Syllabus - INDIAN TRADITIONS, CULTURAL AND SOCIETY (KNC-502/602)

Module 1- Society State and Polity in India

State in Ancient India: Evolutionary Theory, Force Theory, Mystical Theory Contract Theory, Stages of State Formation in
Ancient India, Kingship , Council of Ministers Administration Political Ideals in Ancient India Conditions’ of the Welfare of
Societies, The Seven Limbs of the State, Society in Ancient India, Purusārtha, Varnāshrama System, Āshrama or the Stages
of Life, Marriage, Understanding Gender as a social category, The representation of Women in Historical traditions,
Challenges faced by Women. Four-class Classification, Slavery.

Module 2- Indian Literature, Culture, Tradition, and Practices

Evolution of script and languages in India: Harappan Script and Brahmi Script. The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata, Puranas, Buddhist And Jain Literature in Pali, Prakrit And Sanskrit, Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Famous
Sanskrit Authors, Telugu Literature, Kannada Literature, Malayalam Literature ,Sangama Literature Northern Indian
Languages & Literature, Persian And Urdu ,Hindi Literature

Module 3- Indian Religion, Philosophy, and Practices

Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism, Six System Indian Philosophy, Shankaracharya, Various Philosophical
Doctrines , Other Heterodox Sects, Bhakti Movement, Sufi movement, Socio religious reform movement of 19th century,
Modern religious practices.

Module 4-Science, Management and Indian Knowledge System

Astronomy in India, Chemistry in India, Mathematics in India, Physics in India, Agriculture in India, Medicine in India
,Metallurgy in India, Geography, Biology, Harappan Technologies, Water Management in India, Textile Technology in India
,Writing Technology in India Pyrotechnics in India Trade in Ancient India/,India’s Dominance up to Pre-colonial Times

Module 5- Cultural Heritage and Performing Arts

Indian Architect, Engineering and Architecture in Ancient India, Sculptures, Seals, coins, Pottery, Puppetry, Dance, Music,
Theatre, drama, Painting, Martial Arts Traditions, Fairs and Festivals, Current developments in Arts and Cultural, Indian’s
Cultural Contribution to the World. Indian Cinema
MODULE – 1 SOCIETY STATE AND POLITY IN INDIA

Introduction
Do you think that the culture of Indian people has been the same since the beginning?
 The answer is no. No culture remains the same. And this is true of India as well.
 It has gone through many phases of change. Do you know why these changes occur? This is because every
dynasty, every invader who comes and settles down in the country leaves their marks on the culture of
that country.
 In order to understand the present culture of Indian people, it is necessary to understand the process it
has gone through in the past.
 Thus, in this lesson we will attempt to take a look at the life of the people of Ancient India. You wil l read
about the various stages of ancient Indian history from the Harappan times through Vedic, Mauryan and
Gupta periods.
 The emphasis is on the changing nature of Indian society with corresponding changes in society and
culture.
 When we read history we can understand how the modern world has emerged over long centuries of
development. It is important to appreciate what we have achieved in the past to make our future
worthwhile.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY

 I am sure you have often asked yourself why you are studying history.
 Studying history is one way of getting to know the past.
 History is an attempt to understand how and why our ancestors lived as they did, what difficulties they
met with and in what manner they overcame them.
 It is important for us to be acquainted with the past to understand better what is happening in the India
of today.
 After going through this lesson you will come to know the story of your country, which started many
centuries ago.
 History is no longer treated as merely a study of dates and events and that too largely only political
events.
 Its scope has been widened to include many aspects of life. These include the study of patterns of life,
which we call culture.
 Culture was once defined as that which relates to art, architecture, literature and philosophy. Now it
includes all the activities of a society.
 Therefore the emphasis of history has shifted from the study of only the upper groups of society to all
levels of society. It now covers information on kings and statesmen as well as on ordinary people who
make history. It includes the study of art and architecture, of the evolution of languages in India,
literature and religion.
 Now we do not look only at what was happening at the aristocratic level of society. We also try to
reconstruct the interests and concerns of people at lower levels. This makes history more interesting and
helps us understand our society for better.
 The people that went into the making of our society, at both the aristocratic and the ordinary level, were
not all indigenous to India, to start with.
 Many came from other regions and settled down in India. They married locally, intermixed with the
existing people and became a part of Indian society.
 Our society, therefore, has a rich heritage of different kinds of people. Because of this large variety of
people, there has been an equally large variety of religions, languages, and customs in our country.
 The correct understanding of history depends on two things.
 a. One is a careful and critical use of source material given to us by historians defending certain
statements which should be decided on rational analysis.
b. Secondly, historical events have causes and these causes should be fully examined. Above all, even
the past must be subjected to a critical analysis. It is only in this way that historical knowledge will
advance.

 The past of India goes back several thousand years. We learn about it from the evidence which our
ancestors have left behind. For the near past we have written and printed records. For times when
printing was not known, there are records written by hand on paper. But earlier still, when paper was not
made, records were written on dried palm leaves, the bark of the birch tree and plates of copper and in
some cases, they were inscribed on large rocks, pillars, stones walls or tablets made of clay and stone.
There was a time still further back when even writing was unknown.
 Our knowledge of the life of people in those ancient days comes from the objects which they left behind,
for example, their pottery or their weapons and tools.
 They are all clues in the game of a historical treasure hunt.
 But these clues can be of many kinds. The clues most commonly used are manuscripts.
 Manuscripts are ancient books, written either on dried palm leaves or the thick bark of the birch tree, or
on paper.
 Some of the languages in which the very old books are written are languages which we in India do not use
in everyday life any more, such as Pali and Prakrit.
 Others are written in Sanskrit and Arabic, which we still study and sometimes use in our religious
ceremonies.
 Another language Tamil, which is spoken in South India and whose literature goes to an early period in
used even today.
 These are called ‘classical languages’ and the history of many parts of the world is recorded in various
classical languages.
 In Europe, ancient manuscripts were often written in Greek and Latin in western Asia, they were written
in Arabic and Hebrew, and in China, classical Chinese was used.

