Chapter: Basic Logical Concepts

5. Deductive and Inductive Arguments

 Introduction:
Logic is like a detective game! Deductive arguments are when you start with a
general rule and apply it to specific cases (like Sherlock Holmes solving a case).
Inductive arguments, on the other hand, work like a scientist gathering evidence
and forming a general conclusion (like observing patterns to predict the weather).
 Examples:
o Deductive:
Premise 1: All dogs are loyal.
Premise 2: Max is a dog.
Conclusion: Max is loyal.
(If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true—super strict logic!)
o Inductive:
Premise 1: Every swan I’ve seen is white.
Premise 2: I’ve seen 100 swans.
Conclusion: All swans are white.
(Oops, this is less certain—what about a black swan? Induction works on
probabilities!)

6. Validity and Truth

 Introduction:
In logic, being "valid" is not the same as being "true." A valid argument is like a
perfectly constructed bridge; the structure holds up. Truth, on the other hand, is
about whether the premises themselves are factual. An argument can be valid
but still lead to a false conclusion if its premises are false.
 Examples:
o Valid and True:
Premise 1: All cats are mammals.
Premise 2: Luna is a cat.
Conclusion: Luna is a mammal.
o Valid but False:
Premise 1: All fish can fly.
Premise 2: Nemo is a fish.
Conclusion: Nemo can fly.
(The reasoning is structurally fine, but the premise is false—fish don’t fly!)

Chapter: Language and Definitions

1. Language Functions
  Introduction:
Language isn’t just for chatting—it has different jobs! It can inform (tell facts),
express feelings, or persuade others to act. Think of it as a multi-tool for
communication.
 Examples:
o Informative: "The Earth orbits the Sun."
o Expressive: "Wow, I love sunny days!"
o Directive: "Please pass me the sunscreen."
Each sentence uses language differently depending on its purpose.

4. Definitions and Their Uses

 Introduction:
Definitions clarify meaning, and they’re like labels on jars. Without them, we’d
mix up peanut butter with paint! There are different types of definitions, like
lexical (dictionary-style), stipulative (you make it up), and persuasive (meant to
sway people).
 Examples:
o Lexical: "A triangle is a three-sided polygon."
o Stipulative: "For this project, ‘green tech’ means any eco-friendly
invention."
o Persuasive: "Vegetarianism is the only ethical choice for the environment."

Chapter: Fallacies

3. Fallacies of Relevance

 Introduction:
These fallacies sneakily distract you from the argument’s main point. It’s like
someone saying, “Look, a squirrel!” while you’re solving a math problem. They
include appeal to emotion, ad hominem (attacking the person), and irrelevant
conclusions.
 Examples:
o Appeal to Emotion: "You must lend me your car—imagine how sad I’ll be
if you don’t!"
o Ad Hominem: "Don’t listen to him; he failed his math test!"
o Irrelevant Conclusion: "We need better schools—so let’s lower taxes."

4. Fallacies of Defective Induction

 Introduction:
These fallacies happen when the evidence isn’t strong enough to support the
conclusion. Imagine building a skyscraper on a marshy foundation—it just won’t
hold up!
 Examples:
 o Hasty Generalization: "My friend hates mushrooms, so everyone must
hate mushrooms."
o Appeal to Unqualified Authority: "This celebrity says this vitamin works,
so it must be true."

5. Fallacies of Presumption

 Introduction:
These fallacies sneak in assumptions that aren’t justified. It’s like assuming
someone is guilty without evidence.
 Examples:
o Begging the Question: "God exists because the Bible says so, and the
Bible is true because God wrote it."
o False Dilemma: "You’re either with us or against us!"

Chapter: Categorical Propositions

2. Classes and Categorical Propositions

 Introduction:
Categorical propositions talk about groups or categories (classes). Think of
statements like “All apples are fruits” or “Some dogs are brown.” They’re about
how things relate.
 Example:
o Subject: Apples.
o Predicate: Fruits.
o Proposition: “All apples are fruits” says every member of the apple category
belongs in the fruit category.

3. The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions

 Introduction:
There are four main kinds of propositions, like flavors of ice cream! They are:
o A (Universal Affirmative): All S are P.
o E (Universal Negative): No S are P.
o I (Particular Affirmative): Some S are P.
o O (Particular Negative): Some S are not P.
 Example:
o A: "All cats are furry."
o E: "No fish are mammals."
o I: "Some dogs are playful."
o O: "Some birds are not colorful."

