AFL1137N

ADVANCED FLEET
MANAGEMENT FOR LAW

ENFORCEMENT
BENJAMIN VAN ROOYEN
P.O.BOX 3
BEDFORDVIEW
2008
(Revised – January2015)
Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 1

INDEX
Unit 1 Introduction
Unit 2 Introducing Green Fleets
Unit 3 Emergency Equipment for Law Enforcement Vehicles
Unit 4 Procurement of Vehicles
Unit 5 Preventative Maintenance
Unit 6 Monitoring Systems for Vehicle Fleets
Unit 7 Fleet Management Policies
Unit 8 Legislative Issues for Fleet Managers
Unit 9 Crash Investigation and Interventions

UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO FLEET MANAGEMENT
After completion of this Unit you should be able to:-
 Cite the advantages of effective road risk strategies by law enforcement agencies.
 Identify and list the objectives of fleet safety initiatives.
 Describe the importance of technology in improved fleet management operations.
 Explain the budgeting problem for public law enforcement agencies.
 Analyse the driver training problem in fleet safety programs.
 Identify the issues that impact on the abuse of law enforcement vehicles.
1.1 Introduction
Fleet management can synoptically be defined as the management of a fleet of vehicles,
using certain tools and processes to improve operational efficiency and effectiveness.
Fleet management is the management of a company's vehicle fleet. Fleet management

includes cars, vans and trucks and even motor cycles and bicycle. In short, any form of
transport used by a law enforcement agency. Fleet (vehicle) management can include a
range of functions, such as vehicle financing, vehicle maintenance, vehicle telematics
(monitoring and diagnostics), driver management, speed management, fuel management
and health and safety management. Fleet Management is a function which allows agencies,
such as a law enforcement agency, which relies on transportation in their business to
remove or minimize the risks associated with vehicle investment, improving efficiency,
productivity and reducing their overall transportation and staff costs, providing 100%
compliance with government legislation (duty of care) and many more. These functions can
be dealt with by either an in-house fleet-management department or an outsourced fleet-
management provider.
Fleet Management's primary objective is to control the overall cost of operating and
maintaining the law enforcement agency’s fleet of vehicles and equipment, to maintain
vehicles and equipment in a manner that extends their useful life, to control the growth in
size of the fleet, to standardize the composition of the fleet and to accurately budget for
maintenance and replacement costs. Fleet management also directly and indirectly deals
with officer safety.

A vehicle replacement program is useful to assist police management with the replacement
criteria and dates for vehicle replacement. The criteria for replacement may include age,
usage and maintenance costs. In general, vehicles are replaced at six years and/or 160 000
kilometres. All new purchases for vehicles are part of the budget cycle and are coordinated
through the person or unit responsible for fleet management in the agency.
Fleet management is a term used to describe the management of all aspects relating to an
agency’s vehicles.
Fleet vehicles can be defined as vehicles over which a law enforcement agency has a large
degree of influence in their selection and operation.
The characteristics associated with Fleet Management are the following:-
 Vehicle monitoring - This is the most basic function of fleet management and is
either GPS (Global Positioning System) based or based on a cellular triangulation
platform;
 Mechanical monitoring - Advanced fleet management systems connected with on-
board computers gather information on distance, fuel consumption etc.
 Monitoring driver behaviour – The data provided by the monitoring system and on-
board computers provides detail on driver behaviour – a valuable tool to enhance
safety on the road; and
 Monitoring of activities – Law enforcement officers must report on their daily
activities and this information can be utilised to measure vehicle utilisation.
The transport environment has undergone significant changes over the past few years – and
so too has the importance of effective fleet management. Law enforcement agencies have a
specific duty to ensure that their vehicles are managed and maintained meticulously as they
were procured with tax based funds.
1.2 Advantages of Effective Road Risk Strategies by Fleet Managers
The advantages of a responsible road risk strategy include the following:-
 Effective control over costs such as insurance premiums, fuel bills and repair costs;
 Ability to make informed decisions about purchasing vehicles and the training of
drivers;
 Less time on paperwork, lowered vehicle repair and maintenance bills;
 Reduced likelihood of an employee being involved in a crash;
 Reduced running costs with employees driving more professionally and efficiently;
and
 Drivers less fatigued and healthy.