ANCIENT INDIA
 India has a continuous history covering a very long period.
 Evidence of Neolithic habitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan.
 However, the first notable civilization flourished in India around 2700 BC in the north western part of the
Indian subcontinent, covering a large area.
 The civilization is referred to as the Harappan civilization. Most of the sites of this civilization developed
on the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries.
 The culture associated with the Harappan civilization is the first known urban culture in India.
 The Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town planning, sanitation, drainage system and
broad well-laid roads.
 They built double storied houses of burnt bricks each one of which had a bathroom, a kitchen and a well.
 The walled cities had other important buildings such as the Great Bath, Granaries and Assembly Halls.
 Agriculture was the main occupation of the Harappans who were living in rural areas. Those living in the
cities carried on internal and external trade and developed contacts with other civilizations such as
Mesopotamia.
 They were excellent potters. Various types of utensils, toys, seals, figurines have been excavated from
different sites.
 Harappans also had the technical knowledge of metals and the process of alloying.
 The bronze sculpture of a dancing girl found in Mohenjodaro testifies the sculptural skills and aesthetic
sense of the Harappans.
  Shell, ivory, bone and faience were used as material for different crafts and objects.
 Lothal was a dockyard situated in Dholaka Taluk of Ahmedabad in Gujarat. It was also a well planned wall
city. It was an important centre of sea trade with the western world. Another important town in Gujarat
was Dhaulavira while Kalibangam was in Rajasthan.
 Numerous seals carrying the images of the one-horned rhinocerous known as unicorn, peepal leaves and
a male god throw light on the religious beliefs of the Harappans.
 It appears that they worshipped plants and animals and the forces of nature.
 They worshipped a male god resembling Lord Shiva of later times and a mother goddess among others.
 They probably believed in life after death and also in charms and spells.
 Seals engraved with animal figures like the humped bull, elephant and rhinoceros suggest that these
animals were considered sacred. ‘Peepal’ has been found depicted on many seals.
 Harappans knew how to write and most of their seals contain some form of script. But unfortunately no
one has yet been able to interpret that script.
 As a result, our knowledge of the Harappan civilization is based on the archaeological evidence alone.
 The figures of men and women on various seals found in the excavations reveal that the people knew the
art of spinning and weaving.
 They were perhaps the first people to cultivate cotton.
 A large number of Indus seals found in Mesopotamia which indicated of a possible trade between the
Indus valley and Mesopotamian civilization.
 By 1800 BC the Harappan civilization began declining. However, we do not know the exact reasons why
this happened.

STATE IN ANCIENT INDIA

State has been the key concept in political science since the period of grand thinkers like Plato and Aristotle. To
look into the origin and evolution of the state has been one of the greatest issues in Political Science.
In ancient India also thinkers like Bhisma, Narada, Brihaspati, Kautilya, Kamandaka have looked at the problem.
On the basis of the writings of these thinkers we can detect four important theories regarding the origin of the
state in ancient India, namely—
a) Evolutionary Theory
b) Force Theory
c) Mystical Theory
d) Contract Theory
Out of these four theories the theory of mystical origin and the theory of contractual origin are more prevalent.
We will look at these theories one by one.

THEORY OF EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN

 This is the oldest theory of the origin of the state in India and has been mentioned in the Atharva Veda.
According to this theory the state is the result of evolutionary progress and it didn’t originate at a fixed
time. The tenth hymn of the eighth chapter of the Atharva Veda gives a picture of the evolutionary origin
of the state.
 On the basis of Atharva Veda several stages of the evolution of the state can be traced. The hymns of the
Atharva Veda state that the earliest phase of human life was the stage of vairājya or stateless state. It
was a state of complete anarchy.
 But subsequently, with the emergence of agriculture, stable life became possible.
 To fulfil the needs of agricultural society the family emerged and the head of the family became the first
wielder of authority.
 Further, the need of co-operation in the different realms of society led to the emergence of sabhā and
samiti.
 Sabhā was the organisation of elderly people and samiti was the general assembly of common people.
  With the emergence of sabhā and samiti organised political life began which finally culminated in the
emergence of the state.
 A.S. Altekar, N.N. Law and H.C. Raychaudhuri somehow favour the theory of evolutionary origin.
 R. Shamasastry also favours the evolutionary theory but in his opinion the earliest form of family in
ancient India was matriarchal which after the invasion of Aryans became patriarchal.
 Bhandarkar has quoted five passages from Shānti Parva which suggest that the kingly office arose to
protect the weak against the strong.
 One of the main duties of the king was the protection of private property by punishing the thief and that
of the family by punishing the adulterers.
 Preservation of the varna (caste system) was another great responsibility of the king.
 Generally the maintenance of the caste system was considered an indispensable element of dharma, for
according to Kamandaka if dharma is violated by the members of the state, there is bound to be pralaya
or dissolution of the whole social order.
 The dominant ideal that moved the king in ancient India was the attainment of dharma, artha and kāma.
If the artha is taken in the sense of enjoyment of property, the kāma in the sense of enjoyment of family
life and dharma in the sense of maintenance of the legal system.

FORCE THEORY
 Though ancient Indian political thinkers did not propound force theory in a systematic way, force was
considered to be an important factor in the evolution of the state in India.
 Earliest Aryan clans fought among themselves for pet animals (specially for the cow), pastureland,
settlements and sources of drinking water. Only a strong and able warrior could lead the clan in such
wars. So he was given special status and the members of clan started obeying him. This tendency
continued in the days of peace also and subsequently the leader became king.
 Citing examples from the Vedas (Rig Veda and Sāma Veda) and the Brahmanas (Aitareya, Shatapatha)
John Spellman also opines that the king in ancient India was primarily a military leader.
 But it should be clearly mentioned that none of the political commentators give a systematic and well
knitted explanation of the role of force in the emergence of the state in ancient India.

THEORY OF MYSTICAL ORIGIN

 This was the most popular theory of origin of the state in ancient India.
 Kingship was given divine sanction and the king was considered not to be the representative of God but
himself a God who contained the powers of important Gods like Indra, Varuna and Agni.
 According to A.L. Basham the doctrine of royal divinity was explicitly proclaimed. It appears first in the
epics and the law books of Manu. The latter declares in dignified language:
“When the world was without a king
And dispersed in fear in all directions,
The lord created a king
For protection of all.”
“He made him of eternal particles
Of Indra and the wind,
Yama, the Sun and fire,
Varuna, the moon and the lord of wealth.”

 In the course of the ceremonies king was identified with Indra “because he is a kshatriya and because he
is a sacrificer” and even with the high God Prajāpati himself.
 He took three steps on a tiger skin and was thus magically identified with the God Vishnu whose three
paces covered earth and heaven.
  The king was evidently the fellow of the God. The magical power which pervaded the king at his
consecration was restored and strengthened in the course of his reign by further rites, such as the
ceremonial rejuvenation of the Vājapeya and the horse-sacrifice (Asvamedha) which not only
ministered to his ambition and arrogance but also ensured the prosperity and fertility of the kingdom.
 The brahmanic rituals such as horse sacrifice became inactive under the Mauryas, but was revived by the
Sungas and was performed by many later kings both in North and South. After the period of the Guptas
these sacrifices became rare, however, the last we have been able to trace took place in the Chola Empire
in the eleventh century.
 But the tradition of royal divinity continued. Kings referred to their divine status in their titles and
commended,and they were regularly addressed by their courtiers as deva, or God.
 The Chola kings and some others were even worshipped as God in the temples.
 Regarding divine origin of kingship, a story repeatedly appears in the Mahābhārata and other texts. This
is the very ancient story of the first man, Manu, who combined the characteristics of Adam and Noah in
the Hebrew tradition. The story tells that at the beginning of this period of cosmic time, when greed and
wrath had disturbed human relations, men inflicted untold misery upon one another.
 Arthashāstra states that the people should be told that, the king fulfils the functions of the God Indra (the
king of Gods) and Yama (the God of death) upon earth.
 Ashoka and other Mauryan kings took the title “Beloved of the Gods” (devānāmpiya), and, though they
seem not to have claimed wholly divine status.
 John Spellman also favours the view that the theory of divine origin was the dominant and popularly
accepted theory regarding the origin of the state in ancient India. According to Spellman “The king was
appointed by the God and ruled through divine grace.”
 The viewpoint which supports the theory of divine origin of state in ancient India has been widely
criticized by Western as well as Indian scholars.

