252 | Wireless Communications 8.2 i FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS Frequeney Division Multiple Access (FDMA) refers to sharing the available radio spectrum by specific frequency channels to subscriber either on a permanent basis or ona temporary basis. 1) Pm tiation between the cartier frequencies ofthe forward channel (also called downlink-communicaig the cell-site and mobile subscribers) and reverse channels (also called uplink-communication jane mobile subscribers and the cell-site) is an important design parameter related to FDMA technique. IF the forward channels and reverse channels vee gy Frequency channels carrier frequencies that are sufficiently spaced, the ye scheme is refered to as FDD. The FDD technique is may enone « 4 Saber) in macrocellular communication systems designed for ray —— erage of several kilometres, The base station dynamical a. a different carrier frequency to each active mobile subscribe ¢ #2 order to adjust and maintain the transmission and reception fe. quencies, a frequency synthesiser is used at the base statin ay + Time the mobile station, The concept of FDMA is shown in Fig & Fig.8.1 | TheconceptofFDMA InFDMA, the available radio spectrum is divided intoaset ofan tinuous frequency channels labeled I through NY and the frepexs channels are assigned to individual mobile suserbs Frequency on a continuous-time basis for the duration of ac FDMA bandwidth structure is illustrated in Fig. 82. Fig. 8.3 shows the basic structure of a FON 8.2 | FOMA bandwidth structure system, consisting of a cell-site (CS) and many mobile subscribers. There is a pair of simplex channels for the communication wireless link betwee Channel #2 | Sut Channel #1 | Subscriber # 1 | Chi[Ch2][Cha[ch4 ChN Total allocated frequency band Wireless medium the CS and the mobile subscribers. The paired char a nel is called forward channel (downlink) and revs: MST Tlf 4 channel (uplink). A forward channel is used to tans data from the cell-site to the mobile subsriber and fal as f b reverse channel is used to transfer data from the ae subscriber to the cell-site. Different frequency chant : are assigned to different mobile subscribers. E* f In pair of communicating mobile subscribers is ass! uss WJ " different frequency channels to enable full surk* CS | communication . severseshanets Saad ieee FDMA has been widely adopted in all Fs gee (Uplink) powntey analog cellular systems for handheldand vehicle mobile subscribers. A duplex spacing is used be! Fig.8.3 | Thebasic structureofan FOMA system — forward and reverse channels. The structure of 0" and reverse channels in FDMA jis shown in Fig: 84 The frequency bandwidth allocated to cach mobile subscriber is called the subband B.. If thet, channels ina FDMA system, the total bandwidth B, is equal to Nx B,. A guard band H, is used to ™'" adjacent channel interference between two adjacent channels, as shown in F To ensure acceptable signal quality performance, it is important that each frequency channel sign! confined to the assigned channel bandwidth. Otherwise, there may be adjacent channel interfere can degrade signal quality. In both forward and reverse channels, the signal transmitted must be kept ©"! within its assigned channel bandwidth, and the out-of-band signal energy causes negligible interferen? be Ket e whiMultiple Access Techniques | 253 Wf’, ty iuinde ty Frequency Reverse channels ‘=. Fonward - ch Duplex annals a 1 spacing Fig.8.4 | The structure of forward and reverse channels in FOMA Ws 8 ea ame Total bandwidth 8,= Nx By Fi 5 |) Guard band in FOMA channels siseribers using adjacent channels, In order to minimise adjacent channel interference, two design measures sre usally considered: ‘The power spectral density of the modulated signal is controlled so that the power radiated into the adjacent band is at least 60 to 80 dB below that in the desired band. This requirement can be achieved with the use of highly selective filters in the system design. Se ~ Usually itis extremely difficult to achieve the desired filter characteristic so as not to cause adjacent channel interference. Guard bands are inserted as buffer frequency zones in adjacent channels. Ira large number of mobile subscribers can operate satisfactorily within the allocated radio spectrum an then he mutiple-access system is said to be highly spectrally efficient. In general, the spectral efficiency in *y FMA systems depends on how closely the individual