1.3 Objectives of Fleet Safety Initiatives
The objectives of fleet safety initiatives include the following:-
 Vehicle crash prevention;

 Crash investigation, analysis and reporting;
 Improved safety on the road; and
 Driver education and driver alertness.
1.4 Technology and its Possible Impact on Fleet Management and Road
Safety
Fleet management companies and fleet departments to a lesser extent; invest large
amounts in research and development - enabling operators to have better control over their
fleets. On-board computers provide fleet managers with detailed reports on the behaviour
of both driver and vehicle. These reports are used to modify driver behaviour and can also
be used in crash prevention, crash analysis and reconstruction.
1.4.1 Technologies for Road Safety
 The Tachograph – used effectively in many countries for the commercial transport of
goods and passengers. Data recorded include driving time, road speed, distance
travelled, engine load etc.
 The Crash Data Recorder – developed to provide details on the causes of crashes;
and
 On-board and in real-time monitoring of vehicle use.
1.4.2 Advantages of effective On-board Technology for Road Safety
 Crash data and analysis provide evidence - Accurate reports save time in crash
reconstruction and legal proceedings;
 Effective control by the fleet manager - Driver behaviour can be monitored and
short comings addressed; and
 Reduction of liability and maintenance costs.
1.5 The budgeting problem

For most law enforcement and emergency services agencies, the costs related to the
purchasing, equipping, operating and maintaining of fleets is the largest single recurring
cost, outside that of personnel. The cost of acquiring vehicles, the costs associated with
equipping and maintaining these vehicles, and escalating fuel costs have created difficulties
for many departments— including the police. In 1991, it was announced that the Victoria

Police in Australia had taken a number of cost-cutting measures, which included
requirements for detectives to leave their vehicles at the office and for general duty vehicles
to spend time stationary whilst on patrol in order to reduce the use of fuel. Faced with
reduced or tighter budgets, which have resulted in ever-increasing operation constraints for
departments, administrators are confronted with the need to minimise the cost associated
with operating fleets. There are a number of measures which can be introduced in an
attempt to reduce costs and these include:- (Horman, 1991)
 Selection of more fuel-efficient vehicles which are capable of meeting police

operational needs;
 Purchase of vehicles at the lowest possible price or utilisation of package deals;
development and implementation of fleet maintenance programs to ensure all fleet
vehicles are in peak operating condition; and
 Development and/or use of driver training programs aimed at improving the
efficiency of fleet operations. Driver behaviour impact directly on the cost of agency
vehicles. Many law enforcement officers have scant respect for government vehicles
and this precipitates higher than expected costs.
The question of what type(s) of vehicles should be used by law enforcement agencies is an
important one and now perhaps more so than in the past. Departments have to carefully
consider the intended use of their vehicles and select the most suitable vehicle type while
taking into account cost factors. Purchasing luxury, overpowered or over-equipped vehicles
is not cost-effective and not good fiscal management. Economic reality should cause
administrators to accept some commonly known facts concerning the operation of most
police vehicles:- (Horman, 1991)
 In urban areas, most driving is done at or below the speed limit and this implies
frequent gear changes and higher engine revolutions in manual vehicles;
 Situations calling for urgent duty (pursuit) driving are comparatively rare in the total
driving experience, and it has been suggested that pacing (following) a suspect
vehicle and effective use of communications are the key to a successful pursuit;
 Most police vehicles appear to be normally occupied by one person;
 There has been a reduction in the size of communications and other equipment and,
therefore, a reduction in the space required in the vehicle;
 The need for high speed capability in emergency situations is limited — and of
questionable value in most cases; and
 The legal ramifications that may result in the event of crashes when officers ignore
road signs, signals and markings, etc.
1.6 The driver training problem