Organic Theory
• The state is like an organism and each organ has a specific function to perform.
• Healthy and efficient functioning of the whole organism depends on healthy condition of each part of
body/organism
• So, the state in its nature , like a living being and state and individual has the relation what an organism
has with its cells.
There are seven organs of state:
1. King
2. Minister
3. Territory/Population
4. Fortified city/ Capital
5. The Treasury
6. The Army
7. Friends/Allies
Matsya Purana- The King as root and the subjects as trees.
Sukranitisara- Shukracharya stated the King is Head, ministers-eyes, treasurer-mouth, the army-heart, the fort-
hands, territory-feet
Mahabharata also supports this theory.

CONTRACT THEORY
 Contract theory is the most extensively discussed theory of the origin of the state in ancient India.
 The reference to contract theory can be seen in the Buddhist texts like Dīgha Nikāya and Mahāvastu and
brahmanical texts like Shānti Parva and Arthashāstra of Kautilya.
  John Spellman and U.N. Ghoshal accept only the Buddhist sources as the authentic source of contract
theory because according to them the brahmanical texts have a mixture of contract and divine origin
whereas Buddhist sources give a clear cut account of contract theory.
 On the other hand K.P. Jayasawal and D.R. Bhandarkar, citing examples from the Vedas and Brāhmanas
advocate that the contractual origin of the state can be traced to brahmanical texts as well, along with
the Buddhist texts.
 The first clear and developed exposition of this theory is found in the Buddhist canonical text Dīgha
Nikāya where the story of creation reminds us of the ideal state of Rousseau followed by the state of
nature as depicted by Hobbes.
 It is said that there was a time when people were perfect, and lived in a state of happiness and tranquility.
This perfect state lasted for ages, but at last the pristine purity declined and there set in rottenness.
 Differences of sex manifested themselves, and there appeared distinctions of color.
 In a word, heavenly life degenerated into earthly life.
 Now shelter, food and drink were required.
 People gradually entered into a series of agreements among themselves and set up the institutions of the
family and private property. But this gave rise to a new set of problems, for there appeared theft and
other forms of unsocial conduct.
 Therefore, people assembled and agreed to choose as chief a person who was the best favoured, the
most attractive and the most capable. In return they agreed to contribute to him a portion of their paddy.
The individual, who was thus elected, came to hold in serial order three titles:
a) Mahāsammata
b) Khattiya and
c) Rājā
According to the text –
 the first title means one chosen by the whole people,
 the second title means the lord of the fields
 the third title means one who charms the people by means of dharma.

 The speculation made in the Dīgha Nikāya is the product of an advanced stage of social development
when tribal society had broken up giving rise to clash of interests between man and woman, between
people of different races and colors and between people of unequal wealth.
 This idea was a adumbrated in the middle Ganga plains, where paddy was the basis of the economy of
the people.
 Political compact as developed in the Dīgha Nikāya not only lays a different type of emphasis on
qualifications for election as king but also clearly states the obligations of the two parties.
 The king has been assigned the task to punish the wicked people. The only definite form of punishment
is the banishment of the guilty.
 Thus, on the whole, the obligation of the head of the state is negative. He steps in only when people
break the established laws.
 The khattiya which means the lord of fields, suggests that the primary duty of the king is to protect the
plots of one against being encroached upon by the other.
 The interpretation of the title rājā imposes on the king the positive obligation of charming or pleasing the
people.
 In contrast to the several obligations of the king, the people are assigned only one duty, namely, to pay a
part of their paddy as contribution to the king. The rate of taxation is not prescribed but the
contemporary law-book of Baudhayana lays down that the king should protect the people in return for
one sixth of the produce.
 Originally the agreement takes place between a single kshatriya on the one hand and the people on the
other, but at later stage it is extended to the kshatriya as a class. Towards the end of the story of creation
 in the Dīgha Nikāya it is stated that thus took place the origin of the social circles of the nobles, Khattiya
Mandala.
 The earliest brahmanical exposition of the contract theory of the origin of the state in clear terms occurs
in the Arthashāstra of Kautilya. Just as in the Dīgha Nikāya this theory is propounded incidently in
connection with the refutation of the brahmins claim of social supremacy.
 It states that overtaken by a state of anarchy the people elected Manu Vaivasvata as their king and
undertook to pay 1/6th of their grain, and 1/10th of their articles of merchandise in addition to a portion
of their gold.
 In return for these taxes the king guaranteed social welfare to the people by undertaking to suppress
acts of mischief, afflicting the guilty with taxes.
 Even the inhabitants of the forest were required to give him 1/6th of the forest produce.
 This account of the origin of the state closes with the moral that the king should not be disregarded.
 The Kautilyan speculation is in keeping with an advanced economy, when different kinds of grain were
produced so that the king laid claim not only to an unspecified part of paddy but also to a fixed part of all
kinds of grain produce.
 Similarly, trade had been established as a regular source of income to the state, for both Megasthenes
and Kautilya refer to officers regulating trade in this period.
 Besides, mining was a thriving industry in the Mauryan age.
 Probably on account of this, provision is made for payment of a part of hiranya, which covers not only
gold but also includes similar other precious metals.
 Finally, the fact that even the inhabitants of the forest are not exempted from taxes is an indication of
the comprehensive character of the Kautilyan state.
 Thus taken as a whole the first three taxes, namely, those in grain, commodities and metals, reflect the
developed economy of the Mauryan period.

CONTRACT THEORY IN THE WESTERN POLITICAL TRADITION

 In Western political tradition three philosophers Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau who are jointly known as
contractualists formulated the social contract theory regarding the origin of the state.
 All of them claimed that the state is not a natural institution but is created by a contract which suggests
that the political authority is the result of mutual consent among individuals.
 But the three contractualist philosophers differ in their description of contract and various issues related
to it.
 Contractualist philosophers start their description with the depiction of human nature. Based on this
human nature they make a description of the state of nature which is a stage prior to the creation of the
state.

