Module-

Fundamentals of Robotics: robot anatomy, work 2 volume, robot drive systems, control systems,
precision of
movement, end effectors, Introduction to Manipulator kinematics, Robot Dynamics.

Basic control systems and components: Basic control systems concepts and models,
Controllers, control system analysis

1. Robot Anatomy
Robot Anatomy is concerned with the physical construction of the body, arm, and wrist of the
machine. Most robots used in plants today are mounted on a base which is fastened to the floor.
The body is attached to the base and the arm assembly is attached to the body. At the end of the
arm is the wrist.
The wrist consists of a number of components that allow it to be oriented in a variety of
positions. Relative movements between the various components of body, arm, and wrist are
provided by a series of joints. These joint movements usually involve either rotating or sliding
motions.
The body arm and wrist assembly is called the manipulator. Attached to the robot’s wrist is a
hand or a tool called the “end effector”. The end effector is not considered as part of the robot’s
anatomy. The arm and body joints of the manipulator are used to position the end effector, and
the wrist joints of the manipulator are used to orient the end effector.

1.1. Four Common Robot Configurations

1. Polar Configuration (Spherical)
2. Cylindrical Configuration
3. Cartesian coordinate Configuration
4. Jointed arm configuration
a) Polar Configuration
· It uses a arm that can be raised or lowered about a horizontal pivot
· The pivot is mounted on a rotating base.
· The various joints provide the robot with capability to movie its arm within a spherical space
and hence it is also called as “Spherical Coordinate Robot”
· It has one linear and two rotary motions.

Advantages
· Larger work envelope than the rectilinear or cylindrical configuration
· Vertical structure conserves less space
Disadvantages
· Repeatability and accuracy are also lower in the direction of rotary motion
· Requires more sophisticated control system
Applications
· Die casting
· Forging
· Glass handling
· Injection Molding
· Stacking and unstacking
b) Cylindrical Configuration
· Cylindrical configuration uses a vertical column and a slide that can be moved up or down
along the column.
· The robot arm is attached to the slide so that it can be moved with respect to the column.
· By rotating the column, the robot is capable of achieving a work space that approximates a
cylinder
Advantages
· It has higher load carrying capacity
· It provides high rigidity to the manipulator
· It is generally suitable for pick and place applications
Disadvantages
· It requires more floor space
· It has a reduced mechanical rigidity because robots with a rotary axis must overcome the
inertial of the object when rotating
Applications
· Conveyer pallet transfers
· Machine tool loading
· Forging applications
· Packing operation
· Precision small assembly
c) Cartesian coordinate robot
· Cartesian or rectangular coordinate configuration is constructed by three perpendicular slides,
giving only linear motions along the three principal axes.
· It consists of three prismatic joints.
· The endpoints of the arm are capable of operating in a cuboidal space
· The cartesian arm gives high precision and is easy to program
· These robots are also called XYZ robots because they are equipped with three rotary joints to
assemble XYZ axes.

Advantages
· Highly Accurate and speed
· Fewer costs
· Simple operating procedures
· High payloads
Limitations
· Less work envelope
· Low dexterity
· Limited maniplability
Applications
· Pick and Place
· Material handling
· Loading
· Unloading
d) Jointed Arm Configuration
· Widely-used jointed arm configuration is similar to that of a human arm.
· It comprises two straight links representing the human forearm and upper arm and two rotary
joints representing the elbow and shoulder joints, which are mounted on a vertical rotary table
corresponding to the human waist joint.
· As a result, it can be controlled at any adjustments in the workspace.