One issue to be decided by law enforcement administrators is whether or not there should
be a hierarchy of classes of ‘driving permits’ (authorisations) issued to its staff; that is,

whether an officer should have to qualify for a special ’in-house permit’ in order to be
authorised to drive certain types of vehicles, in addition to the officer’s regular driving
licence. The issue which follows on from this is to decide whether or not driver training
should be provided to officers to qualify them to drive particular types of vehicles and, if so,
what form should this training take. After all, it is accepted that an organisation’s
administration is responsible, under health and safety principles, for its staff to be provided
with adequate training to enable them to carry out their prescribed duties.
It is evident from media reports that police vehicles are regularly involved in spectacular
crashes. It is interesting that there appears to be no consensus of opinion or empirical proof
as to whether or not driver training leads to a reduction in crashes. When William Horman
was the Assistant Commissioner for Traffic in Victoria (Australia), Victoria Police’s
administration was concerned about the number and percentage of police fleet vehicles
which had been involved in crashes. The initial figures were discouraging, but closer analysis
suggested that it may not necessarily have been as bad as first seemed. For example, a
comparison was made with vehicles of other emergency services and government and semi-
government departments which concluded that the police figures were not so bad—in fact
they compared very favourably if the analysis addressed other factors such as distance
travelled. Yet something still had to be done to reduce these crashes, but what? Many of
the incidents in which the vehicles were damaged were avoidable. Was training the answer,
or at least one of the answers? Training however is considered essential and must be
included in the curriculum of traffic police training institutions.
The issue of police vehicle crashes is as pertinent as ever. The media regularly reports on
horrific crashes where law enforcement vehicles were involved in or caused a crash. The
fleet manager has an important role in this respect e.g. to collate and examine police vehicle
involvement in crashes and propose remedial steps. (Horman, 1991, 207)
Three people have been killed and five have been injured in two incidents involving allegedly drunken
police officers in the past week.
In one case, an Umlazi police officer was arrested for drinking and driving after he had crashed into
another motorist in Umlazi on Thursday night.
In the other incident, a Nongoma police officer could face three charges of culpable homicide after he
knocked down and killed three members of one family.
Witnesses alleged that the officer was drunk, but investigators are awaiting test results from blood
samples to proceed with the investigation.
(IOL – 05/02/2007)

Police crash (IOL – 07/01/2011)
(Photo – Independent Newspapers)
1.6.1 Concerns involving police vehicle crashes
Crashes involving police vehicles have the following consequences:-
 Damage to the vehicles: huge repair bills and vehicles not available for work;
 Injury and death of members; many working hours lost, careers, health and lives
often ruined; In Australia three times as many officers die through police use of
vehicles than police use of firearms (McGrath, 1991);
 Damage to police image and police/public relations; and a
 Reduction in the efficiency and effectiveness of policing due the unavailability of
patrol vehicles.
1.6.2 Objectives of police driver training
Police training driver training should have four primary aims:-
 Training to reduce crash exposure; (crash rates – i.e. crashes per 100 000 km
travelled)
 Training drivers in fuel-efficient driving techniques;
 Ensuring that drivers have the correct attitude about their driving responsibilities;
and
 To set an example to members of society.
1.7 Abuse of police vehicles

South Africans are used seeing official police vehicles parked at shopping centres, schools
and even at church, not for any real police business, but officers who abuse their position of

trust. They often use the vehicles for their own private interests. Officers often abuse police
vehicles by transporting their children to school, do shopping or to transport goods for
personal gain.
A disappointing aspect that seems to have been increasing in recent years is this abuse of
official police vehicles. Often staff do not treat the vehicles with proper care, and it is not
unusual to find fast food wrappers, remains of sandwiches, and empty cans or bottles in the
vehicles, dirt on the dashboards where the passengers have been resting their feet, and a
general attitude that seems to indicate - who cares?. This seems to reflect on a number of
issues, including a general lack of adequate supervision. Who is prepared to make ’on the
spot inspections’ and require some remedial action to be taken? How often are vehicles
taken out on the road without any form of check during parades? Who checks the pressure
in the tyres and what about the wheel nuts? Few drivers of departmental vehicles drive and
treat the vehicles the way they do their personal vehicles. Why and what is being done, or
can be done about it?
What has to be remembered is that poor maintenance, lack of vehicle checks and abuse can
result in a reduced level of safety for the officers. How often are vehicles checked
thoroughly by officers concluding their shifts or just about to commence? What about
syringes, knives or other weapons which could be tucked down behind the seats by suspects
arrested during a shift? Another aspect of vehicle abuse which adds considerably to
departmental costs is the private use of departmental vehicles. This issue has been
addressed sporadically in recent years. Law enforcement agencies should require all
vehicles, other than those especially exempted on defined criteria, to be clearly marked as
’law enforcement’ vehicles. Vehicle marking should have a number of positive results
including:-
 Greater police visibility on the roads resulting in a number of positive spinoffs e.g.
preventative policing;
 Increased onus on the driver to drive more responsibly and treat the vehicle in a
more appropriate manner; and
 Lessened likelihood of using official vehicles for private purposes.
The police administrator, today and in the future, is going to be accountable for the
management of the department’s fleet and will need to ensure that maximum efficiency is
obtained from the fleet budget vote. Change will be necessary to maximise efficiency and
productivity. The importance of management to ‘market’ the role they play to personnel
cannot be underestimated. Every vehicle user in the department will have to play his/her
part to help achieve departmental objectives. Fuel costs are expected to rise continuously
over the next few decades due to higher oil prices and diminishing world stocks. Everyone
has a moral responsibility to save on fuel usage!

