MODULE-3

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

Syllabus
Solar Photovoltaic Systems: Introduction, Solar Cell Fundamentals, Solar Cell Characteristics, Solar
Cell Classification, Solar Cell Technologies, Solar Cell, Module, and Array Construction, Maximizing
the Solar PV Output and Load Matching. Maximum Power Point Tracker. Balance of System
Components, Solar PV Systems, Solar PV Applications

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into
electricity by photovoltaic effect. They are made of special materials that are semiconductors. These
semiconductors produce electricity when sun light falls onto its surface. It is 5 to 11 times more
expensive to produce electricity from the sun than it is from fossil and nuclear fuels.

Describe the working principal of solar PV cell

Components of a Solar Cell System

(i) Photovoltaic cell: Semiconductor material that generate voltage & current when exposed
to sunlight.
(ii) Module : PV cell wired together & laminated between a clear strait glazing &
encapsulating substrate.
(iii) Array: One or more modules with mounting hardware & wired together at specific
voltage.
(iv) Charge controller: Power conditioning equipment to regulate battery voltage
(v) Battery storage: A medium that stores direct current (DC) electrical energy.
(vi) Inverter: An electrical device that changes DC to AC to operate loads that requires AC
(vii) DC Load: Appliances, Motors & equipment powered by DC
(viii) AC load: Appliances, Motors & equipment powered by AC

Key Elements of Silicon Solar Cell

The basic elements of a solar cell is described in Figure 4.1.

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The following are the basic elements:

1. Substrate: It is an unpolished p-type wafer referred to as p-region base material. The important
parameters to be kept in mind while choosing a wafer for solar cells are its orientation, resistivity,
thickness, and doping. Typical thickness of wafers used for solar cells is 180–300 µm. The typical
resistivity values are in 1–2 Ωcm. The doping should be close to 5 × 1015/cm3 to 1 × 1016/cm3 . The
wafer can be single crystalline or multi-crystalline.

2. Emitter: The emitter formation involves the doping of silicon with pentavalent impurities such as
phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony. However, for solar cell applications, phosphorus is the widely
used impurity.

3. Electrical contacts: These are essential to a photovoltaic cell since they bridge the connection
between the semiconductor material and the external electrical load. It includes

(a) Back contact: It is a metallic conductor completely covering back. The back contact of a cell is
located on the side away from the incoming sunlight and is relatively simple. It usually consists of a
layer of aluminium or molybdenum metal.

(b) Front contact: Current collection grid of metallic finger type is arranged in such a way that
photon energy falls on n-region diffused layers. The front contact is located on the side facing the
light source and is more complicated. When light falls on the solar cell, a current of electrons flow
over the surface. If contacts are attached at the edges of the cell, it will not work well due to the great
electrical resistance of the top semiconductor layer; only a small number of electrons will make it to
the contact. To collect the maximum current, the contacts must be placed across the entire surface of a
solar cell.

(c) Anti-reflective coatings: Anti-reflective coatings are applied to reduce surface reflection and
maximize cell efficiency in solar glass and silicon solar cell manufacturing. It helps to reduce the
reflection of desirable wavelengths from the cell, allowing more light to reach the semiconductor film
layer, increasing solar cell efficiency.

SOLAR CELL CLASSIFICATION

Solar cells may be classified on the basis of

(i) thickness of active material, (ii) type of junction structure, and (iii) the type of active material used
in its fabrication

On the Basis of Thickness of Active Material

Depending on the thickness of the active material, they are classified as: (i) thick film cell and (ii) thin
film cell.

In thick film cells, base material (starting material in fabrication process) itself is an active material.
In thin film cells, a thin film (few nm to 10s of μm) deposition of active material is carried out on the
back support sheet, known as a substrate.

Thin film solar cells have the major advantage of significantly low, active material consumption and
the possibility of continuous sequence of production processes.

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On the Basis of Junction Structure

On the basis of the type of junction structure they are classified as

(i) PN homo junction cell and (ii) PN hetero junction cell, (iii) PN multi junction cell, (iv) metal-
semiconductor (Shottky) junction and (v) P-i-N (P-type-intrinsic-N-type) semiconductor junction.

Describe the classification of solar cell based on the type of active materials used

On the Basis of Type of Active Material

Depending on the type of material used for fabrication of a junction, they are classified as:

(i) single crystal (or monocrystalline) silicon cell, (ii) multicrystalline silicon cell, (iii) amorphous
silicon (a-Si), (iv) gallium arsenide cell (GaAS), (v) copper indium (gallium) di-selenide cell (CIS),
(vi) cadmium telluride cell (CdTe) and (vii) organic PV cell.

At present, only single crystal, multicrystalline and to some extent CIS, CdTe and a-Si cells are being
produced commercially.