Advantages
· Increased flexibility,
· Huge work volume and
· Quick operation.
Disadvantages
· Very expensive
· Difficult operating procedures
· Plenty of components
Applications
· Spray Painting
· Spot Welding
· Arc Welding
1.2. Robot Motions
Industrial robots are designed to perform productive work such as pick and place, welding,
assembly etc. The work is accomplished by enabling the robot to move its body, arm and wrist
through a series of motions and positions. Attached to the wrist is the end effector which is used
by the robot to perform a specific work task. The individual joint motions associated with the
performance of a task are referred to by the term degrees of freedom (DOF) and a typical
industrial robot is equipped with four to six degrees of freedom. The opening and closing of
gripper is not considered degree of freedom.
For robots of polar, cylindrical or jointed arm configuration, the three degrees of freedom
associated with the arm and body motions are:
Vertical traverse: This is the capacity to move the wrist up or down to provide the desired
vertical attitude
Radial Traverse: This involves the extension or retraction (in or out movement) of the arm from
the vertical centre of the robot
Rotational traverse: This is the rotation of the arm about the vertical axis.
1.3. Robot Motions

The wrist movement is designed to enable the robot to orient the end effector properly with
respect to the task being performed. For example, the hand must be properly oriented to the work
being performed such as welding, grasping etc. To solve this orientation problem, the wrist is
normally provided with up to three degrees of freedom
1. Wrist roll: Also called wrist swivel, this involves rotation of the wrist mechanism about the
arm axis
2. Wrist pitch: Given that the wrist roll is in its centre position, the pitch would involve the up or
down rotation of the wrist. Wrist pitch is also sometimes called wrist bend
3. Wrist Yaw: Again given that the wrist swivel is the centre position of its range, wrist yaw
would involve the right or left rotation of the wrist
2. Work Volume
Work volume is the term that refers to the space within which the robot can manipulate its wrist
end. The convention of using the wrist end to define the robot’s work volume is adopted to avoid
the complication of different sizes of end effectors that might be attached to the robot’s wrist.
The end effector is an addition to the basic robot and should not be counted as part of the robot’s
working space. Also, the end effector attached to the wrist might not be capable of reaching
certain points within the robot’s normal work volume because of the particular combination of
joint limits of the arm.
The work volume is determined by the following physical characteristics of the robot:
● The robot’s physical configuration (type of joints, structure of links)
● The sizes of the body, arm, and wrist components
● The limits of the robot’s joint movements
Fig shows different work volume of different types of robots
 A polar robot has a work volume that is partial sphere
A cylindrical robot has a cylindrical work volume
A Cartesian robot has a work volume that is made of a rectangular shaped space
An anthropomorphic robot has a work volume made up of two or more spheres on the inside and
one sphere on the outside.
3. Robot Drive System
The robot’s capacity to move its body, arm, and wrist is provided by the drive system used to
power the robot. The drive system determines its speed of operation, load carrying capacity, and
its dynamic performance.
To some extent, the drive system determines the kinds of applications that the robot can
accomplish. In this and the following sections, we will discuss some of these technical features.
a. Types of Drive Systems
Commercially available industrial robots are powered by one of three types of drive systems.
These three systems are:
1. Hydraulic drive
2. Electric drive
3. Pneumatic drive
4. Advanced actuators
Hydraulic drive and electric drive are the two main types of drives used on more sophisticated
robots, while pneumatic drive is used for low load carrying capacity robots and in cases where
oil and electricity cannot be used (fire hazard).
Hydraulic drive is generally associated with larger robots. The usual advantages of the hydraulic
drive system are that it provides the robot with greater speed and strength.
The disadvantages of the hydraulic drive system are that it typically adds to the floor space
required by the robot, and that a hydraulic system is inclined to leak oil which is a nuisance.
Hydraulic drive systems can be designed to actuate either rotational joints or linear joints. Rotary
vane actuators can be utilized to provide rotary motion, and hydraulic pistons can be used to
accomplish linear motion.
Electric drive systems do not generally provide as much speed or power as hydraulic systems.
However, the accuracy and repeatability of electric drive robots are usually better.
Consequently, electric robots tend to be smaller, requiring less floor space, and their applications
tend toward more precise work such as assembly. Electric drive robots are actuated by dc
stepping motors or dc servomotors.
These motors are ideally suited to the actuation of rotational joints through appropriate drive
train and gear systems. Electric motors can also be used to actuate linear joints (e.g., telescoping
arms) by means of pulley systems or other translational mechanisms.
The economics of the two types of drive systems are also a factor in the decision to utilize
hydraulic drive on large robots and electric drive on smaller robots.
It turns out that the cost of an electric motor is much more proportional to its size, whereas the
cost of a hydraulic drive system is somewhat less dependent on its size.
It should be noted that there is a trend in the design of industrial robots toward all electric drives,
and away from hydraulic robots because of the disadvantages discussed above.
Pneumatic driveis generally reserved for smaller robots that possess fewer degrees of freedom
(two- to four-joint motions). These robots are often limited to simple pick-and-place operations
with fast cycles.
 These drives have the added advantage of having compliance or ability to absorb some shock
during contact with devices to provide translational movement of sliding joints. It can also be
used to operate rotary actuators for rotational joints.
4. Control Systems
In order to operate, a robot must have a means of controlling its drive system to properly regulate
its motions.
Four types of Robot Controls
Commercially available industrial robots can be classified into four categories according to their
