Realism in international relations (IR) is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of

power, self-interest, and the anarchic nature of the international system in shaping state behavior.
It is one of the oldest and most influential theories in the field of IR, rooted in the works of
thinkers like Thucydides, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Thomas Hobbes.

Key Assumptions of Realism:

1. State-Centric Approach: States are the primary actors in

international politics, and their actions dominate the global system.
2. Anarchy: The international system lacks a central authority, creating
an anarchic environment where states must rely on self-help to ensure
survival.
3. Rationality and Self-Interest: States act rationally to maximize their
national interests, typically defined in terms of power and security.
4. Power as the Central Concept: Power, particularly military and
economic strength, is the primary means through which states achieve
their objectives.
5. Security Dilemma: The pursuit of security by one state often
threatens other states, leading to competition and potential conflict.

Types of Realism:

1. Classical Realism: Focuses on human nature as the driving force

behind state behavior. Thinkers like Hans Morgenthau argue that the
pursuit of power is rooted in the inherent selfishness and desire for
dominance in human nature.
2. Neorealism (Structural Realism): Emphasizes the structure of the
international system rather than human nature. Kenneth Waltz, a
leading proponent, argues that the anarchic system compels states to
focus on survival, leading to power competition.
3. Offensive Realism: Suggests that states are inherently aggressive
and seek to maximize power to achieve dominance (John
Mearsheimer).
4. Defensive Realism: Argues that states aim to maintain a balance of
power and prioritize security over aggressive expansion (Kenneth
Waltz).

Key Concepts in Realism:

1. Balance of Power: States align and counterbalance one another to

prevent any single state from achieving dominance.
2. National Interest: States prioritize their own goals, particularly
survival and sovereignty.
3. Great Power Politics: The actions and interactions of major powers
shape the global order.
Realism's Criticisms:

1. Neglect of Non-State Actors: Realism overlooks the influence of

organizations, corporations, and transnational movements.
2. Overemphasis on Conflict: Critics argue that realism undervalues
cooperation, norms, and institutions that promote peace.
3. Static and Deterministic: Realism is criticized for its inability to
adapt to changes in global politics, such as globalization and
interdependence.

Significance of Realism:

Despite its limitations, realism remains influential in understanding power dynamics, conflicts,
and the behavior of states in an unpredictable and competitive international system. It provides a
pragmatic lens to assess foreign policy, security dilemmas, and the challenges of maintaining
global stability.
Idealism in international relations is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the role of
morality, international cooperation, and the pursuit of peace in global politics. It is rooted in the
belief that human nature is inherently good and that international relations can be shaped by
ethical norms, mutual understanding, and shared values rather than conflict and power struggles.

Key Assumptions of Idealism:

1. Human Nature: Idealists believe that humans are capable of

rationality, moral progress, and cooperation, and these qualities can
extend to states.
2. International Cooperation: States and non-state actors can work
together to address common challenges and create a peaceful world.
3. Role of Institutions: International organizations, treaties, and laws
are crucial for promoting order, resolving conflicts, and achieving
collective security.
4. Moral Values and Norms: Ethical principles, such as justice,
democracy, and human rights, should guide state behavior and
international relations.
5. Rejection of Anarchy: Idealists argue that the international system
can be organized to overcome anarchy through institutions and
collective governance.

Historical Context:

Idealism gained prominence after World War I as part of efforts to prevent future conflicts. U.S.
President Woodrow Wilson is a key figure in idealism, advocating for the League of Nations and
principles like self-determination and open diplomacy in his Fourteen Points.

Key Features of Idealism:

1. Collective Security: States should collaborate to maintain peace,

often through organizations like the United Nations.
2. International Law: Establishing and adhering to legal norms helps
regulate state behavior and reduce conflicts.
3. Economic Interdependence: Promoting trade and economic ties
fosters mutual benefits and reduces incentives for war.
4. Focus on Peace and Development: Idealism prioritizes addressing
global challenges such as poverty, inequality, and environmental
issues.

Idealism in Practice:

1. League of Nations: Aimed to resolve disputes and prevent war

through diplomacy and collective action.
 2. United Nations: Promotes peace, development, and human rights
based on idealist principles.
3. Humanitarian Efforts: Advocating for human rights, democracy, and
international aid reflects idealist ideals.