1.8 Fleet policies
Law enforcement administrators must develop and implement fleet management policies in
order to protect the investment made with taxpayer’s money. Policies must cover the full
range of activities, i.e. from the budgeting process up to the disposal of vehicles that are no
longer fit for use and everything in between. From an operational perspective the focus will
be on two important issues that impact on the use of official vehicles i.e. pursuit and
rotational policies. Another issue that affects the use of vehicles is inspections and lastly -
crash investigation. There are many law enforcement agencies in South Africa with either no
formal policy or ineffective policies that govern the use of official vehicles. The Unions often
fight the introduction of policies as they see this as an attempt to tighten control over their
members.
1.9 Conclusion
Many new recruits in policing are under an illusion about the use of patrol vehicles. Their
perceptions have been created and strengthened by movies, electronic games and the
media. Reality however is hugely different from the romanticized preconceptions that they
may have. They soon realize that driving patrol vehicles are strictly regulated by a range of
stakeholders such as the law enforcement supervisor, the fleet manager and the public. It is
important to control the use of police vehicles as it is a costly item on the police’s budget
and secondly may endanger the lives of road users. Fleet policies and procedures are
developed and implemented not to unnecessarily restrict law enforcement practices but to
ensure that the vehicles are used in a responsible manner. After all, the funds to execute
police patrols come from public taxes. The public therefore has a say in how their monies
are spend by officers. Driving a police vehicle does not protect the occupants more than in
any other vehicle on the road. The falsely held belief that blue lights and a siren will prevent
a crash is often the primary cause of police crashes. Training can reduce the risks associated
with police response and pursuit driving.
0oo0oo0

UNIT 2
Green Fleets for Law Enforcement Agencies
After completion of this Unit, you should be able to:-
 Define the concept – “green fleet”

 Identify and use the preferred steps to develop a framework for a green fleet;
 Develop fuel efficiency criteria and a fuel management system;
 Consider the introduction of hybrid vehicles and alternate fuels;
 Identify and select appropriate performance criteria for fuel management strategies;
 Deal effectively with vehicles at their end-of-life cycle; and
 Implement predictive and preventative maintenance programs.
2.1 Introducing “Green Fleets”

Heat waves, storms, floods and other disastrous weather events have focused global
attention on the serious threat that climate warming poses to countries and local
communities. Recent findings of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change indicate
that the global warming process is progressing more rapidly than expected. Warming of the
climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global
average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global
average sea level. Eleven of the twelve years (1995-2006) rank among the twelve warmest
years in the records of global surface temperatures since 1850, with 2006 being the
warmest winter on record since 1880. The year 2010 saw extreme flooding in many parts of
the world, including South Africa. Flooding continues to dominate the news media
worldwide.
The term 'greenhouse gases' is used to refer to the gases present in the atmosphere which absorb
the radiations and emit them within the thermal infrared range. These gases affect the temperature
of the earth significantly, in fact it is assumed that the absence of these gases would have made the
temperature of the earth surface around 59 degrees Fahrenheit colder than what it is at present. The
most prominent greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and CFCs.
Global greenhouse gas emissions due to human activities have grown since pre-industrial
times, with increases in the order of 70 percent between 1970 and 2004. In urban areas, the