control system. The types of robot controls :
 Limited sequence robots
 Playback robots with point to point control
 Playback robots with continuous path control
 Intelligent robots
Limited Sequence Robots
Of the four categories, the limited sequence robotsrepresent the lowest level of control and
intelligent robots are the most sophisticated.
Limited sequence robots do not use servo-control to indicate relative positions of the joints.
Instead, they are controlled by setting limit switches and/or mechanical stops to establish the
endpoints of travel for each of their joints.
Establishing the positions and sequence of these stops involves a mechanical set-up of the
manipulator rather than robot programming in the usual sense of the term.
With this method of control, the individual joints can only be moved to their extreme limits of
travel. This has the effect of severely limiting the number of distinct points that can be specified
in a program for these robots.
The sequence in which the motion cycle is played out is defined by a pegboard or stepping
switch or other sequencing device.
This device, which constitutes the robot controller, signals each of the particular actuators to
operate in the proper succession. There is generally no feedback associated with a limited-
sequence robot to indicate that the desired position has been achieved.
Any of the three drive systems can be used with this type of control system; however, pneumatic
drive seems to be the type most commonly employed.
Applications for this type of robot generally involve simple motions, such as pick-and-place
operations.
Playback robots with point-to-point control
Playback robots use a more sophisticated control unit in which a series of positions or motions
are “taught” to the robot, recorded into memory, and then repeated by the robot under its own
control.
The term “playback” is descriptive of this general mode of operation. The procedure of teaching
and recording into memory is referred to as programming the robot.
Playback robots usually have some form of servo-control (e.g., closed loop feedback system) to
ensure are the positions that have been taught.
Playback robots can be classified into two categories: point-to-point (PTP) robots and
continuous-path (CP) robots. Point-to-point robots are capable of performing motion cycles that
consist of a series of desired point locations and related actions.
The robot is taught each point, and these points are recorded into the robot’s control unit. During
playback, the robot is controlled to move from one point to another in the proper sequence.
Point-to-point robots do not control the path taken by the robot to get from one point to the next.
If the programmer wants to exercise a limited amount of control over the path followed, this
must sequence of positions is quite adequate for many kinds of applications, including loading
and unloading machines and spot welding.
Playback robots with continuous path control
Continuous-path robots are capable of performing motion cycles in which the path followed by
the robot is controlled. This is usually accomplished by making the robot move through a series
of closely spaced points which describe the desired path.
The individual points are defined by the control unit rather than the programmer. Straight line
motion is a common form of continuous-path control for industrial robots.
The programmer specifies the starting point and the end point of the path, and the control unit
calculates the sequence of individual points that permit the robot to follow a straight line
trajectory.
Some robots have the capability to follow a smooth, curved path that has been defined by a
programmer who manually moves the arm through the desired motion cycle.
To achieve continuous-path control to more than a limited extent requires that the controller unit
be capable of storing a large number of individual point locations that define the compound
curved path.
Today this usually involves the use of a digital computer (a microprocessor is typically used as
the central processing unit for the computer) as the robot controller.
CP control is required for certain types of industrial applications such as spray coating and arc
welding.
Intelligent robots
Intelligent robots constitute a growing class of industrial robot that possesses the capability not
only to play back a programmed motion cycle but also to interact with its environment in a way
that seems intelligent.
Invariably, the controller unit consists of a digital computer or similar device (programmable
controller). Intelligent robots can alter their programmed cycle in response to conditions that
occur in the workplace.
They can make logical decisions based on sensor data received from the operation. The robots in
this class have the capacity to communicate during the work cycle with humans or computer
based systems.
Intelligent robots are usually programmed using an English-like symbolic language, unlike a
computer programming language.
Indeed, the kinds of applications that are performed by intelligent robots rely on the use of a
high-level language to accomplish the complex and sophisticated activities that can be
accomplished by these robots.
Typical applications for intelligent robots are assembly tasks, space applications, under sea,
nuclear applications, defense applications, etc.
 Intelligent robots have been made possible by the availability of cheap electronics, smaller and
faster processors and smart materials-based actuators and sensors.
5. Precision of movement
A robot is expected to perform repeated tasks in a real world and hence its performance is
ultimately measured by its ability to position and orient the end effector at the desired location a
large number of times. We will define precision as a function of three features:
1. Spatial Resolution: The spatial resolution of a robot is the smallest increment of movement
into which the robot can divide its work volume.
Spatial resolution depends on two factors: the system’s control resolution and the robot’s
mechanical inaccuracies.
The control resolution is determined by the robot’s position control system and its feedback
measurement system.
2. Accuracy: Accuracy refers to a robot’s ability to position its wrist end at a desired target point
within the work volume.
The accuracy of a robot can be defined in terms of spatial resolution because the ability to
achieve a given target point depends on how closely the robot can define the control increments
for each of its joint motion
In the worst case, the desired point would be in the middle between two adjacent control
increments. This relation shop is shown in fig