THOMAS HOBBES
 According to Hobbes human nature is basically selfish. Self interest is the mainspring of human
actions.
 Individuals are creatures of desire, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.
 Therefore, Hobbes contended that human life was nothing but a perpetual and relentless desire
and pursuit of power.
 Due to this selfish human nature the state of nature is a state of continuous conflict based on the
principle of “might is right”.
 In the state of nature every individual is free to do everything which means no one is free to do
anything in actual practice.
 There was complete absence of order and peace in such a state.
 In Hobbes’s classic phrase, life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”.
  Hobbes further formulates that individuals have a general tendency of self preservation. But in
the state of nature survival or self-preservation is threatened.
 Therefore, individuals enter into a contract through which they surrender their right to do
everything to the Leviathan or the state. They only retain with them the right to self-preservation
(or right to life).
 The state power has no limitation except the limitation to protect the individual’s right to self-
preservation.

JOHN LOCKE
 Locke explained human nature in terms of essential social virtues.
 Human beings are by nature peace loving and rational. Therefore, in the state of nature
peace and goodwill prevailed.
 In the state of nature life of the individual was governed by ‘natural law’ which
suggested that “don’t do to others what you don’t want others to do to you”.
 In the state of nature individuals possessed three ‘natural rights’:
a. Right to life
b. Right to liberty
c. Right to property.
 But eventually individuals experienced some inconveniences in the state of nature.
 Firstly, there was no clear definition of natural law.
 Secondly, there was no sufficient authority to enforce them.
 Thirdly, there was no common arbiter having authority to decide disputes in agreement with the law of
nature.
 Due to these inconveniences individuals entered into a contract to establish the state.
 By this contract each individual surrendered his or her right of interpreting and enforcing the law of
nature. They did not surrender their other natural rights.
 By a second act, the majority having the whole power of the community in them, decided to set up a
government to carry out the provisions of the first contract.
 Sovereignty (power) belonged to the community and government was only a trustee.
 The community and the people had right to dismiss the government if it proved false to the trust reposed
in it.
 Lockean contract is different from Hobbessian contract in many ways.
 In Hobbessian contract, individuals surrender all rights except the right to self- preservation whereas in
Lockean contract individuals retain their natural rights. They only surrender their right to interpret and
enforce natural law.
 Similarly, in Lockean contract this right was given to the community as a whole and not to a particular
body like Leviathan as it was in the Hobbessian contract.

ROUSSEAU
 Rousseau depicted the individual as noble savage in the state of nature.
 According to Rousseau human nature is basically good, sympathetic and simple.
 The state of nature was a state of perfect equality and liberty— a stage of idyllic happiness.
 It was a type of “golden age”. But the growth of population and consequent economic
development created tension in the state of nature.
 The growing economic advancement gave rise to the system of property.
 The notion of property made individuals think in terms of mine and thine.
 This marked the dawn of reason. Human nature which was previously simple now became
increasingly complex.
 Hostility and conflict appeared in the state of nature.
  The need of self preservation impelled individuals to form a civil society by contract.
 By contract, each individual put his person and all his powers in common under the supreme
direction of the ‘General Will’.

A general overview of the three contractualist philosophers suggests that they reached different
conclusions on the basis of their social contract theories.
 Hobbes became a supporter of absolutism.
 Locke justified constitutional government.
 Rousseau supported popular sovereignty and direct democracy.
 Locke emphasized on the natural rights of the individuals. Individuals are born with
certain rights which are inalienable from the individual. If the government is unable to
protect these rights, individuals have the right to revolt against the government.
 On the other hand Hobbes accepts only one right of the individual that is the right to self-
preservation.
 Individuals do not have anything called natural rights.
 Rousseau also does not accept natural rights of the individual.
According to Rousseau the General Will is always right. Therefore, the individual must abide by the
commands of the General Will.

Stages –Creation/Formation of State

Creation of states is progressive, as need arose of human kinds. Human started doing farming, baking foods,
practicing various believes/ rituals as per Veda. In of practices such activities, many problems stood in front of
them, such as protections, their defined boundary, land, assets, etc. The evolution of state can be described in 6
Stages
Stage 1. Looting
Robbery and killing in border fights to capture others land, assets, pet animals etc. killing of men, carrying away
of children women, looting of herds, and burning of dwellings.
The peasant groups/tribes of Kafirs assemble, used food affluent area and streams into the fruitful lands . This
led to define/compromise a specific area of land and people. Such evolution took form of states under several
tribes/influential people
Stage 2: Truce
The second stage may be taken as peace settlement after muscle conflicts Gradually, peasant realized the actual
developments and happiness for human kinds. In such situation they accepted their fate and have ceased every
resistance. About this time, Farmers started thinking to live in harmony, as by killing peasant will never stop and
doing so, human being cannot live peacefully.
Stage 3: Tribute
The third stage arrives when peasants started producing the "surplus" food, grains and other useful items. Such
production made them generous and peasantry brought by them regularly to the tents of the herds men as
"tribute," a regulation that affords to both parties self-evident and considerable advantages. In this situation
herd also helped the peasants to produce more and more. Thus a part of herd of tribes started changing his
approach of looting, killing and running away from one place to another. This can be taken as a social contract
between damagers and creator.
Stage 4: Occupation
The fourth stage, people started practicing different occupation for survival. For example landless started
working in the field of farmer having enough land. Some others stared making equipments of farming, pottery,
blacksmith, medical aids, education etc. These sense of occupation once more, is of very great importance, since
it adds the decisive factor in the development of the state.
Stage 5: Monopoly
In the fifth stage, some peasants became wealthy and mighty. They declared themselves as lord and started
dictating the society and give birth of completely the full state. Quarrels arise between neighboring villages or
clans that the lords no longer permit to be fought out. The lords assume the right to arbitrate, and in case of
need, to enforce their judgment. In the end, it happens that at each "court" of the village king or chief of the clan
there is an official deputy who exercises the power, while the chiefs are permitted to retain the appearance of
authority.
Stage 6: State
After the sense of lordships among the villages, more and more mighty clan, group started showing their
appearance. In such situation, people formed Janpada(defined area), Mahajanapada. Each
Janapada/Mahajanapada elected/selected its chief. Consequently, Kingship came into existence and becomes
permanent in nature. The sons of king take over the command of kingdom.

Kingship

 The king was the most important figure in the body politic.
 In the Saptānga theory of the state, developed by Kautilya the king has been described as the head or
the most important organ of the state.
 The king performed multi-dimensional functions. The king’s functions involved the protection not only of
his kingdom against external aggression, but also of life, property and traditional custom against internal
foes. He protected the purity of class and caste by ensuring that those who challenged the system were
excommunicated.
 He protected the family system by punishing adultery and ensuring the fair inheritance of family
property.
 He protected widows and orphans by making them his wards.
 He protected the rich against the poor by suppressing robbery, and he protected the poor against the rich
by punishing extortion and oppression.
 Religion was protected by liberal grants to learned brahmins and temples and frequently to heterodox
sects also.
 Ashoka was not the only king of India to proclaim that all men were his children, or to take pride in his
ceaseless activity for the welfare of his subjects.
 Comparing the king the ascetic says:

“In the happiness of his subjects lies the king’s happiness,

In the welfare of his subjects, his welfare.
The king’s good is not that which pleases him,
But that which pleases his subjects.”

