Muhammad Idzdihar Idris is a senior lecturer in Faculty of Electronic and

Computer Technology and Engineering at Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) in
Melaka, Malaysia. He received his B.Eng. degree in electronic system engineering from
Hiroshima University, Japan, M.sc in microelectronics from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
(UKM) and Ph.D. in semiconductor devices from Newcastle University, United Kingdom in
2010, 2012 and 2018, respectively. His research interests are fabrication and characterization
of semiconductor devices: MOSFET, solar cell, and gas sensor. He can be contacted at email:
idzdihar@utem.edu.my.

Zul Atfyi Fauzan Mohammed Napiah is a senior lecturer and serves as the
Head of the Computer Engineering Department within the Faculty of Electronic and
Computer Technology and Engineering at Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) in
Melaka, Malaysia. He earned his B.Eng. degree in electrical-electronics from Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), a M.Eng. in microelectronics from the same institution, and a
Ph.D. in electronic engineering from Kanazawa University, Japan. His research interests are
semiconductor devices, optoelectronics, and solar cells. He can be contacted at email:
zulatfyi@utem.edu.my.

Radi Husin Ramlee is a lecturer in Faculty of Electronic and Computer

Technology and Engineering at Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) in Melaka,
Malaysia. He received his B.Eng. (Hons) from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and
M.Eng. in electrical from Imperial College London, United Kingdom. His research interests
are microelectronics. He can be contacted at email: radihusin@utem.edu.my.

Marzaini Rashid a lecturer at the school of physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia

(USM), Malaysia. He earned his B.Eng. degree in electrical/electronic from Universiti
Tenaga Malaysia (UNITEN), followed by an M.Sc. in physics from Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM) and a Ph.D. in optoelectronics from the University of Newcastle Upon Tyne,
United Kingdom. His research focuses on nanostructured semiconductors and optoelectronic
devices. He can be contacted at email: marzaini@usm.my.

Luke Bradley a research associate at the University of Strathclyde within the

Rolls Royce UTC group. He attained his bachelor of engineering in electrical and electronic
engineering from Newcastle University in 2015. Following this, he focused on cryogenic
power electronics during his professional tenure and completed his Ph.D. at Newcastle
University in 2020. His areas of expertise encompass power electronics and circuits operating
at cryogenic temperatures, power device simulations, and the application of microcontroller
data logging. He can be contacted at email: luke.bradley@strath.ac.uk.

Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 15, No. 2, June 2024: 1218-1226