In fact, the mechanical inaccuracies would affect the ability to reach the target position,
Accordingly we define the robot’s accuracy to be one-half of its spatial resolution as shown in
fig below
Repeatability
Repeatability is concerned with the robot’s ability to position its wrist or an end effector attached
to its wrist at a point in space that had previously been taught to the robot.
Repeatability and accuracy refer to two different aspects of the robot’s precision. Accuracy
relates to the robot’s capacity to be programmed to achieve a given target point. Repeatability
refers to the robot’s ability to return to the programmed point when commanded to do so.

Compliance: The compliance of the robot manipulator refers to the displacemenet of the wrist
end in response to a force or torque exerted against it.
A high compliance means that the wrist is displace by a large amount by a relative small force.
The term springy is sometimes used to describe a robot with high compliance.
A low compliance means that the manipulator is relatively stiff and is not displaced by a
significant amount
Robot manipulator compliance is a directional feature. That is, the compliance of the robot arm
will be greater in certain directions than in other directions because of the mechanical
construction of the arm.
Compliance is important because it reduces the robot’s precision of movement under load.

End effectors
In robotics, the term ‘end effector’ is used to describe the hand or tool that is attached to the
robot’s wrist. The end effector represents the special tooling that permits the general purpose
robot to perform a particular application. This special tooling must usually be designed
specifically for the application.
End effectors can be divided into two categories: grippers and tools. Grippers would be utilised
to grasp an object, usually the work part, and hold it during the robot work cycle. There are a
variety of holding methods that can be used in addition to the obvious mechanical means of
grasping the part between two or more more fingers.
These additional methods include the use of suction cups, magnets, hooks and scoops.
A tool would be used as an end effector in applications where the robot is required to perform
some operation on the work part. These applications include spot welding arc welding spray
painting etc.
In each case the particular tool is attached to the robot’s wrist to accomplish the application
With the recent need for holding micro and nano size parts for assembly, several new devices
have been developed using smart actuators, PZT and ionic polymers etc