channels (frequency subbands) can be assigned. There . ste several factors that limit thé adjacent channel spacing, the most important of which is adjacent channel (0 interference (ACI). The impact of ACT is illustrated in Example 8.1. \* EXAMPLES.1. | Impact of ACIin FDMA system (Whats the difference between the received signal strength of two mobile subscribers located at 10.m and 1 km ‘nay from a cell-site in an open area? (8 Eplain the effects of shadow fading on the difference in the received signal strength of two mobile subscribers sbiainedin part a) (9 What would be the impact ifthe two mobile subscribers were operating in two adjacent channels? Assume 1 stot band radiation that is 40 a8 below the main lobe. (9) Suggest the measure taken to overcome this problem in FOMA cellular systems. Solution, , Todetermine difference in received signal strengths of mobile subscribers pumte of MS! from the cell-site, ry = 10m (given) ‘stance of MS2 from the cell-site, r= 1 km or 1000 m (given) Operating environment = Open area254 | Wireless Communications i ist Step 1. nan open area environment, free-space propagation conditions & The value of propagation path-loss exponent, = 2 Step 2. in free-space propagation, the received signal strength decays at the rate of 20 dB per decade of distance Step 3. The difference between the ret AP, =2010g (r,/1," 7 Therefore, AP, = 20 log (1000/10)" Hence, AP, =80dB (b) The effects of shadow fading | | In addition to the decrease in the received signal strength value with distance, the multi-path and shadoy fading due to the near-far problem because of large difference in the distances of two mobile subscrier in radio channels cause received signal fluctuations of the order of typically 20 dB. Therefore, the difference in the received signal levels from these two mobile subscribers may exceed even 100 dB. ceived signal strength of two mobile subscribers located at rng (¢) Impact of operation in adjacent channels Out-of-band radiation below the main lobe= 40 dB (given) 7 It implies that out-of-band radiations may exceed the signal strength of the desired signal by almost (100 dB 40 dB =) 60 dB (d) The measure taken to overcome the problem in FDMA cellular systems To handle the near-far problem in FDMA cellular systems, the following different measures may be adopted in the system. ~ Channel assignment should be done in such a way so that the frequencies in each cell are grouped as far apart as possible from each other. — Guard bands should be included in the frequency channel to further reduce adjacent channel interference This, however, has the effect of reducing the overall spectrum efficiency. — The transmitter power of the mobile subscribers should be controlled so as not to cause interference 10 other transmissions in the cell Inan FDMA system, many channels share the same transmitting antenna at the base station. The transmit ter RF power amplifiers or the transmitter multichannel power combiners are nonlinear devices when operated at or near saturation signal levels for maximum power efficiency. The nonlinearities cause spreading of the signal in the frequency domain and generate intermodulation frequencies which are undesirable harmonics. Harmonic frequencies generated within the operating frequency band cause interference to other subscrid- ers active in the same wireless system at that time. Harmonic frequencies generated outside the operation! frequency band cause interference to other wireless services operating in those adjacent bands. The first-generation analog cellular communication systems use FDMA/FDD technique, with spec signals being transmitted over the forward or reverse channels usi 1g frequency modulation scheme. The data control functions are performed digitally by means of frequency-shift keying modulation scheme fot data transmission. A useful feature of FDMA systems is thatthe radio transmission takes place over a arto channel of bandwidth (B/N) Hz for each mobile subscriber. Due to narrowband transmissions, flat fadin2 may be experienced by the signal. EXAMPLE8.2 || FDMA/FDD in AMPS lilustrate the concept of FOMA/FDD system commonly’ used in Fitst Generation (1G) anatog cellular communication systems such as AMPS, eenMultiple Access Techniques | 255 DD systems, gator I FDMAFFDD sys ns forward and reverse channels use different carrier frequencies, and a iexbchae! pai i assigned toa subscriber during the communication session e825 shows the