4. Quality, Quantity, and Distribution

  Introduction:
Categorical propositions can have quality (affirmative/negative) and quantity
(universal/particular). Distribution tells us whether a statement covers all
members of a class or just some.
 Example:
o "All dogs are mammals" is universal and affirmative.
o "Some dogs are not friendly" is particular and negative.

5. The Traditional Square of Opposition

 Introduction:
The Square of Opposition shows how different propositions relate (agree,
contradict, etc.). It’s like a family tree of logic relationships!
 Example:
o If “All cats are playful” (A) is true, “Some cats are not playful” (O) must be
false.

6. Further Immediate Inferences (Conversion, Obversion)

 Introduction:
Immediate inferences are shortcuts to derive new truths from existing
propositions. Conversion flips the subject and predicate, while obversion
changes the quality and negates the predicate.
 Examples:
o Conversion:
Original: "All roses are flowers."
Converted: "All flowers are roses." (Oops—this isn’t valid for universal
affirmatives!)
o Obversion:
Original: "All roses are flowers."
Obverted: "No roses are non-flowers.

IMPORTANT

1. Traditional Square of Opposition

 Introduction:
The Traditional Square of Opposition is like a map for understanding how
different types of categorical statements relate to each other. It connects A
(Universal Affirmative), E (Universal Negative), I (Particular Affirmative), and
O (Particular Negative) propositions. These relationships show whether
statements are contradictory, contrary, subcontrary, or subaltern.
Think of it as a family tree of logic, with lines showing who agrees, who
disagrees, and who supports each other.
 The Key Relationships:
 1. Contradictory (diagonal opposites):
 A (All S are P) ↔ O (Some S are not P)
 E (No S are P) ↔ I (Some S are P)
 If one is true, the other is false, and vice versa.
2. Contrary (top horizontal):
 A ↔ E (All S are P vs. No S are P)
 Both can’t be true, but both can be false.
3. Subcontrary (bottom horizontal):
 I ↔ O (Some S are P vs. Some S are not P)
 Both can’t be false, but both can be true.
4. Subalternation (vertical):
 A → I, E → O
 Truth flows downward; falsity flows upward.

 Examples:

o Contradictory:
 Statement: “All dogs are friendly” (A).
 Contradictory: “Some dogs are not friendly” (O). If one is true, the
other must be false.

o Contrary:
 Statement: “All birds can fly” (A).
 Contrary: “No birds can fly” (E). Both are false because some birds
(like penguins) can’t fly, and some (like sparrows) can.

o Subalternation:
 If “All apples are fruits” (A) is true, then “Some apples are fruits” (I)
must also be true.

2. Definitions

 Introduction:
Definitions are tools we use to explain the meaning of words or concepts. They
help avoid confusion and clarify communication. Definitions can take different
forms based on their purpose:
1. Lexical Definition: Explains standard use (like a dictionary).
2. Stipulative Definition: Creates a new or specific meaning for a term.
3. Precising Definition: Narrows down vagueness in context.
4. Persuasive Definition: Uses emotional language to influence opinion.

 Examples:

o Lexical: “A triangle is a three-sided polygon.” (Basic fact)

o Stipulative: “For this game, ‘magic’ means the ability to teleport.”
 o Precising: “By ‘rich,’ I mean earning over $1 million a year.”
o Persuasive: “Democracy is the only fair way to govern a country.” (This
definition aims to sway opinions about democracy.)

 Pro Tip:
Definitions can also be denotative (listing examples) or connotative (explaining
traits).

3. Fallacies

Fallacies are sneaky mistakes in reasoning that make arguments look convincing but
are actually flawed. Here’s an overview of the two types you requested:

Fallacies of Relevance

These distract from the argument by appealing to emotions, attacking the person, or
bringing up irrelevant points.

 Examples:
o Appeal to Emotion:
 “You should donate money—imagine how sad these puppies are
without your help!”
o Ad Hominem (Attacking the Person):
 “You can’t trust his argument on health; he’s not even a doctor!”
o Red Herring:
 “We shouldn’t worry about climate change; what about the
economy?”

Fallacies of Defective Induction

These happen when the evidence is too weak to support the conclusion.

 Examples:
o Hasty Generalization:
 “I met two rude people from New York; everyone there must be rude.”
o Appeal to Ignorance:
 “No one has proven aliens don’t exist, so they must be real!”

Fallacies of Presumption

These occur when the argument assumes too much or includes hidden, faulty
assumptions.

 Examples:
o Begging the Question:
 “He’s trustworthy because he says he is.”
 o False Dilemma:
 “Either you support my policy, or you don’t care about safety!”

Summary Table

Topic Core Idea Example

Traditional Square of Relationships between If “All cats are pets” (A) is true, “Some cats
Opposition categorical propositions are not pets” (O) is false.

