Interaction of Wave and radiation with Human Body, Exam-2018

Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

Construction and principle of hearing :

Construction of an ear:

The ear consist of three

compartments: outer ear, middle
ear and inner ear .the outer ear
has pinna and ear canal. At the
end of the canal is a thin, elastic
circular membrane called ear
drum. The middle ear consist of
three small delicate bones called
hammer malleus), anvil (incus)
and stirrup (stapes). These are
linked to one another. The one
end of the hammer is touching
to the ear drum and another end
is connected to the second bone Figure 1 : Construction of ear
called anvil. The other end of the
anvil is connected to the third bone called stirrup. Free end of the stirrup is placed against the membrane
of oval window of inner ear. The cochlea is filled with fluid containing sound sensitive nerve cells, other
side of the cochlea is connected to the auditory nerve which goes to the brain.

Principle of hearing :

The sound wave are connected by pinna. Sound waves pass through the ear canal and fall on the ear
drum. When sound waves fall on the ear drum, it vibrates back and forth rapidly. These vibrations are
passed onto three bones in the middle ear and finally to the liquid in the cochlea. Due to this, liquid in the
cochlea starts to vibrate, setting up electrical impulses in the nerve cells present in it. These impulses are
carried to the brain by auditory nerve. The brain interprets the impulses and we get sensation of the
hearing.

Speech:

The resonators are responsible for the organized noise which are called speech. They are (1) the vocal
chords, (2) the throat and the mouth (3) the nasal cavity. The vocal chords, the tongue and the lips control
the changes in vibrations. The combination of this moving parts gives remarkable versatility in the
production of sound. When one talks as loudly as possible without shouting, average speech power is
about 1000 µw, at source. When one talks in as weak as possible without whispering, the average power
is about 0.001µw.

NOISE: It is defined as any unwanted sounds, and hence the classification is highly subjective. High
intensity noise is defined as any unwanted sound greater than 85db. Noise has many frequencies.

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 Interaction of Wave and radiation with Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

Effect of high intensity noise

1. Hearing acuity
2. Mechanical or pathological damage to the cochlea
3. Temporary blindness (>140 db)
4. Changes in ability to perform skilled tasks
5. Feeling of fear
6. Annoyance
7. Dissatisfaction
8. Nausea

Physiological effects of intense matter waves:

 A pressure gradient is established when a matter wave is absorbed by tissue, and tissue is stretches
and compresses according to incoming wave. If the amplitude is such that the elastic limit of tissue is
exceeded, tearing can result. A 160 dB can rupture the ear drum.

 At high frequencies, the compression occurs so fast that energy is passed from wave to molecule so
rapidly that it has no time come hot and chemical bonds are broken.

 Water decomposes to H and HO.

 During the rarefaction, any dissolved gas in the tissue may coalesce into bubbles and form vapor. It
occurs at power level ~140 db.

 With the breaking of bonds, free radicals are produced, which cause a net oxidation to occur in most
aqueous solutions.

 Because of absorption of energy within the volume irradiated with matter wave, a temperature occurs.

Some applications of ultrasound (Ultrasound therapy):

1. Ultra high frequency of 1 MHz can penetrate to a useful depth. The depth of penetration is a function
of the power at source. Since reflection of matter wave is greater at high density medium, tumors can
be distinguished from normal tissue, at a location deep below surface.

2. Based on the above principle, the rate of blood flow through the arterial system can be measured by
reflected ultrasound.

3. Dentists apply sound to the ears of patients during drilling, because it has been found that the brain
cannot perceive pain from the teeth and sound from the ear at the same time.

4. "Rapid message" heat therapy is common at low frequency vibrator pads and belts (12 kHz~50 kHz).
For deep massage, high frequency ultrasound is used.