FDMA/FDD system r Fig: used in first generation analog Time cos A thereceivingend.the mobile | pie Downti Wess the designated channel out of the | a st signal received. VLE ‘The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) id, EOE 7 ft, fy Rie igpned on FDMAJFDD. As shown in Fig. 8.7, Ai tas ales lla fa Ea, fa eee saws system allocates 30 KFlz of channel Fig.8.6 | FOMA/FOD concept width for each uplink (824 MHz-849 MHz) wk gonlink (869 MHz-894 MHz) frequeney 0 aaa ru 249 MHz bad specu — Some of the salient features of the FDMA/ oD system concept are given here. phil 30 KHe During the call, a mobile subscriber occupies DOWNLINK two simplex.channels, one each on the uplink Froqenoy 869 MHz 894 MHz and downlink, for full-duplex communi- spectrum cation = The two simplex. channels are spaced by fanamath (___20KR= | fixed duplex spacing. For example, duplex , spacing in AMPS is (869 MHz-824 MHz = Fig.8.7 [| FOMA/FDD in AMPS 45 MHz). When a call is terminated, or when hand-off occurs, the occupied channels are released which can be used by other mobile subscribers in the system. ~ Multiple or simultaneous mobile subscribers are accommodated in AMPS by allocating each calling or called mobile subscriber a dedicated channel. ~ Voice signals are sent on the forward channel from the base station to the mobile user, and on the reverse channel from the mobile user to the base station. ~ In AMPS, analog narrowband frequency modulation technique is used to modulate the carrier. The number of channels, N that can be simultaneously supported in an FDMA system is given by N= (B,-2B,)/B, (8.1) ‘here Bis the total spectrum allocation, B, isthe guard band allocated at the edge ofthe allocated spectrum and B. is the channel bandwidth. 7 8 and B; may be specified in terms of simplex bandwidths where itis understood that there are symmetric ‘equeney allocations for the forward band and reverse band. SaMPLE6.3 || Number of channels in AMPS aaa ‘USA analog cellular system is allocated 12.5 MHefor each simplex ban. f the guard band at either end of the allocated unis 10k and the channel bandwidth s 30 kHzfind the numberof channels availableinan FDMA system. Solution 2.5MHz (given) (0 kHz (given) 0 kHz (given) oeated spectrum, B, ‘cated guard band, B, Chane} bandwidth, B. Al256 Wireless Communications The number of channels available in the FDMA system 1s given as B,-2B,)/ B, r - Or, Nadas» {0° 2(10% 109]/G0 > 104 Or, N=416 hannels available in an FDMA system is 416 channels Hence, the number of ¢! EXAMPLES.4 | Number of simultaneous links in an FDMA system Acellularsystem operator isallocated a total spectrum ofS MHz for deployment ofan analog cellular system by the FMA technique wih each simplex channel occupying 25 kz bandwidth, Compute the number ofsimutenes calls possible in the system. Solution Total spectrum allocated = 5 MHz (given) Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz (given) Step 1. To determine number of simplex channels Number of simplex channels = Total spectrum allocated / Channel bandwidth Number of simplex channels = 5 MHz./ 25 kHz = 200 Step 2. To determine number of duplex channels Number of simplex channels in a duplex channe Therefore, number of duplex channels = 200 /2 = 100 ‘Step 3. To compute the number of simultaneous calls Hence, in a given analog cellular FDMA system, 100 full-duiplex communication links can be establish! simultaneously as each link requires two simplex channels (one for uplink and another for downlink) or one duplex channel. Therefore, the number of simultaneous calls = 100 calls The FDMA channel carries only one dedicated communication link at a time. After the assignment of voice channel, the base station and the mobile subscriber transmit simultaneously and continuously. Iftheassin channel is not in use then it remains idle and cannot be used by other mobile subscribers. This is clearly wastigt of spectrum resource. The utilisation of a channel during free time is essential to increase system capacity. FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems. The bandwidths of FDMA channels are lative narrow (for example, 30 kHz in AMPS) as each channel supports only.one communication link per cat ‘The symbol time of a narrowband signal is large as compared to the average delay spread. This implies that amount of intersymbol interference is also low. So there may not be any requirement to implement equaliste® in FDMA narrowband systems which is certainly