EVOLUTION

NAME: PARIKSHIT MANOJ SONAWANE

CLASS: XII
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
GUIDED BY: MR. RAJNIKANT THAKUR
 Amrishbhai R. Patel School

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that PARIKSHIT MANOJ SONAWANE has successfully

completed the project work entitled “EVOLUTION” in the subject
biology laid down the regulations of CBSE for the purpose of practical
examination in class XII to be held in Amrishbhai R. Patel School.

[Mr. Rajnikant Thakur]

Examiner:

Name: __________
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the accomplishment of this project

successfully, many people have best owned upon
me their blessings and the heart pledged
support, this time I am utilizing to thank all the
people who have been concerned with this
project.

Primarily I would thank god for being able to

complete this project with success. Then I would
like to thank my principal Mr. Kurmurrao repaka
and my biology teacher Mr. Rajnikant Thakur,
whose valuable guidance has been the one that
helped me patch this project and make it full
proof success. His suggestions and instructions
has served as the major contributer towards the
completion of the project.

Then I would like to thank my parents and friends

who have helped me with their valuable
suggestions and guidance has been very helpful
in various phases of the completion of the
project.
Last but not the least I would like to thank my
classmates who have helped me a lot.
 index
 Introduction

 Certificate

 Acknowledgement

 Theory of evolution

 Human evolution

 Experiment

 Bibliography
 Introduction
Evolution refers to the process of change in the genetic composition of a
population over successive generations. It leads to the formation of new
species from existing ones, and these changes accumulate over long
periods of time. The theory of evolution explains the diversity of life on
Earth and is one of the central concepts in biology.
Key Concepts:

1. What is Evolution?
- Evolution is the gradual change in organisms over time, driven by
natural processes such as mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and
gene flow.
- The process results in organisms that are better adapted to their
environment and can lead to the development of new species.

2. Theories of Evolution:
-Lamarckism : (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck): Suggests that organisms change
during their lifetime and these changes are passed on to their offspring
(e.g., giraffes' long necks). This theory was later largely replaced by
Darwin’s theory.
- Darwinism: (Charles Darwin): Proposes the idea of natural selection,
where organisms with favorable traits survive and reproduce, passing
these traits to their offspring.
- Neo-Darwinism: Integrates Darwin's theory with modern genetics. It
emphasizes the role of mutations in creating genetic variation and the
inheritance of traits through genes. This introduction lays the groundwork
for understanding how life has evolved and continues to evolve on Earth.
 Origin of Earth
The origin of Earth is a significant topic in biology as it sets the foundation
for the emergence of life. Earth's formation and the subsequent
development of life are explained through various scientific theories and
hypotheses. Here, we will focus on the process of Earth's origin, the
conditions that supported the birth of life, and the early stages of
biological evolution.

 Formation of the Earth:

The Earth formed around 4.6 billion years ago through a process called
accretion, which is part of the larger process of the formation of the solar
system. The Sun and the planets (including Earth) formed from a giant
rotating cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula.

 The nebula was made of particles of hydrogen, helium, and heavier

elements (e.g., carbon, oxygen, silicon, etc.).
 As the nebula collapsed under gravity, it began to rotate faster,
flattening into a disk-like shape.
 In the center, the Sun was formed through nuclear fusion, and in
the outer regions, the particles clumped together to form
protoplanets, including Earth.