Robotic sensors
Sensors used in robotics can be divided into external sensors and internal sensors.
External sensors are used for interacting with the environment, while internal sensors are
required to close the loop for feedback control.
A robot working in closed loop cannot work without internal sensors. A few examples of sensors
are
(a) External Sensors: vision, force torque, proximity etc.
(b) Internal Sensors: position, velocity, acceleration
Sensors are not only required for working of the robot and interacting with environment, but also
for safety and work cell control and monitoring
Among all the external sensors vision is the most versatile and can be used for several
applications.
Vision systems can be used to locate objects for manipulation, measure their dimensions, detect
intrusions in the work cell etc.
A robot has to communicate with other machines and devices and this also depends on several
sensor information. Simple sensors are used to detect the presence of a part on a conveyer,
completion of a task, forces or torques being applied in an assembly task etc.

Robot programming and work cell control

In its most basic form, a robot program can be defined as a path in space through which the
manipulator is directed to move. This path also includes other actions such as controlling the end
effector and receiving signals from sensors. The purpose of robot programming is to teach these
actions to the robot.
There are various methods used for programming robots. The two basic categories of greatest
commercial importance today are lead through programming and textual language programming.
Lead through programming consists of forcing the robot arm to move through the required
motion sequence and recording the motions into the controller memory. Lead through methods
are used to program playback robots.
In the case of point-to-point playback robots, the usual procedure is to use a control box (called a
teach pendant) to drive the robot joints to each of the desired points in the workspace, and record
the points into memory for subsequent playback.
The teach pendant is equipped with a series of switches and dials to control the robot’s
movements during the teach procedure. Owing to its ease and convenience and the wide range of
applications suited to it, this lead through method is the most common programming method for
playback-type robots.
Continuous-path playback robots also use lead through programming. A teach pendant can be
employed to teach the locations of the two points; and the robot controller then computes the
trajectory to be followed in order to execute the complex motions.
For more complex motions (e.g., those encountered in spray painting operations), it is usually
more convenient for the programmer to physically move the robot arm and end effector through
the desired motion path and record the positions at closely spaced sampling intervals.
Textual programming methods use an English-like language to establish the logic and sequence
of the work cycle. A computer terminal is used to input the program instructions into the
controller but a teach pendant is also used to define the locations of the various points in the
workspace.
The robot programming language names the points as symbols in the program and these symbols
are subsequently defined by showing the robot their locations. In addition to identifying points in
the workspace, the robot languages permit the use of calculations, more detailed logic flow, and
subroutines in the programs, and greater corresponds largely to the so-called intelligent robots.
Some examples of the kinds of programming statements that would be found in the textual robot
languages include the following sequence:
SPEED 35 IPS
MOVE P1
CLOSE 40 MM
WAIT 1 SEC
DEPART 60 MM
The series of commands tells the robot that its velocity at the wrist should be 35 in./sec. in the
motions which follow. The MOVE statement indicates that the robot is to move its gripper to
point P1 and close to an opening of 40 mm. It is directed to wait 1.0 sec. before departing from
P1 by a distance of 60 mm above the point.
All of the current methods of programming require the participation of the robot in order to
perform the programming function. With off-line programming, the entire program can be
entered into a computer for later downloading to the robot.
Off-line programming would hasten the changeover from one robot work cycle to a new work
cycle without a major time delay for reprogramming. Unfortunately, there are certain technical
problems associated with off-line programming.
These problems are mainly concerned with defining the spatial locations of the positions to be
used in the work cycle, and that is why the teach pendant is required in today’s textual robot
languages.
In addition to the lead through and textual language programming methods, there is another form
of programming for the low-technology-limited sequence robots. These robots are programmed
by setting limit switches, mechanical stops, and other similar means to establish the endpoints of
travel for each of the joints.
This is sometimes called mechanical programming; it really involves more of a manual setup
procedure rather than a programming method. The work cycles for these kinds of robots
generally consist of a limited number of simple motions (pick and place applications), for which
this manual programming method is adequate.
Work cell controldeals with the program of coordinating the robot to operate with other
equipment in the work cell. A robot cell usually consists of not only the robot, but also
conveyors, machine tools, inspection devices, and possibly human operators.
Some of the activities in the robot work cell occur sequentially, while other activities occur
simultaneously. A method of controlling and synchronizing these various activities is required,
and that is the purpose of the work cell controller.
Work cell control is accomplished either by the robot controller or a separate small computer or
programmable controller. During operation, the controller communicates signals to the
equipment in the cell and receives signals from the equipment.
These signals are sometimes called interlocks. By communicating back and forth with the
different components of the work cell, the various activities in the cell are accomplished in the
proper sequence.