 Arthashāstra suggests a time-table for the king’s day, which allows him only four and a half hours sleep
and three hours for eating and recreation, the rest of the day being spent in state affairs of one kind or
another.
 The swarms of guards, ushers, and other officials who surrounded the king’s person must often have
demanded bribes, and otherwise have obstructed the access of the subject to his sovereign.
 But the best of Indian kings at all times have made the public audience, or darbār, an important
instrument of government.
 The ideal before the king in ancient India was that of being a chakravartī meaning a king who ruled over
the united vast territory of the Indian sub- continent extending from Kashmir to Kanyakumari.
 The concept of the universal emperor was also known to the Jainas, and in the epics numerous kings of
legend, such as Yudhisthira and Rama, are said to have been digvijayins or conquerors of all the four
quarters.
  The position, powers and privileges of the king have varied from age to age.
 During the prehistoric period, the king was only the senior-most member in the council of peers, when he
often owed his position to an election, either real or formal, when there was a popular council (samiti) to
actively supervise his administration, his position was often insecure and powers were limited.
 After 500 B.C.E. the office of king was elevated to new heights. During this period the king became the
effective head of the executive administration and there was no popular assembly like samiti to check
him.
 He controlled both the treasury and the military forces, though commander-in-chief and treasurer were
under him.
 Ministers were selected by the king and held office at his pleasure. The king presided over the council of
ministers and its decisions had to receive royal assent.

Council of Ministers

 Ministers or council of advisors have been regarded by ancient Indian political thinkers as a very vital
organ of the body politic.
 The Mahābhārata observes at one place that the king is as vitally dependent upon ministers as animals
are upon clouds, brahmins on the Vedas and women upon their husbands.
 Manusmriti points out that even a simple thing appears as difficult if one is to do it single handed; why
then attempt to run the complex machinery of the administration without the assistance of ministers.
 The size of this mantriparishad or council of ministers varied, and the authorities suggested figures
ranging from seven to thirty-seven.
 It seems that the body was divided into two parts mantrina and mantriparishad.
 Mantriparishad was the large body resembling a modern council of ministers. It consisted of all the
ministers.
 Mantrina was a smaller body or a core organisation within the mantriparishad largely resembling the
modern cabinet.
 It included the few most important ministers like the purohita (priest), senāpati (supreme commander of
army) and yuvarāja (the crown prince).
 The Mauryan council of ministers COMPARED with the Privy Council of Britain
 “It is interesting to notice how the executive machinery in the Indian constitution develops on parallel
lines with that of England. As the great National Council of the English gave rise to the Permanent Council
which subsequently dwindled into the Privy Council out of which the king selected his confidential
ministers and formed the cabinet, So the samiti of the Vedic period gave place to the mantriparisad out
of which the king selected a few to form a close cabinet.”
 The council was not a cabinet in the modern sense, but an advisory body, with few corporate functions.
 The council's purpose was primarily to advise the king, and not to govern.
 In fact, the council often exerted great powers. It might transact business in the king's absence, and the
Ashokan inscriptions show that it might take minor decisions without consulting him.

Administration

 Bureaucracy developed as a well organized, hierarchical, cadre-based administrative system.

 Arthashāstra of Kautilya the establishment of a large and complex bureaucracy was a remarkable feature
of the Mauryan government.
 It mentions 18 tirthas who are probably called mahāmātras or high functionaries.
 Although the term mahāmātra is used only on a few occasions in the Arthashāstra, its real counterpart
being Amātya it is familiar enough in Ashokan inscriptions.
  In addition to the 18 trithas Kautilya provides in some detail accounts of 27 superintendents (adhyaksas)
concerned mostly with economic functions and some military duties though social functions are not
ignored.
 Although Megasthenes and Ashokan inscriptions have nothing to say on rules of recruitment, Kautilya lays
down certain qualifications for the cadre of high officers known as Amātyas, the emphasis being on noble
birth.
 The Mauryas developed a well organized bureaucracy. With the help of this centralized bureaucratic
structure not only did the government regulate the economic life of the country, but it also took an
important part in it.
 All mines including pearl beds, fisheries and salt pans, were owned by the state, and were either worked
directly with the labour of criminals or serfs, or let out to entrepreneurs, from whom the king claimed a
percentage of their output as royalty.

Political Ideals in Ancient India

 Political ideals like liberty, justice, fraternity and nationalism are a product of the modern age.
 If viewed strictly from the lens of the contemporary period, we can't find any systematic expression of
these ideals, in ancient India. But seen from a different perspective, ancient Indians did have these
ideals in a undeveloped form.
 Showing the importance of freedom the Vedas state that independence is necessary for mankind and
those who are not independent are worse than dead.
 In varnāshrma institution too, an independent living has been kept in mind.
 A man lived independently during Grihasthaāshrama and when he was likely to be dependent on the
offspring coming of age, there is the provision of the older people resorting to Vānprastha and then to
Sanyāsa, again living freely in the solitude of hills and dales rather than living as dependent on their
children.
 For disposal of justice the Mauryan state had a system of judiciary.
 Dharmasthīya was the civil court and kantakashodhana was organised to deal with a large number of
economic crimes.
 The Rāmāyana extols this country as a karmabhūmi, the land of pious acts.
 This shows the belongingness of people to land and their fellow beings.
 The early seeds of nationalism can be traced in this instance.
 Similarly, the ideal of ancient Indian thinkers was vasudhaivakutumbakam (treating the whole world like
a family.) This was the concept of universal brotherhood or fraternity.

Society in Ancient India

 Society in ancient India had several distinguishing features.
 It was arranged in the form of four varnas.
 The life of individual was divided into four stages or āshramas.
 There were rules regarding marriage, family etc.
 The purpose of life was to attain four goals called purusārthas.

We will see all these aspects in short to understand the social condition of ancient India.

Purusārtha

 The concept of purusārthas is the fundamental principle of Indian social ethics.

 The word purusārtha means “attainments” or “life purposes”.
  The aim of every person is to attain the four noble ends or purusārtha.
 These four purusārthas are — dharma, artha, kāma and moksha.

A. Dharma
 Dharma or the principle of righteousness is considered to be the supreme of the purusārthas.
 Dharma in Indian tradition is different from the Western concept of religion.
 The word religion has been derived from the latin root religare which means “to connect”.
 In this sense religion is a set of principles which connects human beings with God or which connects the
this worldly and the that worldly.
 Therefore, religion essentially has some notion of God or some other supernatural entity.
 It is a particular way of worshipping.
 it is the essential foundation of something or of things in general, and thus signifies ‘truth’.
 it is that which is right, virtuous, meritorious, and accordingly
‘ethical’.
 It is that which is required, precepted, or permitted through religious authority, and thus legal.