an advantage The complexity of FDMA wireless eda OL nication systems is lower as compared to that” Cable television is transmitted using OMA \ TDMA systems. Due to continuous transmS" over coaxial cable. Each analog television | in FDMA systems, fewer bits for synchro" ion ; signal utilises 6 MHz of the 500 MHz band- | tion and framing are needed for overhead Oe width of the cable. poses as compared to TDMA. FDMA pone han light RF filtering to minimise adjacent Cit, interference. Therefore, there isa need to use costly bandpass filters to eliminate spurious radiations base stations. The FDMA mobile subscriber equipment uses RF duplexers since both the transmite" receiver operate at the same time using a common antenna. This results in an increase in the cost ofF 4‘Multiple Access Techniques | 257 ppscriber Un and base stations. Because of the Single channel per carrier design, FDMA systems have ser cell site System costs, 83 i TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS. division multiple access (TDMA) technique refers to allowing a number of subscribers to access a ified channel bandwidth on a time-shared basis. TDMA systems divide the carrier channel bandwidth io time slots, and in each time slot only one subscriber is allowed to either transmit or receive. TDMA. ilses the digital technology with more efficient and complex strategies of sharing the available spectrum ynong a number of subscribers simultaneously. In TDMA systems, number of subscribers share the same gquency band by taking their assigned turns in time for transmission or reception. The major advantage of the TDMA is the exibility of its digital format which can be buff. and multiplexed efficiently, and assignments Ifa.user has no data to transmit during the time-slots among multiple subscribers which are i) astigiied tine: sloe/thefrequenicy channel eadily adaptable to provide different access rates. remains idle in TDMA. | ith TDMA, a base-station controller assigns time == pts to subscribers for the requested service, and an assigned time slot is held by a subscriber until it releases it. The receiver synchronises to the incoming TDMA gnal frame, and extracts the time slot designated for that subscriber. Therefore, the most critical feature of TDMA operation is time synchronisation, “In TDMA, one carrier channel is used by several subscribers, nd each subscriber is served in a round-robin method. The cell-site Frequency igns different time slots to different subscribers. Let there be N ber of time slots in a TDMA frame. Each subscriber occupies / [ clically repeating time slot which reoceurs in every frame peri- r=ieh V=t dically. The transmission in a TDMA system for any subscriber is 3) 8)... | 3] Moncontinuous and data is transmitted in a buffer-and-burst method. 3] 3] S| The splitting of a single carrier channel into several time slots and a}al al istribution of time slots among multiple subscribers is shown in as - z Time slot 88, nee DMA system may operate in either of two modes: Fig.8.8 | Theconcept of TOMA ~ TDMA/FDD mode The forward and reverse channel frequencies differ. ~ TDMA/TDD mode The forward and reverse channel frequencies are same. sls}.-lelslel.-[els]s] [E _{t IDMA/EDD systems, the carrier frequencies ve fe different but frame structures are same for the (ahronsiy cians Srward und reverse channels, In general, TDMA!" DD systems intentionally induce delay of several Frame Frame Frame Mie slots between the forward and reverse time | {7 = P's fora particular subscriber. This avoids theneed | =|! .../ 2] =] QE] s]e - Tduplexers in the subscriber unit. The illustration see ST forward and reverse channels in a TDMA/FDD (h) Revers channel Jslem employing the similar frame and time slot Fig.8.9 |) Structure of forward and reverse channels Mcture is given in Fig. 8.9. | ina TOMA/FDD system258 | Wireless Communications In TDMA, a carrier channel is divided into N number of time slots. These tir slots are allocateg For ea subscriber to transmit and receive information. The numberof distinct consecutive timeslots is cafeda joy before these time slots are repeated. Each frame of the TDMA structure contains N number of time Slots if equal duration. Information data is transferred and received inthe form of TDMA frames. The transmis rate for a digital TDMA channel is typically N times higher than that required for a single channel, The bite wise structure of each time slot is different in different types of