1. Single Crystal (or Mono Crystalline) Silicon Solar Cell

Single crystal silicon cells are the most efficient and most robust of the silicon PV family. Their main
drawbacks are: (i) they are most energy intensive in their production and (ii) unit consumption of
silicon to produce one unit of PV electricity is also quite high.

2. Multicrystalline Silicon Solar Cell

Multicrystalline silicon cells are less energy intensive in their production and less costly as compared
to single crystal silicon cell. But they are less efficient. Commercial multicrystalline solar cells have
efficiencies typically 1 per cent to 2 per cent lower as compared to their monocrystalline counter
parts.

Multicrystalline wafers are of square shape. They allow higher packing density of cells in the module.
Due to this at module level, the efficiency of mono and multicrystalline Si module is nearly the same.

3. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Cell

Amorphous silicon cells are recently developed using thin film technology. These are cheaper
alternatives to single or multicrystalline cells. Their main drawbacks are that they have low efficiency
(a commercial a-Si module has efficiency in range 4–9 per cent) and they degrade on exposer to
light, which is known as StaeblerWronski effect.

SOLAR CELL MATERIALS

(i)Silicon
This remains the most popular material for solar cells, including these types:

1. Monocrystalline or single crystal silicon

2. Multi-crystalline silicon
3. Polycrystalline silicon
4. Amorphous silicon

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(ii)Thin Film
Thin-film solar cells use layers of semiconductor materials only a few micrometres thick. Thinfilm
technology has made it possible for solar cells to now double as these materials:

1. Rooftop or solar shingles

2. Roof tiles
3. Building facades
4. Glazing for skylights or atria

Explain the solar cell performance & its I-V characteristic’s

Solar Cell Performance (Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell)

In analysing the cell performance, the photovoltaic process of solar cell can be modelled as a
macroscopic equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 4.5.

The circuit consists of light-dependent current source supplying current IS to a network of resistances
including
1. Junction resistance, RJ 2. Internal shunt resistance, RSH 3. Internal series resistance, RS 4.Internal
shunt capacitance 5. External load resistance, R

The internal shunt resistance (RSH) is usually much larger than the external load resistance so that
most of the available current can be delivered to the load.
The internal series resistance (RS) is usually much less than the external load resistance (R) so that
less power is dissipated internally within the cell.
simplified circuit is shown in Figure 4.6.

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load current is

----------(1)
Junction current is

-----------(2)
where I0 = Reverse saturation current; V = Voltage developed or applied across the junction; e = the
electron charge; k = the Boltzmann’s constant; and T = the absolute temperature

Under short-circuit condition

V = 0, I = IS

Under open-circuit condition I = 0, maximum open-circuit voltage becomes VOC

Substitute eqn 2 in eqn 1, then

--------------(3)

Applying open-circuit conditions, I = 0, V = VOC

I–V Characteristics of Solar Cells

The voltage output of the cell (V), in general, can be obtained as

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The actual I–V curve typically passes through two significant points:

1. The short-circuit current (ISC) is the current produced when the positive and negative terminals of
the cell are short-circuited and the voltage between the terminals is zero, which corresponds to a load
resistance of zero

2. The open-circuit voltage (VOC) is the voltage across the positive and negative terminals under open-
circuit conditions when the current is zero, which corresponds to a load resistance of infinity.

Output Power

The cell output power P = I × V

The output power depends on the value of load resistance for a given light intensity.

--------------(1)

Maximum Output Power of the Cell

Differentiating Equation (1) with respect to V and setting the derivative equal to zero

This can be rearranged as

The load current (IMP) that maximizes the output power can be found by

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Define (a) Fill factor (b) Efficiency
EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR CELLS

Energy conversion efficiency (η)

Fill Factor

The fill factor is directly affected by the values of the cell’s series and shunt resistances.

Increasing the shunt resistance (RSH) and decreasing the series resistance (RS) lead to a higher fill
factor, thus resulting in greater efficiency, and bringing the cell’s output power closer to its theoretical
maximum.

PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS (SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRAYS)

As single solar cell has a working voltage and current of about 0.5 V and 50 mA, respectively, they
are usually connected together in series (positive to negative) to provide larger voltages.

Parallel connection of several strings of cells will give rise to higher current output when compared
with single series string of cells.

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Explain how the variation of insulation & temperature effects I-V characteristics of solar
PV system

MAXIMISING THE SOLAR PV OUTPUT AND LOAD MATCHING

To make best use of solar PV system, the output is maximized in two ways.

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The first is mechanically tracking the sun and always orienting the panel in such a direction as to
receive maximum solar radiation under changing positions of the sun. That means adjusting the panel
such that the sun rays always fall normal to its surface.

The second is electrically tracking the operating point by manipulating the load to maximize the
power output under changing conditions of insolation and temperature.

The operating point of an electrical system is determined by the intersection of source characteristics
(source line) and load characteristics (load line). The operation for a solar PV system connected to a
resistive load is shown in Fig. 6.35.