Criticisms of Idealism:

1. Overly Optimistic: Critics argue that idealism underestimates the role

of power, self-interest, and conflict in international relations.
2. Neglect of Realpolitik: It overlooks the anarchic nature of the
international system and the competitive behavior of states.
3. Failure of Early Applications: The inability of the League of Nations
to prevent World War II highlighted the limitations of idealism in
addressing power politics.

Idealism vs. Realism:

 Focus: Idealism emphasizes cooperation and morality, while realism

focuses on power and survival.
 Role of Institutions: Idealists see institutions as central to peace,
while realists view them as secondary to state interests.
 Perspective on Human Nature: Idealists believe in human potential
for good; realists view it as self-serving and competitive.

Significance of Idealism:

Idealism remains influential in shaping modern international relations, particularly in promoting

human rights, global governance, and international cooperation. While it faces criticism for its
utopian outlook, it provides a framework for envisioning a more just and peaceful world.
Definition of Globalization:

Globalization refers to the process by which the world becomes interconnected through
economic, political, cultural, and technological integration. It involves the movement of goods,
services, people, information, and ideas across international borders, leading to increased
interaction and interdependence among nations.

Explanation of Globalization:

Globalization is driven by advances in communication, transportation, and technology, as well as

liberalized trade and investment policies. It has transformed how countries, businesses, and
individuals interact on a global scale. While globalization fosters opportunities for growth,
collaboration, and cultural exchange, it also presents challenges such as inequality,
environmental degradation, and cultural homogenization.

Types of Globalization:

1. Economic Globalization:
o Definition: Refers to the integration of national economies into a
global economic system.
o Characteristics:
 Growth of international trade and free markets.
 Expansion of multinational corporations (MNCs).
 Global financial markets and cross-border investments.
o Examples: Free trade agreements like NAFTA, global supply
chains, and the rise of companies like Apple and Amazon.

2. Political Globalization:
o Definition: The process by which political decisions and actions
are increasingly influenced by global institutions and
agreements.
o Characteristics:
 International organizations (e.g., United Nations, WTO,
WHO) play key roles.
 Global governance on issues like climate change and
human rights.
 Spread of democratic values and political ideologies.
 o Examples: The Paris Agreement on climate change and the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

3. Cultural Globalization:
o Definition: The worldwide exchange and blending of cultural
elements such as traditions, languages, and values.
o Characteristics:
 Global spread of media, entertainment, and consumer
culture.
 Hybridization of local and global cultures.
 Risk of cultural homogenization (dominance of certain
cultures).
o Examples: Popularity of Hollywood movies, K-pop, and fast-food
chains like McDonald’s.

4. Technological Globalization:
o Definition: The global exchange and adoption of technologies,
enabling faster communication and innovation.
o Characteristics:
 Access to the internet and digital platforms.
 Worldwide spread of technological advancements.
 Digital connectivity through social media and
communication tools.
o Examples: Use of smartphones, global e-commerce platforms,
and advancements in artificial intelligence.

5. Social Globalization:
o Definition: The integration of societies and communities
through shared social networks, movements, and values.
o Characteristics:
 Global activism and advocacy for issues like human rights.
 Migration and cross-cultural interactions.
 Spread of education and global citizenship.
o Examples: International NGOs like Amnesty International, global
tourism, and student exchange programs.

6. Environmental Globalization:
o Definition: The recognition that environmental challenges are
global and require international collaboration.
o Characteristics:
 Cross-border environmental agreements and cooperation.
 Global efforts to address climate change, deforestation,
and biodiversity loss.
 Spread of sustainable practices and technologies.
o Examples: The Kyoto Protocol, global reforestation initiatives,
and renewable energy projects.
Interconnections Between Types:

These types of globalization are deeply interlinked. For example:

 Economic globalization drives technological innovation and cultural

exchange.
 Political globalization facilitates international cooperation on
environmental and social issues.

World War I (WWI), also known as the Great War, was a global conflict that lasted from July
28, 1914, to November 11, 1918. It involved many of the world's great powers, divided into two
main alliances: the Allied Powers (including France, Russia, the British Empire, Italy, and later
the United States) and the Central Powers (primarily Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman
Empire, and Bulgaria). The war was fought across Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and parts of
Asia.