Robot Applications
Robot are employed in a wide assortment of applications in industry. Today, most of the
applications are in manufacturing to move materials, parts, and tools of various types.
Nonmanufacturing tasks include exploration of space, defense, and medical care.
At some time in the near future, a household robot may become a mass produced item, perhaps
as commonplace as the automobile is today. Simple toy robot that can perform simple
reprogrammable functions are already commonplace.
For the present, most industrial applications of robots can be divided into the following
categories:
Material-handling and machine-loading and unloading applications – In these applications, the
robot’s function is to move materials or parts from one location in the work cell to some other
location.
Processing applications – This category includes spot welding, arc welding, spray painting, and
other operations in which the function of the robot is to manipulate a tool to accomplish some
manufacturing process in the work cell. Spot welding represents a particularly important
application in the processing category.
Assembly and inspection – These are two separate operations which we include together in this
category. Robotic assembly is a field in which the industry is showing great interest because of
its economic potential.
Advanced applications – Rehabilitation, outer space, defense, pets, security, etc.

Introduction to Manipulator Kinematics

Manipulator kinematics refers to the study of the motion of a robot manipulator, which is a
mechanical arm or chain of links that can move in various directions to perform tasks such as
grasping, manipulation, and assembly.
Kinematics is concerned with the description of the motion of the manipulator without
considering the forces and torques that cause the motion. It involves the analysis of the position,
velocity, and acceleration of the manipulator's end effector (the tool or gripper at the end of the
arm) and the joints that connect the links of the manipulator.
There are two main types of kinematics in manipulator kinematics:
1. Forward Kinematics (FK): Given the joint angles, determine the position and orientation of the
end effector.
2. Inverse Kinematics (IK): Given the desired position and orientation of the end effector,
determine the required joint angles.

Positioning Representation
The position of the end of the arm maybe represented by using two joint angles θ1 and θ2 this
representation in Joint space can be defined as.
 𝑃𝑗 = (𝜃1 , 𝜃2 )
Another way to define the armed position is in “world” space. This involves the use of a
Cartesian coordinate system that is external to the robot. The origin of the Cartesian axis system
is often located in the robot base.

The end of the arm position would be defined in the world space as
Pw = (x, y)
Concept of a point definition in world space can be extended to three dimensions, that is ,
Pw = (x, y, z) representing an arms position in world space is useful when the robot must
communicate with other machines.

Forward transformation of a 2 degree of freedom Arm

The position of the end of the arm can be determined in world space by defining a vector for link
1 and another for link 2.

Vector addition of 1 and 2 yields the coordinates X and Y of the end of the arm Pw in the world
space
Adding orientation: A 3 degree of freedom arm in two dimensions

Consider a third degree of freedom into the previous configuration to develop RRR manipulated
as shown in below figure the third degree of freedom will represent a wrist joint the world space
coordinates for the wrist in would be
Basic control systems and components: Basic control systems concepts and models,
Controllers, control system analysis,

Basic control systems concepts

A closed loop control system consists of three basic elements : the feedback element, controller
and controlled system. The controller consists of error detector and control elements.

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM

The control system may be classified into two types depending upon whether the controlled
variable i.e., output affects the reference variable i.e., input or not. The control systems are
classified into two types : 1) Open loop control system 2) Closed loop control system

Open Loop Control System A system in which the control action is totally independent of the
output of the system is called as open loop system.