TDMA systems. Typically, the bits Contains | DMA frame are divided into two major functional groups: in each time slot of a Signalling and Control Data Bits These bits perform the functions which assist the receiver in Performing | some auxiliary functions such as synchronisation and frame error rate. Specifically, the synchronisation hg in a time slot enable the receiver to recover sinusoidal carrier essential for coherent detection. The fine error bits are used to estimate the unknown impulse Frequency torr response of the wireless channel, which is | «TOMA frame + fr a " needed FSD TEMA frames TDMA name for decoding the received signal. elsl--Elee ee}-e é 7 = /S}-|R/S/s =| ime Traffic Data Bits These bits represent disitises | slots speech bits or any other forms of information. bearing data bits. ! Fig. 8.10 shows a typical frame structure of [¥Gonucl” User data TDMA. The guard time between the time slots Guard ime helps in minimising the interference due to props. Feove.a0 | pevedlfereswucrameetroa gation delays along different radio paths in the wire less channel. Digital data encoding and digital-modulation schemes are used with TDMA. The transmission from various subscribers is interlaced into a uniformly repeating TDMA frame structure. As shown in Fig. 8.11, a TDMA frame consists of a preamble, an information data field, and tail bits, The information data field of a frame consists of a number of time slots. Ina TDMA frame, the preamble contains the address and synchronisation data that is used by both the base station and the subscribers to identify each other. Tail bits and guard bits allow synchronisation of the receivers between different time slots and frames. Various TDMA-based cellular standards such as USDC, GSM have different TDMA frame structures. Ina TDMA system, the communication channels essentially consist of many time slots, which makes it possible for one frequency carrier channel to be efficiently utilised by many mobile subscribers. Each mobile subscriber utilises a different time slot. The basic structure of a TDMA system is shown in Fig. 8.12. The number of mobile subscribers can communicate with the base station simultaneously on designated time slo's Preamble Information data Tail bits [ts#1 [1542 [1843 134] [_ tarps [syne bis User data bts Gusts bis | Fig.8.11 | ATDMA frame and time siot (TS) structure‘Multiple Access Techniques | ue Frequency, f ' Time Slot Frequency. f tt ia BRL 2 E I. ——— ro MSN Frame | Frame} Frame | Frame Forward channels Re leverse channel: (Powniink) n~ 12. | The basic structure ofa TDMA system «(TDMA frame on the forward and reverse channels. However, the system capacity is limited by the number oftime slots per carrier channel and the number of carrier channels allocated to the system. The features that distinguish TDMA systems from FDMA systems can be broadly classified in two categories: _ In TDMA each subscriber has access to the total bandwidth B, of the carrier channel, whereas in FDMA each subscriber is assigned only a fraction of the channel bandwidth, that is, B. = B,/N. _ In TDMA, each subscriber accesses the channel for only a fraction of the time that it is in use and ona periodic regular and orderly basis, with the overall channel transmission data rate being NV times the subscriber's required data rate. Whereas in FDMA, each subscriber accesses the channel on a continuous-time basis. of TDMA time slots that can be provided ina TDMA system is determined by multiplying The total number number of channels available and is given by the number of time slots per carrier channel by the N= [m x (Bt — 2Bg)]/Be (8.2) where is the total number of TDMA time slots ina TDMA system misthe number of time slots per carrier channel or the maximum number of TDMA subscribers supported on each carrier channel 8. the total allocated spectrum bandwidth in Hz 8. is the carrier channel bandwidth in Hz 8, is the guard bandwidth in Hz Tle guned bonds. one a the lower end and another at the higher end of the allocated frequency band, are Tse to ensure it enbsertbens operating at the edge ofthe allocated féquency band do not interfere with "ther wireless communication service operating in an adjacent frequen band EXAMPLES.5 || Number of simultaneous subscribers ings Consider Global is tA/FDD system that uses 25 MHz band forthe forwaed link, which 1 Global System for Mobile, which is a TOM! ys J nk, whichis Aivided into reciocharel ‘of 200 kHz each. If B