CONCLUSION:
 Therefore, dharma in ancient India was a code of conduct for members of the society.
 In the words of Kane, “the word dharma passed through several transitions of meaning and ultimately its
most prominent significance came to be the privileges, duties and obligations of man of the castes, as a
person in a particular stage of life”.
 We find various forms of dharma in the sense of duty in ancient India like-

1. Sāmānya Dharma— Some general rules which are universal in nature like truth, non-violence and non-
stealing.
2. Rāj Dharma— Duties of the king.
3. Stree Dharma— Duties of woman.
4. Dāmpatya Dharma— Duties of husband and wife.
5. Varna Dharma— Duties of varnas.
6. Āshrama Dharma— Duties in the different stages of life.
7. Āpad Dharma— Duties during the crisis period.

B. Artha

 Artha is the second purusārtha.

 The term artha refers to worldly prosperity or wealth.
 It includes all the material means of life.
 Kautilya maintains that wealth is the basis of human requirements and that social well-being depends
ultimately on material prosperity.
 Indian thinkers had recognised the pursuit of wealth as a legitimate human aspiration. But artha must be
acquired by right means.

C. Kāma

 Kāma means worldly pleasures or sensual pleasures.

 It refers to some of the innate desires and urges in human beings.
 In the narrow sense kāma means sexual pleasure but in the wider sense it involves sexual, emotional and
aesthetic life all together.
 D. Moksha

 It is the ultimate purusārtha.

 Moksha means salvation or liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
 It is the summum bonum (Ultimate goal according to which values established in an ethical system ) of
human Existence

Varnāshrama System (Class system of society)

 Various texts talk of varnāshrmadharma or the dharma of different classes and dharma in the different
stages of life.
 In ancient India there was a common dharma for all members of society which must be followed by all
equally.
 But at the same time there were different codes of conduct for different classes or varnas called varna-
dharma.
 Similarly, it was desired to follow different dharma at the different stages or āshrama of life called
āshrama-dharma.

Varnas
 First reference of varna is seen in the Rig Veda. The tenth chapter of Rig-Veda called Purusasūkta
mentions the organic theory of the origin of varnas according to which varnas originated from the
different organs of the Prajāpati or the creator.
 Manu62 also mentions that God created various varnas from his various organs.
 He created Brahmins from his mouth, kshatriyas from his arms, vaishyas from his thighs and shudras from
his legs.
 Though logically this explanation cannot be accepted but this clearly points out the varying
significance of various varnas.
 A much significant feature of this varna system was that the top three varnas—brahmins,
kshatriyas and vaishyas were described as dvija or twice born.
 Their first birth was natural birth. But they were considered to be born again at the time of the
pious yajñopavīta samskāra when they were invested with the sacred thread and included into
the Aryan society as its full fledged member.

1. Brahmins

 Brahmins were at the top of varna hierarchy.

 They were believed to possess great spiritual powers. Thus they had a divine existence.
 In law, they claimed great privileges.
 Normally brahmins were exempt from execution, torture and corporal (physical) punishment.
 The main functions prescribed for brahmins were learning, teaching and priesthood.

2. Kshatriya

 The second class was the ruling class described as kshatriya or rājanya.
 Kshatriyas represented heroism, courage and strength. They constituted the warrior class.
 The duty of kshatriyas was protection which had both internal and external aspects.
 External protection meant to protect the society from external invasion where as internal protection
meant governance in peace and protection from anarchy.
 Kshatriyas had the right to possess arms.
 3. Vaishyas

 Vaishyas represented the trading and commercial class.

 Though they were entitled to the services of the priesthood and to the ceremony of yajñopavīta, they
were third in the social hierarchy.
 According to Manu63 the main task of the vaishya was to keep and maintain cattle. But it seems that later
on vaishyas became economically a very important class of society.
 The ideal vaishya possessed the expert knowledge of jewels, metals, cloth, threads, spices, perfumes etc.
 In this sense vaishyas were the ancient Indian businessmen.
 In Brahmanic literature, vaishyas are given few rights and humble status but Buddhist and Jaina literature
mention many wealthy merchants living a luxurious life.

4. Shudras

 Shudras were at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

 They pursued the task of serving the other three varnas. They were not twice born.
 They were deprived of various rights.
 They were in fact second class citizens, on the fringes of Aryan society.
 Shudras were of two types— ‘not excluded’ or anirvāsita and ‘excluded’ or nirvāsita.

The distinction was made on the basis of the customs of the shudra group and the profession followed by the
members of the group. Anirvāsita shudras were the part of Indian varna system where as
nirvāsita shudras were quite outside the pale of Hindu society and virtually indistinguishable from the level of
people known as untouchables.

5. Untouchables

 A large number of people were deprived of all human rights. Having any contact with them might
lead to the fall from grace by a normal Hindu.
 They were untouchables. Sometimes they are regarded as the excluded shudras whereas
sometimes they are called the ‘fifth class’ (pancham varna).
 Probably, they were the initial tribes who were defeated by the Aryans.
 Most important of these groups was the Chāndāla.
 They were not allowed to live in the Aryan towns or villages.
 Their chief means of livelihood were the carrying and cremation of corpses and execution of
criminals who were awarded the death penalty.
 According to the law books of ancient India, Chāndālas should be dressed in the garments of the
corpses they cremated, should eat his food from broken vessels and should wear only those
ornaments which were made of iron.
 Later on the four varnas were divided into various subcategories called Caste.

Ashrama or the Stages of Life

 The Ashrama system denotes the Hindu scheme of life according to which different stages in the life of
an individual are well ordered.
 The average life span of an individual is considered to be 100 years and it is divided into four stages each
stage having a time span of 25 years.
These four āshramas are:

1. Brahmacharyāshrama or the Stage of Studentship —

 This is the first stage of life.
 It is meant for acquiring knowledge, developing discipline and moulding character.
 This stage starts with the ceremony called upanayanama or investiture with the sacred thread.
Now the person became a brahmachārina, leading a celibate (unmarried life) and strict life as a
student at the home of his teacher.
2. Grihasthāshrama or The Stage of Householder —
 This stage starts at marriage when the student has completed his studentship and is ready to take
up the duties and responsibilities of household life.
 In this stage the individual gets married, earns money and begets children. The individual pursues
wealth (artha) and pleasure (kāma) within the limits of the moral law (dharma).

3. Vānaprasthāsharma or The Stage of Retirement from Active Life—

 After discharging all the duties and obligations as a householder, the individual enters into the
Vānaprastha stage.
 It consists of the third quarter of person’s life.
 In this phase, after retiring from active life, the individual dedicates himself to a life of spiritual
contemplation.
 He leaves his home and goes to the forest to become a hermit.