 Early Earth and Its Atmosphere:

 The early Earth was extremely hot due to frequent collisions with
other space debris and the gravitational compression of the planet.
 Gradually, the Earth cooled, allowing the formation of a solid crust.
Water vapor condensed to form oceans.
 The Earth's early atmosphere was likely composed of carbon
dioxide (CO₂), water vapor (H₂O), nitrogen (N₂), and small amounts
of other gases like methane (CH₄) and ammonia (NH₃). It did not
contain significant amounts of oxygen (O₂).
 Origin of Life
Theories of the Origin of Life:

Once Earth had cooled sufficiently, and oceans formed, the conditions
became favorable for the origin of life. Several hypotheses try to explain
how life could have originated on Earth. The two most prominent
theories are:

a) Primordial Soup Theory (Miller-Urey Experiment):

 Proposed by J.B.S. Haldane and Alexander Oparin, this theory

suggests that life began in a "primordial soup" of simple organic
molecules in the oceans.
 According to this hypothesis, ultraviolet radiation from the Sun,
lightning, and volcanic activity could have provided the energy
needed to convert simple molecules (like methane, ammonia, and
water) into more complex organic molecules (like amino acids,
proteins, and nucleic acids).
 The famous Miller-Urey experiment (1953) simulated early Earth
conditions and demonstrated that simple organic molecules, such
as amino acids, could form under such conditions.
 These organic molecules may have eventually led to the first
protocells (precursors to living cells).

b) Hydrothermal Vent Hypothesis:

 Some scientists suggest that life may have originated near

hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, where hot, mineral-rich
water rises from the Earth's interior.
 The vents provide a stable environment with the necessary
chemicals, heat, and energy sources for life to form. This hypothesis
also supports the idea that life could have started in the deep ocean
rather than in shallow pools.
c) RNA World Hypothesis:

 The RNA world hypothesis suggests that RNA (ribonucleic acid),

rather than DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), was the first self-
replicating molecule capable of catalyzing chemical reactions.
 RNA can serve both as a genetic material and as a catalyst
(ribozymes), suggesting that it may have been the key molecule for
the origin of life before DNA and proteins became the central
macromolecules of living organisms.

The First Life Forms:

 The earliest life forms were likely single-celled microorganisms that

appeared around 3.5 to 4 billion years ago. These early organisms
were most likely anaerobic (lived without oxygen) and may have
been similar to modern bacteria or archaea.
 The exact nature of these first organisms is still a subject of
research, but they were probably prokaryotic (lacking a nucleus and
other organelles).
 Adaptive radiation
Adaptive radiation is an evolutionary process in which organisms diversify
rapidly from a common ancestor into a variety of forms to exploit
different ecological niches. This phenomenon is a key aspect of evolution
and helps explain the diversity of life on Earth.

Adaptive radiation refers to the process by which a single ancestral

species evolves into multiple distinct species, each adapted to a unique
environment or ecological role.

Key Features of Adaptive Radiation:

1. Common Ancestor: All the diverging species originate from a single

common ancestor.
2. Rapid Diversification: The evolution into different forms occurs
relatively quickly in evolutionary terms.
3. Ecological Niches: The newly formed species are adapted to
different ecological roles or habitats.
4. Environmental Triggers: Adaptive radiation is often triggered by
new opportunities, such as colonization of new habitats, extinction
of competitors, or environmental changes.

Examples of Adaptive Radiation:

1. Darwin’s Finches:

 Location: Galápagos Islands.

 Observation by Charles Darwin: He observed finches with different
beak shapes and sizes adapted for feeding on various food sources
like seeds, fruits, and insects.
 Process: A common ancestor arrived on the islands, and over time,
the finches adapted to different ecological niches, resulting in about
13 different species.
2. Australian Marsupials:

 Marsupials in Australia, such as kangaroos, koalas, and bandicoots,

evolved from a common ancestor to fill various ecological roles.
 These species adapted to different habitats, such as forests,
grasslands, and deserts.

3. Cichlid Fishes:

 Location: African Great Lakes (e.g., Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi, and
Lake Tanganyika).
 Cichlid fish have diversified into hundreds of species, each adapted
to different ecological roles, such as feeding on algae, plankton, or
other fish.

4. Mammalian Radiation:

 After the extinction of dinosaurs around 65 million years ago,

mammals diversified rapidly to occupy ecological niches that were
previously dominated by dinosaurs. This led to the evolution of
species like bats, whales, primates, and carnivores.
 Human Evolution

Human evolution is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of

modern humans (**Homo sapiens**) from their primate ancestors. It
involves changes in physical characteristics, behavior, and brain
development over millions of years.