Causes of World War I

The causes of World War I were complex and interwoven. Historians often summarize them as
MAIN: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism. The immediate trigger was the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. Below is a detailed breakdown
of the causes:

1. Militarism:
o By the early 20th century, many European nations were engaged
in an arms race. Military power was seen as a symbol of national
strength and prestige.
o Countries like Germany and Britain significantly expanded their
navies, while France and Germany built large armies.
o The glorification of war and military planning created a volatile
environment where nations were prepared to use force.

2. Alliances:
o European countries formed complex networks of alliances to
protect themselves from potential threats. These alliances
divided Europe into two main blocs:
 Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
(although Italy later joined the Allies).
 Triple Entente: France, Russia, and Britain.
 o The alliances meant that a conflict involving one country could
quickly escalate into a broader war.

3. Imperialism:
o European powers competed fiercely for colonies and global
dominance, especially in Africa and Asia.
o This rivalry created tensions between nations, particularly
between Britain, France, and Germany.

4. Nationalism:
o Nationalist fervor led to competitive and antagonistic attitudes
among nations. It also caused internal unrest in multi-ethnic
empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
o Slavic nationalism, particularly in the Balkans, played a
significant role in destabilizing the region.

5. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand:

o On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist
and member of the Black Hand group, assassinated Archduke
Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo.
o Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination and issued
an ultimatum. When Serbia's response was deemed insufficient,
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.
o This set off a chain reaction of alliance commitments, leading to
a world war.

Key Events of World War I

1. 1914:
o Germany implemented the Schlieffen Plan, invading Belgium to
attack France, drawing Britain into the war.
o Early battles, such as the Battle of the Marne, established a
stalemate and trench warfare.

2. 1915-1916:
o Massive battles like the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the
Somme resulted in millions of casualties without significant
territorial gains.
o New technologies, such as poison gas, tanks, and aircraft, were
introduced.

3. 1917:
o The United States entered the war after Germany's unrestricted
submarine warfare and the interception of the Zimmermann
 Telegram, which revealed a German plot to ally with Mexico
against the U.S.
o Russia exited the war following the Russian Revolution, signing
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany.

4. 1918:
o The Central Powers launched the Spring Offensive, but the
Allies counterattacked with the Hundred Days Offensive.
o Germany faced internal unrest, and its allies collapsed. On
November 11, 1918, an armistice was signed, ending the
fighting.

Consequences of World War I

1. Human Cost:
o Over 16 million people died, including 9 million soldiers and 7
million civilians. Millions more were wounded or displaced.

2. Political Changes:
o The Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, German, and Russian Empires
collapsed.
o New countries were formed in Europe and the Middle East, such
as Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Poland.

3. Economic Impact:
o The war devastated economies, especially in Europe, leading to
massive debts and economic instability.

4. Treaty of Versailles (1919):

o Germany was forced to accept responsibility for the war, pay
reparations, and surrender territories. This treaty caused
resentment in Germany and set the stage for World War II.

5. Formation of the League of Nations:

o The League was created to prevent future conflicts, although it
was largely ineffective.

World War I fundamentally reshaped the global political and social landscape, setting the stage
for major developments in the 20th century, including World War II.
World War II (WWII) was a global conflict fought between 1939 and 1945. It was the deadliest
war in history, involving over 70 countries and resulting in an estimated 70–85 million deaths.
Below is a detailed explanation of the war:

Causes of World War II

1. Treaty of Versailles (1919):

o The harsh terms imposed on Germany after World War I
(reparations, territorial losses, and military restrictions) caused
economic hardship and resentment, fueling nationalist
movements.

2. Rise of Totalitarian Regimes:

o Fascist leaders like Adolf Hitler (Germany), Benito Mussolini
(Italy), and militarists in Japan pursued aggressive expansionist
policies.
 3. Economic Depression:
o The Great Depression of the 1930s destabilized economies
worldwide, creating fertile ground for extremist ideologies.

4. Expansionism and Militarism:

o Germany sought to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and expand
its territory (Lebensraum).
o Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific.
o Italy sought to recreate a Roman Empire.