For a low value of resistance, R1 the system operates at Q1. As the resistance is increased to R2 and
subsequently to R3, the operating point moves respectively to Q2 and Q3. Maximum power is
available from the PV system for load resistance of R2. Such load matching is required for extracting
maximum power from PV system

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKER

In order to receive maximum power the load must adjust itself accordingly to track the maximum
power point. The I-V characteristics of PV system, along with some common loads, are shown in Fig.
6.36. An ideal load is one that tracks the maximum power point.

Basic elements of a buck boost converter that may be used in an MPPT are shown in Fig. 6.37.

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The output voltage of the buck-boost converter is given by:

where D is the duty cycle of the MOSFET

The power output of a PV system is given by:

P = V.I

With incremental change in current and voltage, the modified power is given by:

ΔP must be zero at peak point. Therefore, at peak point the above expression in the limit becomes:

There are three possible strategies for operation of an MPPT:

(a) By Monitoring Dynamic and Static Impedances
(b) By Monitoring Power Output
(c) By Fixing the Output Voltage as a Fraction of Voc

SOLAR PV SYSTEMS
Classification Solar PV systems are broadly classified as:

1. Central Power Station System

 Central PV power stations are conceptually similar to any other conventional central power
station. They feed power to grid. These are being proposed in few MW range to meet
daytime peak loads only.

 Central PV power stations of up to 6 MWp (peak MW) capacities have already been
experimented within USA and Europe.

2. Distributed System
Distributed form of energy use is unique and much more successful with solar and most other
renewable energy sources. These systems can be further divided into three groups:

Discuss stand alone type PV system with an example

(a) Stand Alone or Off Grid

It is located at the load centre and dedicated to meet all the electrical loads of a village/community or
a specific set of loads. Energy storage is generally essential. It is most relevant and successful in
remote and rural areas having no access to grid supply. Indicative capacity of such a system is 10
Wp–100 kWp
Various types of configuration for stand-alone PV system are shown in Fig. 6.44.

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 Figure 6.44 Various stand alone system configurations

In Config. 1, a dc load is directly connected to PV panel. This is the simplest possible configuration.
Power is available only during sunshine hours and no arrangement is made for power storage. Such
type of arrangement may be used for supplying raw dc load such as minor irrigation.

In Config. 2, a regulated power is supplied to the load. A DC-DC converter is inserted between panel
and load. The converter may be controlled using MPPT algorithm to extract maximum power from
the PV panel. Usually when MPPT is implemented a battery is used to absorb excess power, which
the load cannot consume.

With a help of block diagram, explain the working of Grid tied solar PV system

(b) Grid-Interactive or Grid Tied

This system is connected to the utility grid with two-way metering system. It may be a small
rooftop system owned and operated by the house owner or a relatively bigger (rack mounted) system
meant for the whole village or a community.
It meets daytime requirements of the house owner without any battery backup and surplus
power is fed to the grid. During peak hours and during nights the energy shortage may be met from
grid. The grid serves as infinite source or sink of energy.

Grid-connected PV systems usually employ two stages,

First stage is used to track the maximum solar power, the second stage inverts this DC power
into high quality AC power.

(c) Hybrid PV System

It is not economical or practical to provide all energy from PV system. In such cases, it may
be more economical to provide some of the system energy needs by another means, such as
diesel/gasoline generator or any other non-conventional source like wind or fuel cell. Such a system is
called hybrid system.
The integrated system provides auxiliary support and better reliability. A hybrid system
requires lesser amount of battery storage.
Two typical hybrid configurations, known as series and parallel are shown in Fig. 6.46.

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In series configuration, the PV array is connected to DC bus through charge controller and DC-DC
converter to extract maximum PV power and raise its voltage to required level. The power generated
by diesel source is first rectified to DC and then again converted to AC to feed the AC load. Battery is
used to manage the balance of power. The configuration is known as series configuration because the
two ac sources, diesel generator and inverter are not connected in parallel but in series. The generator
supplies the load through series of rectifier and inverter. Therefore, the inverter supplies the total ac
load current.

Figure 6.46 Solar PV hybrid configurations

In parallel configuration, the two sources, the diesel generator and the inverter are connected
in parallel to AC load. As a result the rating of the inverter is less and the efficiency is higher.
However, proper synchronization is required between the output of diesel generator and inverter.

List Various Applications of solar PV systems

APPLICATION OF SOLAR CELL SYSTEMS

 Solar Water Pumps

 Solar Vehicle

 Solar Lanterns

 Solar Panels on Spacecraft

 Grid-connected Photovoltaic Power Systems

 Cathodic Protection Systems

 Electric Fences

 Remote Lighting Systems

 Telecommunications and Remote Monitoring Systems

 Rural Electrification

 Water Treatment Systems

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