4. Sanyāsāshrama or The Stage of Renunciation or Wandering Mystic—

 This is the last stage of life.

 Now the individual leaves his hermitage and becomes a homeless wanderer (sanyāsin) with all his
earthly ties broken.
 The sanyāsin aspires and acts to attain liberation only.

Marriage
Marriage or vivāha was a very important samskāra in ancient India. Marriage in ancient India had three
main purposes:

1. Promotion of religion by performance of household sacrifices.

2. Progeny or the happy after life of father and his ancestors and continuation of family
line or kula.
3. Rati or sexual pleasure.

Manu and other law givers have mentioned about eight forms of marriage:

1. Brahma Vivāha:
 This is considered to be the purest form of marriage.
 In this form of marriage the father of the bride offers his daughter to a man of character and
learning.
 The daughter who is decked with ornaments and richly dressed is given as a gift to a man of good
character and high learning.
 2. Daiva Vivāha: In the daiva form of marriage the father offers her daughter as a dakshinā (sacrificial fee)
to a young priest who officiates the yajña which is arranged by him.

3. Ārsa Vivāha: In ārsa vivāha father of the bride gives his daughter to the bridegroom after receiving a cow
and a bull or two pairs of these animals from the bridegroom.

4. Prajāpatya Vivāha: In this type of marriage, the father offers the girl to the bridegroom. But neither does
he offer any dowry nor does he demand bride-price.

5. Asura Vivāha: This is a form of marriage by purchase in which the bridegroom has to give money to
the father or kinsman of the bride.

6. Gandharva Vivāha: This was a marriage by consent of the boy and the girl. Mutual love and consent of
the bride and bridegroom was the only condition required to bring about the union.

7. Rākshasa Vivāha: This was marriage by capture in which the girl was forcibly abducted from her home,
crying and weeping and her kinsmen have been stained and their houses broken.

8. Paishācha Vivāha: Paishācha form of marriage is one in which the man seduces by force a girl who is
sleeping or intoxicated or mentally disordered.

Out of these eight forms of marriage the first four have been described as prashasta or approved or desirable
marriage whereas the rest of the four forms have been considered to be aprashasta or disapproved or
undesirable marriages.

There were many conditions attached with marriage.

 One important condition was that the bride should be a virgin and the importance of this rule lies in the
fact that it renders the remarriage of widows difficult.
 In the Rig Veda there is some indication that a woman might re-marry if her husband had disappeared
and could not be found or heard of.

THE SEVEN LIMBS OF THE STATE OR (KAUTILYA’S SAPTANG THEORY OF STATE )

INTRODUCTION:
 The Mauryan era of ancient India gave the world a significant piece; the Arthashastra of Kautilya.
 It offers deep insights into political statecraft.
 Kautilya is known as the Indian Machiavelli because of his ruthless and shrewd tactics and policies
reflecting an approach to statecraft including warfare.

KAUTILYA SAPTANG THEORY OF SATE

 The state of ‘nature’ is imagined to be one of total anarchy, in which ‘might was right’.
 When people were oppressed by Matyanyaya, the law of the fish, according to which the bigger fish
swallows the smaller ones they selected Manu– son of Vivasvat the king. It was settled that the king
should receive one-sixth of the grain and one-tenth of merchandise and gold, as his due. It was the
revenue which made it possible for the king to ensure the security and prosperity of his subjects. People
agreed to pay taxes and he ruled by one person in order that they might be able to enjoy well -being and
security.
 In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, there is no explicit theory of social contract as laid down by
the contractualist. Neither does Kautilya use the contract to make the king all powerful.
ELEMENTS OF STATE
Kautilya enumerated seven Prakritis or essential organs of the state. They are as follow
(i) Swami (TheRuler)
(ii) Amatya (TheMinister)
(iii) Janapada (ThePopulation)
(iv) Durga (TheFortifiedCapital)
(v) Kosha (TheTreasury)
(vi) Danda (TheArmy)
(vii) Mitra (Ally and Friend)

1. SWAMI(THE RULER)

 It is the first and the most important element.

 Swami means the monarch.
 He should be a native of the soil and born in a noble family.
 He should be brave and well learned.
 He makes all the important appointments and supervises the government.
 He has to be virtuous and should treat his subjects like his own children.
 Kautilya has given extensive powers to the monarch but those powers are meant for the welfare of the
subjects. In the welfare and happiness of his subjects, lies his own happiness.

2. AMATYA (THE MINISTER)

 It refers to the council of ministers as well as the supporting officials and subordinate staffs.
 They are meant for assisting the monarch in day to day affairs of the state.
 Amatya gives suggestions to king, collects taxes, develops new villages and cities, ensures defense of the
state and all other tasks as assigned by the king.
3. JANPADA (THE POPULATION)
 It refers to territory and people of the state.
 The territory of the state should be fertile and should have abundance of forest, rivers, mountains,
minerals, wild life etc.
 It should have good climate. People should be loyal to their king, hard working, disciplined, religious,
ready to fight for their motherland, should pay taxes regularly and happily.
4. DURGA (THE FORTIFIED CAPITAL)
 It refers to forts.
 The state should have sufficient number of forts across its territory at strategic locations for ensuring
defense against foreign invasions.
 Forts should be built near hills/mountains, deserts, dense forests and big water bodies.
 They garrison soldiers, store food grains for emergency and also serve as a hideout for the king when his
life in danger.
5. KOSHA(THE TREASURY)
 This means treasury of the state.
 Finance is life blood of any state without which it is almost impossible to run it.
 Money is needed for paying salaries, building new infrastructure, etc.
 The treasury should be full of money and valuable metals and gems.
 It can be increased through taxation and plundering enemy states in war.
6. DANDA (THE ARMY)
 It refers to military.
 The state should have a regular, large, disciplined and well trained military.
  It is crucial for the security of the state.
 The soldiers should be recruited from those families which are traditionally associated with military.
 The soldiers should pay well and their families should be taken care of in most suitable way.
 Proper training and equipment should be made available.
 Well fed and well trained soldiers can win any battle.
 The king should take care of the soldiers and the soldiers will be ready to sacrifice even their life for him.
7. MITRA (ALLY AND FRIEND)
 It refers to friends of the king.
 The monarch should maintain friendly relationship with traditional friends of his forefathers.
 He should also make new friendships.
 He should send gifts and other pleasantries for his friends.
 They should be helped in times of emergency.
 They should be loyal.
 Friends add to the power of the state.
 They are also important from foreign trade view.