Advantages of open loop system 1) They are simple in construction and design. 2) They are
economical. 3) Easy for maintenance. 4) Not much problems of stability. 5) Convenient to use
when output is difficult to measure.
Disadvantages of open loop system
1) Inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy is dependent on accuracy of calibration.
2) Inaccurate results are obtained with parameter variations, internal disturbances.
3) To maintain quality and accuracy recalibration of the controller is necessary from time to time.
Closed Loop Control System
A system in which the controlling action is some how dependent on the output is called closed
loop control system. Such system uses a feedback. A part of the output is feedback or
connected to the input. i.e., feedback is that property of the system which permits the output to
be compared with the reference input so that appropriate controlling action can be decided.

Advantages of closed loop system

1) Accuracy is very high as any error arising is corrected. 2) It senses changes in output due to
environmental or parametric changes or internal disturbances. 3) Reduces effect of
non−linearity. 4) Increases Bandwidth.
Disadvantage of closed loop system
1) Complicated in design.
2) Maintenance is costlier.
3) System may become unstable
BLOCK DIAGRAM
In order to draw the block diagram of a practical system each element of practical system is
represented by a block. For a closed loop system, the function of comparing the different signals
is indicated by the summing point while a point from which signal is taken for the feedback
purpose is indicated by take off point in block diagrams.
A block diagram has following five basic elements associated with it.
1) Functional Blocks 2) Transfer functions of elements shown inside the functional blocks
3) Summing points 4) Take off points 5) Arrow Transfer function of a Closed Loop
System

Rules for Block Diagram Reduction

Basic Control Systems Concepts and Models
Control systems are integral to robotics and automation, ensuring that machines operate as
intended. At their core, control systems manage, command, direct, or regulate the behavior of
other devices or systems. There are two primary types of control systems: open-loop and closed-
loop systems.
An open-loop control system operates without feedback. It performs actions solely based on the
input command, without considering the output. An example is a washing machine that runs for
a set time regardless of whether the clothes are clean.
In contrast, a closed-loop control system uses feedback to compare the actual output with the
desired output (set point). This system adjusts its operations based on the difference, or error, to
achieve the desired result. The basic components of a closed-loop system include the set point,
controller, plant, output, and feedback mechanism.
Controllers
Controllers are crucial in control systems, providing the necessary adjustments to achieve the
desired performance. The most common types are Proportional (P), Integral (I), Derivative (D),
and PID controllers, which combine all three.
A Proportional (P) controller adjusts the control signal in proportion to the error. While simple
and responsive, it may not always eliminate the steady-state error.
An Integral (I) controller accumulates the error over time and adjusts the control signal
accordingly, eliminating steady-state error but potentially causing slow response or oscillations.
A Derivative (D) controller predicts future error based on its rate of change, providing a
damping effect that improves stability and response time.
A PID controller combines the advantages of P, I, and D controllers. Its control signal is given
by: u(t)=Kpe(t)+Ki∫e(t)dt+Kdde(t)dtu(t) = K_p e(t) + K_i \int e(t) dt + K_d
\frac{de(t)}{dt}u(t)=Kpe(t)+Ki∫e(t)dt+Kddtde(t)
Example: Speed Control of a DC Motor
In a DC motor speed control system, the set point is the desired speed, the controller is the PID
controller, the plant is the DC motor, and the feedback is provided by a tachometer. The PID
controller adjusts the motor's voltage to maintain the desired speed.
Control System Analysis
To design effective control systems, it's crucial to analyze their performance and stability. Key
performance metrics include transient response and steady-state error. The transient response
covers rise time, settling time, and overshoot, indicating how quickly and accurately the system
reaches its desired state. The steady-state error measures the difference between the desired and
actual output once the system has settled.
Stability Analysis is essential to ensure the system behaves predictably under all conditions.
Techniques like root locus, Bode plots, and Nyquist criterion help analyze and design stable
control systems.
Root Locus Diagram:
Root locus is a graphical method for studying how the roots of a system change with variation in
system parameters, typically the gain. It helps in designing controllers that ensure system
stability and desired performance.
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Bode Plot:
Bode plots show the frequency response of a system, consisting of magnitude and phase plots.
They are crucial for designing filters and controllers with specific frequency characteristics.
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