5. Failure of the League of Nations:

o The League was unable to prevent aggression by Axis powers in
Manchuria (1931), Ethiopia (1935), and the Rhineland (1936).

6. Appeasement:
o Western democracies like Britain and France pursued
appeasement, allowing aggressive actions (e.g., the annexation
of Austria and Czechoslovakia) to avoid war.

Major Events of World War II

1. The Outbreak of War (1939-1940)

 Invasion of Poland:
o On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland using
blitzkrieg tactics.
o Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3,
1939.

 Soviet Expansion:
o The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the
Soviet Union included a secret agreement to divide Poland and
Eastern Europe.
o The USSR invaded eastern Poland, Finland (Winter War), and
annexed the Baltic states.

 Phoney War:
o After the fall of Poland, there was little fighting in Western Europe
until April 1940.

 Fall of France:
o Germany invaded Denmark, Norway, Belgium, and the
Netherlands in early 1940.
 o France fell in June 1940, and the Vichy government was
established.

2. The Axis Powers Expand (1940-1941)

 Battle of Britain (1940):

o Germany launched an air campaign to prepare for an invasion of
Britain, but the Royal Air Force (RAF) successfully resisted.

 Invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa):

o On June 22, 1941, Germany broke its pact with the Soviet Union
and launched a massive invasion.

 Japanese Expansion:
o Japan invaded China (1937) and Southeast Asia, seeking control
of resources.

 Attack on Pearl Harbor:

o On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the U.S. naval base in
Hawaii, bringing the United States into the war.

3. Turning Points (1942-1943)

 Battle of Stalingrad:
o In one of the bloodiest battles, the Soviet Union defeated
Germany in early 1943, marking a turning point on the Eastern
Front.

 Battle of Midway:
o In June 1942, the U.S. Navy decisively defeated Japan, halting
its expansion in the Pacific.

 Allied North Africa Campaign:

o The Allies defeated Axis forces in North Africa by 1943.

 Italian Campaign:
o In 1943, the Allies invaded Sicily and Italy, leading to Mussolini's
downfall.

4. Allied Victory (1944-1945)

 D-Day (June 6, 1944):

o The Allies launched a massive invasion of Nazi-occupied France
at Normandy, opening a Western Front.
  Liberation of France:
o Paris was liberated in August 1944.

 Advance into Germany:

o The Allies pushed into Germany from the west, while the Soviets
advanced from the east.

 Fall of Berlin:
o In May 1945, Soviet forces captured Berlin, leading to Hitler's
suicide and Germany's surrender on May 8, 1945 (V-E Day).

 War in the Pacific:

o The U.S. employed "island-hopping" to recapture Japanese-held
territories.
o After fierce battles like Iwo Jima and Okinawa, Japan refused to
surrender.

 Atomic Bombs:
o The U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6, 1945)
and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945).
o Japan surrendered on September 2, 1945 (V-J Day).

Consequences of World War II

1. Human Cost:

 Estimated 70–85 million deaths, including 6 million Jews murdered

during the Holocaust.
 Millions were displaced, leading to a global refugee crisis.

2. Political Changes:

 The war ended the dominance of Europe and established the U.S. and
the Soviet Union as superpowers, leading to the Cold War.
 The United Nations was established in 1945 to promote peace and
prevent future conflicts.

3. Economic Impact:

 Massive destruction of infrastructure and economies, particularly in

Europe and Asia.
 The U.S. emerged as the world's leading economic power.
4. Decolonization:

 European colonial powers weakened, accelerating independence

movements in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.

5. Technological Advancements:

 Radar, jet engines, rocketry, and nuclear technology were developed

during the war.

6. Formation of the Eastern and Western Blocs:

 Germany was divided into East and West Germany.

 The Soviet Union established communist governments in Eastern
Europe.

Key Battles and Campaigns

 Battle of Britain (1940)

 Operation Barbarossa (1941)
 Battle of Midway (1942)
 Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943)
 D-Day (1944)
 Battle of the Bulge (1944-1945)

Legacy of World War II

World War II reshaped the global order, establishing the framework for international relations,
the Cold War, and the modern world. It left a profound impact on humanity, serving as a stark
reminder of the horrors of war and the need for global cooperation.