UNDERSTANDING GENDER AS A SOCIAL CATEGORY

 Gender roles can be defined as the behaviors, values and attitudes that a society considers appropriate for both
males and females. Traditionally, men and women had completely opposing roles, men were the provider for the
family and women were seen as the caretakers of both the home and the family.
 Gender issues include all aspects and concerns related to women’s and men’s lives and situations in the society.
Although the constitution of India grants men and women equal rights, gender disparities remain. There has been
gender discrimination mostly in favor of men in many realms.
 Women were under the guardianship of males: father, husband and son. When a women married, it was regarded
as her second birth.
 From an early age, Indian girls are told that their proper place is in the home fulfilling domestic duties and
attending to the needs of men whereas males learn that they are superior to women and must exercise authority
over them.

THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN HISTORICAL TRADITIONS

 The status of women in India has been subject to many changes over the past few millennia.
 In India, women in many places occupied an equal position to men. Many Hindu religious books like Vedas,
Ramayana etc. have mentioned the names of several women who were great scholars, poets and philosophers of
the time.
 According to ancient Hindu scriptures, a man without his wife cannot participate in any essential religious rites.
Married men along with their wives are allowed to perform sacred rites on the occasion of various important
festivals. Wives are called Ardhangini.

WOMEN IN THE VEDIC AND POST-VEDIC PERIOD

 The Indian cultural traditions begin with the Vedas.

 The degree of freedom given to ancient women to take part in public activities indicates the nature of the status
enjoyed by the women during vedic period.
 Women never observed Purdah. They enjoyed freedom and even they enjoyed freedom in selecting their male
partner.
 Some scholars believe that in ancient India, the women enjoyed equal status with men in all fields of life.
 Works of ancient Indian grammarians, such as Patanjali and Katyana, suggest that women were educated in the
early vedic period. Rig vedic verses suggest that the women married at a mature age and were free to select their
husband.
  Scriptures such as Rig Veda and Upnishad mention several women sages and seers, notably Gargi and Maitrey.
 During the Vedic period even under patriarchy women participated in all the affairs of the Tribe barring wars.
 They were composers of hymns.
 Some kingdoms in the ancient India had traditions such as Nagarvadhu (Bride of the city). Women competed to
win the popular title of Nagarvadhu.
 In ancient times, the women were considered with respect and dignity.
 In royal households, women were given respect and they even rendered a significant contribution in the making of
decisions and administrative functions.
 The women were provided opportunity to attain high intellectual and spiritual standard.
 According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early vedic period.
 However later (approximately 500 BC), the status of women began to decline with the different religious texts
restricting women’s freedom and rights.

CHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN IN INDIA

 The history of women in India is the story of progressive decline.

 In the medieval period, the status of women went down extensive. Women were inferior to men.
 Their true function was marriage and taking care of their families.
 Many historians called this age as the dark age.
 Marriage at an early age became sanctified.
 In the medieval period, the practice of keeping a veil on the faces for women became widespread among the upper
class women.
 ‘Sati System’ became quite common.
 The woman’s position became very miserable. Customs of Purdah (a black cloth worn by women to cover their
face), Sati (burning of widows), Child Marriage, restrictions on widow marriage and prevalence of joint family
systems have been the factors responsible for the injustice done towards women.
 Women were deprived of their rights.
 The practice of child marriages is believed to have started from around sixth century.
 In the medieval period and till very recent time’s music and dancing were looked on as unfit for high caste women
and were practiced only by low-caste women and prostitutes.
 With the decline of the Mughal supremacy and expansion of colonial structure in India, the influence of modern
ideas set in motion a process of change in a different direction.
 Under the influence of modern education, a set of social reformers campaigned for legislation which would uplift
the status of women in society.
 With the efforts of Ram Mohan Roy, Radhakanta Deb, Bhawani Charan Banerji the practice of ‘sati’ was banned in
1829.
 In 1856, through the efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar the first widow remarriage took place.
 Pandit Vishnu Shastri founded Widow Marriage Association in 1860.
 In 1895, killing of female infants was declared a murder.
 In independent India through the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 set the minimum age limit for the bridegroom was
fixed at 18 years and for the bride at 15.
 All their efforts have resulted in a considerable upliftment of women.
 Recently the Supreme Court of India has further recognized the daughter’s share in her father’s property.

The condition of women is going to improve in future with growing awareness in society as well as through legislation.
Women in India have to face a lot of issues. They have to go through gender discrimination, harassment, sexual abuse, lack
of education, dowry- related harassment, gender pay gap and much more. There is a lack of female education. Women in
rural areas are still denied education for being a female. In the past, the women were more accustomed to working in
homes and taking care of children etc. There are new issues that women face. These issues hinder the growth of a country
and make the women feel inferior.
It can be concluded that women are treated in terms of stereotyped impressions of being the lowest class and greater
evidence can be found that there are large disparities between the women and the men’s class.
 In recent years, the role and status of women has undergone some drastic changes due to globalization and
commercialism. Recognizing the achievements of women in all facets of life- science, community, government,
literature, art, sports, medicine etc. has a huge impact on the development of self respect and new opportunities for
girls and young women.

SLAVERY
 The sanskrit word for slave is ‘dasa’ which initially meant a member of the people captured by migrating Aryan
hordes.
 Many such ‘dasas’ were reduced to bondage.
 The ‘Arthashastra’ states that a man could be a slave by birth, by voluntarily selling himself, by being captured
in war, or as a result of a judicial punishment.
 In India, the slaves were generally employed as domestic servants and personal attendants.
 The slave was, in fact, a subordinate member of his master’s household.
 The masters had no rights over the lives of their slaves.
 There were no slave markets in the early periods, however in the early centuries of the Christian era, there was
trade in slave-girls between India and the Roman Empire in both directions, and slave markets existed in the
16th century Vijayanagara Empire.
 The Sultans of Delhi kept a large number of slaves (Bandagans). However, their situation was quite different.
 One of the slaves named Malik Kafur became the commander-inchief of Alauddin Khilji.
 In the sixteenth century the Portuguese indulged in slave trade on a large scale.
 Linschoten has given harrowing accounts of the slave trade at Goa saying, “they drive slaves as we do horses
here”.
 A large number of slaves were used in Khalisa (crown land) land and in karakhanas (workshops).
 This kind of slavery continued during British domination and was attacked by Lord Cornwallis in a public
announcement.
 The slave trade is now completely prohibited.

During the Mauryan period, slaves were of 8 or 9 types as informed by Arthashashtra. They are-
1. Slaves brought from another country
2. Slaves who were purchased
3. Prisoners of wars
4. Slaves who were inherited
5. Slaves received as presents
6. Those who sold themselves as slaves
7. Children of women slaves
8. Criminals whose punishment for their offence was to serve as a slave

 Ashokan inscriptions also mention existence of practice of slavery during the Mauryan age.
 During the Gupta age, slaves were of types as informed as Narada Smriti.
 Most slaves were captured during wars.
 Some people used to become slave to earn merit (Punya) in order to get heaven after death.
 At times, people used to sell themselves due to economic hardship.
 A slave was liberated immediately, if he/she saved the life of his/her master.
 While a member of any varna could become slave, Brahmana slaves were rare.