5. Certain skin diseases can be treated with beamed focused ultrasound. Viruses are destroyed by
ultrasound.

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 Interaction of Wave and radiation with Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

Some interactions em radiations and living matter:

According to biological importance, the em spectrum can be divided into four catagories:

a. Warming region (infrared)

b. Visible region (400nm~ 700nm)
c. Photochemical region (UV region) (100nm~400nm)
d. Ionizing region (X-ray and Gamma)

The warming region (infrared):

Infrared is always associated with heat energy of those molecules which contain permanent dipoles. Its
absorption results in increased rotations and vibrations and therefore increased temperature. The warming
effect of absorption by the very outer layers of skin can be felt beneath the surface because of the poor but
substantial heat conduction of tissue.

Since tissue is 85% water, the strongest absorption occurs

 vibration at 28,200 and 63000A˚

 rotation at 500,00 and 1200000A˚
 mixed vibration and rotation at >8000A˚

Intense infrared em radiation, when absorbed by tissue, cause gas steam pockets which lead to blisters.

Visible radiation:

The animal body is equipped with a very sensitive sets of living cells which can detect wave lengths of
400 nm to 780 nm coming from excited molecules in the environment. The reradiated energy from
objects molecules define the shape and color of the object. The eye is a device by which em energy is
converted into electrical signal and the brain interprets the incoming signal and produce vision.

Architecture of eye: The architecture illustrates the roles of lens, retina and optic nerve. The light from
the object falls on the cornea. About 96% of incoming light passes through the lens and 4% is reflected.
The cornea, aqueous humor, the lens and the vitreous humor are liquid crustal material and transparent.
About 48% of light riches the retina. The iris control the area of the pupil and hence the total intensity of
light. The lens focuses the incoming light on the retina. The focal length depends upon the geometry of
the lens. A thick lens have a short length but a thin lens have ions focal length. The lens is a liquid crustal
much like jelly, its shapes can be changed by the tension of ciliary muscle. The image on the retina can be
focused (sharpness) by the shape of the lens. The process is known as accommodation.

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 Interaction of Wave and radiation with Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

Figure 2 : Construction of eye and its internal structure of rod and cone cells

The focused light falls on two types of cells on the retina, rod cells and cone cells. The rod cells are more
sensitive to light and help to see in the dark (low intensity). Cone cells are less sensitive and detect details
of image and image color.

Physical defect of eye:

Myopia: If the lens is too

thick or the eye ball is
elongated (myopia), the
ciliary muscles are not able to
make sufficient adjustment of
the focal length to permit
distant object to be focused
on the retina.

The phenomenon is known as

nearsightedness and can be
corrected with the aid of
Fig.3 : Reasons of myopia and hypermetropia and their correction
glasses with a concave lens
of proper focal length.

Hyperopia: If the length of the eyeball is too small, the condition is called hypermetropia, and can be
corrected with a convex lens of proper focal length (far sightedness).

cataracts : Sometimes opaque tissue grows in or on the liquid crystal material of lens and absorbs the
incoming light before it reaches the retina. Such tissues are known as cataracts. Some can be removed by
surgery.

Photochemical radiation (UV):

Subshell electrons are excited by UV. The absorbed energy may be

1. Passed off to the vibrations of nearby molecules and appear as heat energy

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 Interaction of Wave and radiation with Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

2. It may be re-emitted as UV
3. It may excite the molecule and make it more susceptible to chemical attack by neighboring molecule.

The photon of UV wave penetrate deeper into the absorbent and excite molecules at the point at which
they are finally caught.

The photosynthesis of organic sugars from CO2 and H2O in plant leaves is the best example of biological
reactions whose rate is sensitive to UV (C6H12O6+O2)

Effect of UV radiation on living tissue:

 UV phototherapy- prolonged sun bathing can damage skin pigments and cause erythema. Example:
20 W of UV having = 2537A falling upon skin for 15 minutes is enough to produce erythema.

 UV radiation is a problem for space travel if it were not reflected by metal surface.

 UV falling on the retina can keep the rod and cone cells devoid of rhodopsin and damage the color
pigments of eye. Snow blindness and “whiteout” are the results.