Definitions Explains or clarifies terms Lexical: “A car is a vehicle with four wheels.”

Hasty Generalization: “I saw one rainy day;

Fallacies Logical errors in reasoning
this city always rains.”

Logical Concepts and Fallacies (with Answers)

Section 1: Fill in the Blanks

1. The ______________ function of language is used to motivate or encourage

action.
Answer: Directive
2. A definition designed to reduce ambiguity by providing precise meaning is called
a ______________ definition.
Answer: Precising
3. A universal affirmative proposition in categorical logic is represented as
“______________.”
Answer: All S are P
4. The fallacy of ______________ occurs when an irrelevant emotional appeal is
made to influence an argument.
Answer: Appeal to Emotion
5. In obversion, the quality of the proposition is changed, and the predicate is
______________.
Answer: Negated
6. A particular negative proposition claims that ______________ members of the
subject class are excluded from the predicate class.
Answer: Some

Section 2: True/False

7. The expressive function of language is primarily concerned with conveying

feelings or emotions.
Answer: True
 8. In the Traditional Square of Opposition, contraries can both be true at the same
time.
Answer: False
9. Conversion is valid for universal affirmative (A) propositions.
Answer: False (It is valid for E and I propositions.)
10. The fallacy of Appeal to Ignorance assumes that a claim is true because it
has not been proven false.
Answer: True
11. A definition by genus and differentia explains a term by identifying its
broader category and distinguishing characteristics.
Answer: True
12. If “All S are P” is true, then “No S are P” must be false in the Traditional
Square of Opposition.
Answer: True

Section 3: Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs)

13. Which function of language is illustrated by the statement, “Don’t forget to

turn off the lights”?
a) Informative
b) Expressive
c) Directive
d) Persuasive
Answer: c) Directive

14. Which of the following is an example of a stipulative definition?

a) “A triangle is a polygon with three sides.”
b) “Let ‘zorb’ refer to any small, green creature in this story.”
c) “Honesty means not lying or deceiving others.”
d) “Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells.”
Answer: b) “Let ‘zorb’ refer to any small, green creature in this story.”

15. Which fallacy is illustrated in the argument:

“We should not trust his views on politics; after all, he failed college!”
a) Appeal to Popularity
b) Ad Hominem
c) Hasty Generalization
d) False Dilemma
Answer: b) Ad Hominem

16. In the Traditional Square of Opposition, which relationship holds between

“All S are P” (A) and “No S are P” (E)?
a) Contradictory
b) Contrary
c) Subalternation
d) Subcontrary
Answer: b) Contrary

17. If “Some S are P” (I) is false, which of the following must also be false?
a) “All S are P” (A)
b) “No S are P” (E)
c) “Some S are not P” (O)
d) None of the above
Answer: a) “All S are P” (A)

18. Which fallacy occurs when someone draws a conclusion based on an

insufficient or small sample size?
a) Begging the Question
b) Hasty Generalization
c) Appeal to Ignorance
d) Red Herring
Answer: b) Hasty Generalization

19. Which of the following correctly describes the quality of a proposition?

a) Whether it is universal or particular
b) Whether it is affirmative or negative
c) Whether the predicate applies to some or all of the subject
d) Whether the statement is true or false
Answer: b) Whether it is affirmative or negative

20. What is the first step in performing a conversion of a categorical

proposition?
a) Change the quality of the proposition.
b) Negate the predicate term.
c) Switch the subject and predicate terms.
d) Change the quantity of the proposition.
Answer: c) Switch the subject and predicate terms.

Section 4: Matching Terms

Match the terms with their correct definitions:

Term Definition
21. Fallacy of Presumption a) Making a conclusion based on insufficient evidence
22. Subcontrary b) Propositions that cannot both be false but can both be
Relationship true
23. Precising Definition c) A definition intended to clarify vague or ambiguous
 Term Definition
terms
24. Appeal to Popularity d) Arguing something is true because it is widely believed

Answers:
21 - a
22 - b
23 - c
24 - d

Answer Key Summary

Section 1: Fill in the Blanks

1. Directive
2. Precising
3. All S are P
4. Appeal to Emotion
5. Negated
6. Some

Section 2: True/False

7. True
8. False
9. False
10. True
11. True
12. True

Section 3: MCQs

13. c) Directive
14. b) Stipulative
15. b) Ad Hominem
16. b) Contrary
17. a) “All S are P”
18. b) Hasty Generalization
19. b) Whether it is affirmative or negative
20. c) Switch the subject and predicate terms

Section 4: Matching Terms

21. a
22. b
23. c
24. d