Stages of Human Evolution:

1. Dryopithecus (15-20 million years ago):

- Time Period: Miocene epoch.
 - Features: Considered one of the common ancestors of apes and
humans.
- Lived in forests.
- Arboreal and quadrupedal (moved on all fours).
- Diet consisted of soft fruits and plants.
-Fossil Evidence: Found in Europe, Asia, and Africa.

2. Ramapithecus (12-14 million years ago):

- Time Period: Late Miocene epoch.
- Features:
- Walked on the ground more frequently than Dryopithecus.
- Had a more human-like jaw and teeth structure.
- Diet included tough plants.
- Significance: Considered closer to the human lineage.

3. Australopithecus (4-2 million years ago):

-Time Period: Pliocene epoch.
- Features:
- Known as the "Southern Ape."
- Bipedal (walked upright on two legs).
- Brain size: 400-600 cc.
- Used simple tools for food gathering.
- Fossil Evidence: Found in East Africa (e.g., "Lucy").
- Significance: Considered a direct ancestor of the genus Homo.
4. Homo habilis (2.5-1.5 million years ago):
- Time Period Pleistocene epoch.
- Features:
- Known as the "Handy Man."
- Brain size: ~650-800 cc.
- Used tools made of stones.
- Showed signs of social behavior and communication.
- Fossil Evidence: Found in Africa.
- Significance: First member of the genus *Homo*.

5. Homo erectus (1.8 million - 200,000 years ago):

- Time Period: Pleistocene epoch.
- Features:
- Brain size: ~900-1100 cc.
- Used fire and more advanced tools.
- Robust body structure and better adaptability to different climates.
- Migrated out of Africa to Europe and Asia.
- Fossil Examples: "Java Man" and "Peking Man."
- Significance: Showed advanced tool-making skills and social behavior.

6. Homo neanderthalensis (400,000 - 40,000 years ago):

- Common Name: Neanderthals.
- Features:
- Brain size: ~1200-1750 cc.
- Adapted to cold climates; found in Europe and western Asia.
 - Used sophisticated tools, buried their dead, and displayed cultural
practices.
- Significance: Coexisted with early *Homo sapiens* and may have
interbred with them.
-Fate: Extinct around 40,000 years ago.

7. Homo sapiens (200,000 years ago - present):

- Modern Humans:
- Brain size: ~1350 cc.
- Highly developed brain, capable of abstract thinking, language, and
complex tool-making.
- Developed agriculture, art, and advanced technology.
-Key Milestones:
- Originated in Africa and migrated globally (Out of Africa theory).
- Domesticated plants and animals, leading to the development of
civilizations.

Important Aspects of Human Evolution:

1.Bipedalism:
- One of the earliest adaptations distinguishing human ancestors from
apes.
- Freed hands for tool use and other functions.
- Improved energy efficiency in locomotion.

2. Brain Development:
 - Gradual increase in brain size and complexity allowed for advanced
cognitive abilities.
- Enabled language, problem-solving, and cultural advancements.

3. Tool Use:
- Early humans developed and used tools for hunting, gathering, and
protection.
- Tool complexity increased over time, from simple stone tools to more
advanced implements.

4. Cultural Evolution:
- Development of art, rituals, and social structures.
- Innovations like fire control, agriculture, and construction were
pivotal.

---

Key Fossil Sites:

1. East Africa:
- Rift Valley (Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia) – fossils of *Australopithecus*
and early *Homo* species.
2.Europe:
- Neanderthal fossils in Germany and Spain.
3. Asia:
- *Homo erectus* fossils in Java (Indonesia) and China (Peking Man).
 Bibliography

 Scribd.com

 Chatgpt

 Wikipedia

 Slideshare

 Oracle

 Ncert.nic