 Sometimes UV promotes the growth of cataract and photothalamia (cornea inflammation).

It is fortunate that the very intense UV from sun is attenuated (scattered, absorbed and converted into
longer wavelength radiation) by ozone and nitrogen compound in the upper atmosphere.

UV protection:

Ordinary window glass and sunglass can absorbs all UV radiation and sometimes color organic materials
can be added to filter out / absorb undesired wavelengths.

Importance of UV:

 UV radiation has a lethal effect on animal and plant life. This fact is used to destroy bacteria,
Escherichia coli and bacteria coli, in food and in our water supply.

 Conjunctivitis, fibrosis, acne and skin infections can be treated by UV radiated.

Ionizing radiations (X-ray and gamma):

If wavelength of incoming em radiation is greater than 200 nm, excitations of electron cloud takes place.
If wavelength is less than 200nm, electron can be knocked right out of the atom by absorbed photon. As
wavelength decreases, the loosely bound orbital electrons are the first to go, followed by subshell
electrons, and as  ~ 1 A (X-ray region), tightly bound K-shell electrons can be ejected. Example: 10 eV
is required to make an ion from an atom (a photon carries 10 ev at  = 120 nm). Gamma radiation of Co
is used in deep radiation therapy for cancer has an energy of about 1 MeV. Therefore, each photon of
gamma would leave a wake of about (106 /10)=105 ions before it loses its all energy.

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 Interaction of Wave and radiation with Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

Result of ionization: Ionization weakens the bond and perhaps breaks it and leaving unpaired electrons
which are chemically very reactive and will make new bond at any time or place(unpaired electrons of
atoms / molecule are called free radicals).

Diagnosis by X-rays:

Principle of X-ray diagnosis: The absorption of em radiation increases with increasing density of the
absorbent. Differentiation of diseased tissue from normal is based on this fact. For example a 40 kVP
(kilovolt potential) X-ray, almost any tissue will stop some of the radiation and cast a shadow on the
fluorescent screen or photographic plate behind it. At 80 to 100 kVP (commonly used in medical
diagnosis), the radiograph displays shadow which differentiate fat and soft tissues from air space and
bone.

Penetration of rays into biological tissue: Penetration of Alpha, beta, gamma and neutron into tissue.

The alpha (and also

the proton and
deuteron) penetrates
in a straight line
until it is stopped,
provided of course
that it does not "hit"
a nucleus.

Both beta-scattering
and gamma-
absorption are
governed more or
less by chance
collisions in which
energy is lost from
the penetrating
radiation. The
intensity decays
more or less exponentially with distance.

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 Interaction of Wave and radiation with Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

Sources of radiation pollution: Sources of radiation pollutions are given below:

Natural sources:

Our surrounding environment, such as the air, the rocks and soil, our house, even the food we eat and the
water we drink are all sources of radiation. Some amount of radiation is also present within the human
body; for example, polonium and radium are present in the bones while radioactive carbon and potassium
are found in the muscles.

Solar radiation: The radiation from the sun comprises both ultraviolet and infrared radiations.

Cosmic radiation: Cosmic rays constantly rain down in the Earth’s atmosphere from outer space. These
primarily contain protons, few electrons, helium ions, etc. which continuously interact with the Earth’s
atmosphere.

Terrestrial radiation: Terrestrial sources are the most important natural source to which the Earth’s
organisms are exposed. It results from the cumulative effect from a number of materials around us, such
as water, air, rock, soil, food, etc. The sources of terrestrial radiation are the radioactive minerals that are
present in the Earth’s crust.

Man-made sources:
Due to the advancements in science and technology, humans have been using radiation technology for
energy requirements and for health benefits.