speech channels (time slots) are supported on a single radio channel, find theme neo aserbers that canbe accommodated in GSM, assuming no guard band Solution 25 x 10°Hz (given) = 200 x 10°Hz (given) The allocated spectrum, B, The channel bandwidth, B,fn res FAVE o 260 | Wireless Communications innel Number of speech channels, m = 8 per radio cha The guard bandwidth, B, = 0 . The number of simultaneous subscribers that can be accommodated in the GSM system is given ag N=[m x (B, ~ 2B)/ 8, Or, N=[8 x (25 x 10°=2 x 0]/ (200 x 10°) Or, N=[8 x (25 x 10°)]/(200 x 10°) = 1000 subscribers Hence, the GSM system can accommodate 1000 simultaneous subseribers, Ifboth forward and reverse channels use the same frequency band but they use alternating time slots in tg same frame for full duplex communication, the system is referred to as TDMA/TDD system. In this system 50% of the time slots in the frame are used for the forward channels and the other 50% of the time slots in the frame are used for reverse channels. Most of the RF components can be shared between the forward ang the reverse channels because only one frequency carrier is needed for full duplex operation. The reciprocity of the forward and reverse channels also allows for simultaneous synchronisation as well as exact open-loop power control. TDD techniques are used in systems where minimum interference, low system complexity ang low-power consumption are of utmost importance. Thus TDD based systems are quite often used in local area micro- or pico- cellular systems. The structure of forward and reverse channels in a TDMA/TDD system is shown in Fig, 8.13. In TDMA/TDD based communication system imple RF switch is used in the subscriber equipment for use of a single antenna for transmitting and receiving, The common antenna can be connected to the transmit- ter when a data burst is required to be transmitted (thus disconnecting the receiver from the antenna) and to the receiver for the received signal at another time. An RF switch is different from duplexer which is used in TDMA/FDD based communication system. An RF duplexer is a device with the same functionality as that of an RF switch but is based on RF filter technique. 8.3.1 Salient Features of TDMA Technique (a) Several subscribers share a single carrier frequency by using non-overlapping time slots. The number of time slots per frame depends upon several factors such as available bandwidth and digital-modulation scheme used. The transmission data rate is quite high as compared to that of in FDMA. (b) The available bandwidth can be utilised on demand by different subscribers as more than one time slot per frame can be allocated to them. Thus, bandwidth can be supplied to different subscribers oa demand by concatenating or reassigning time slots as per assigned priority. (c) Data transmission is bursty and hence not continuous in time domain. This implies that a subscriber transmitter can be turned off when not in use, thereby saving battery power. (d) A significant part of the voice call consists of quiet time, when neither the calling nor the called subscriber is speaking. Special signal-processing techniques can be employed to fill the quiet times with data or other voice calls. This leads to considerable improvement in the channel efficiency: Frequency f, | TOMA frame . TOMA tame, —<$< ar =]2)...slslel.fsl=Jel [sleye] fe | ={S] |S] E/E] 5] 5] ERIS) |S 7 o i I> Time slots | oe Forward ' Reverse ' Forward ‘Reverse | channel channel channel “channel Fig.8.13 || Structure of forward and reverse channels ina TOMA/TOD. system‘Multiple Access Techniques 261 rarsmissions. During idle time slots, the mobile subs . tations and infor pouting as renuired in een base station to assist in hand-off decisions (a pansion andveception:Atfust RRiewiteh quipment since the system uses different time slots for eae mcm is sufficient to switch between transmitter and receiver to Py gynchronisation 1s essential and the guard time or time for synchronisation should be minimum: owever, ifthe transmitted signal at the edges of a time slot is suppressed sharply in order to shorten the guard time, the resulting expanded spectrum will cause interference to adjacent channels iy Large overheads (framing bits) are required because of discontinuous or bursty transmission ‘Asubstantial amount of signal processing is needed for matched filtering and correlation detection for

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