The important man-made sources of radiation pollution are as follows:

1. Radioactive wastes generated during the mining and processing of radioactive minerals.
2. Nuclear fuels used in nuclear reactors for power generation.
3. Nuclear fallout due to the testing of nuclear weapons.
4. Medical use such as X-rays, radiotracers for detecting and curing cancers, etc.
Radiation dose units (dosimetry):

REM: One rem is defined as that amount of damage to tissue caused by radiation of any type which
produces the same biological effect as does 100 ergs energy absorbed per gram of tissue from incident X-
ray or gamma radiation. Rem (roentgen equivalent man).

RAD ( radiation absorbed dose): it is defined as that amount of X-rays which when absorbed, adds 100
ergs/gram to tissue. So, one rem of damage is produced by 1 rad absorbed X-rays or gamma rays.

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 Interaction of Wave and radiation with Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

Dose measurement:

Principle of dose measurement: In aqueous solution the primary target is water, and it breaks up not into
ions but into free radicals (H + OH). These react and produce new chemicals.

Fricke dosimeter:

It uses an aqueous solution of 0.1M 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 containing 10−3 M-Fe𝑆𝑜4 and a trace of chloride. Upon
radiation, ferrous (+2) is oxidized to ferric (+3) ion. The amount of ferric produced is easily estimated, as
𝐹𝑒3 𝐶𝑙2 from the extent of absorption of light with  = 3040 A. Thus 1 rad of hard X-ray or gamma ray
has the chemical effect of converting 1.5×10−8 moles of 𝐹𝑒 +2 to 𝐹𝑒 +3 per liter of solution.

Advantages of Fricke dosimeter: it is simple, reproducible, accurate and independent of dose rate. Its
useful range is 500  several thousand rad.

Lethal dose (𝑳𝑫𝟓𝟎): It is used to measure biological damage of living tissue. The LD50 the dose in rads
which will kill 50 percent of the cells irradiated as shown below.

𝑳𝑫𝟓𝟎 Dose: Irradiation damage is often not immediate, but may set in after days or even years. In general
𝐿𝐷50 (30 days) for mammals is 200 to 1000 rads. For man it is 400 rads (whole body). For frog it is 700,
becteria-10,000, insects 60,000.

Primary effect of radiation:

It is a reducing agent and when donate electron, it becomes H+ in solution. OH is an oxidizing agent and
becomes 𝑂𝐻 − when taking electron. H and OH cause the formulation of new molecules.

Oxygen effect: Radiation sensitivity of most molecules increases in presence of O2. The rate becomes
double when X-ray strike Fe+2 and becomes Fe+3 in presence of O2

Example: Due to the necrosis, many part of tumor becomes anoxic. By increasing the pressure of
respired air this anoxia can be reduced and consequence the increase of radio sensitivity of carcinoma
cells. O2 accelerate many metabolic reaction and increase radiation damage (advantage during treatment).

Irradiation of organs and tissue:

1. Red blood cell manufacture slows down in bone narrow.

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 Interaction of Wave and radiation with Human Body, Exam-2018
Department of Applied Physics and Electronic Engineering, University of Rajshahi

2. Manufacture of lymphocytes in the spleen is drastically reduced

3. The skin shows reddening and blistering after only 140 ram and more radiation produce skin cancer.

4. Impairment of secretion occurs in the alimentary canal due to membrane destruction. Sloughing off
the mucous lining of the canal is the early symptom and can cause death due to infection.

5. Steady- state of the adrenal glands are upset, Hormones, greater body susceptibility to heat, cold,
injury and infection results from damage.

6. Membranes between 𝑂2 and C𝑂2 in lungs are broken results are 𝑂2 deficiency in blood and excess
C𝑂2 in blood.

7. Excess radiation can ruin the very selective membrane in kidney. Similar damage in liver results in
hemorrhaging.

8. Cataracts develop in lens eye.

9. Low dose to some tissues can produce enough variation in the cell reproduction system so that tissue
becomes carcinogenic.

10. The rate of production of antibodies is lowered remarkably and tissues are more subject to infection
and disease.

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