major greenhouse gas emissions are carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Carbon
dioxide is emitted when fossil fuel-based energy is used by households, institutional and
commercial buildings, industry, and in particular; vehicle transportation.
 Given today’s increasingly pressing environmental concerns, along with soaring fuel
prices and the likelihood of continuing increases, a great opportunity exists for the
public fleet operator to seek out new cost efficiencies and simultaneously take on a
leadership role on community environmental issues.
 To start, public fleet managers would be well served by a careful review of their fuel
expenditure, an asset management perspective of fleet operations and a clear
mechanism or guidelines for reducing fleet fuel costs. Although not yet widespread,
comprehensive data collection and evaluation is becoming gradually more
recognised as critical to effective fleet operation and cost management. For
example, Fleet Challenge’s work with 12 select Ontario (Canada) municipalities has
identified savings in the order of close to 1 million litres of fuel and costs of almost
R35m for cumulative downtime and preventative maintenance, among other
aspects.
 The following sections provide a framework for the implementation of a “Green
Fleet.” The different steps are as follows:-
 Creating a Green Fleet:- This includes a short description of policies that have
implications for public fleet management and outline the defining elements of a
green fleet, and a strategy for gaining support for a green fleet plan within the public
sector working environment. Public service of course includes law enforcement
agencies. The latter is a large consumer of fuels due to the nature of police functions
e.g. the patrol function.
 Managing Green Fleet Assets Effectively:- This section provides information on how
to identify the best retention strategies for fleet vehicles through performing life
cycle analysis, tips on improving vehicle utilisation, information on how to maximise
the sale and remarketing of vehicles that no longer are of use in fleet operations,
and tips on developing specifications for new vehicles. Considerations for
responsible end-of-life vehicle disposal are also identified.
 Maintaining a Green Fleet:- This section provides fleet managers and administrators
with technical information on how to best maintain a green fleet and ‘green’
vehicles, expert tips and information on hybrid vehicle maintenance, and insights on
how to reduce its environmental footprint.
 Anti-idling and Alternative Fuels:- This section provides information on how to
reduce the use of fossil fuels through idling reduction and considerations in the use
of alternative fuels.
 Managing Data for Optimal Fleet Usage:- This section provides an overview of
available frameworks for effective fleet management and important attributes to
measure in such frameworks. Comprehensive data collection and evaluation is

emphasised, both in this section and throughout this manual as a critical component
to effective fleet operation and cost management.
2.2 Creating a “Green Fleet”
One of the first steps in creating a “Green Fleet” is the realisation by fleet managers and
users of official vehicles that vehicle emissions contribute significantly to pollution and
global warming. Once the majority of role players accept this fact, they need to be
sensitised about the possible measures that may be considered to limit the impact of law
enforcement fleets on the environment. Law enforcement officers generally, are not overly
concerned about the environment compared to their crime and crash reduction objectives.
However, the same officers are involved in disaster management when rain causes flooding.
In order to go forward, the law enforcement agency needs to develop a framework within
which the issues will be discussed and implemented. Law enforcement administrators must
assume a leadership role in order to create an enabling environment for green fleet
strategies.
Procurement of vehicles is a good start insofar as vehicle emissions are concerned. Fleet
managers should as always take note of a vehicle’s performance, safety equipment, etc. but
in addition hereto also – fuel consumption and importantly, vehicle emissions.
Fuel consumption and emissions will in future play an increasingly important role in vehicle
selection and procurement within law enforcement agencies. Many vehicle magazines
nowadays provide the emission rates of new vehicles in the test results that they publish.
Carbon dioxide, while not regulated as an emission, is the transportation sector's primary
contribution to climate change. Carbon dioxide emissions are directly proportional to fuel
economy e.g. each 1% increase (decrease) in fuel consumption results in a corresponding
1% increase (decrease) in carbon dioxide emissions. (EPA, 2000)
Carbon dioxide, a chemical compound that constitutes of two atoms of oxygen covalently
bonded to a single atom of carbon, turn into a gas at standard temperature and pressure.
The chemical formula for carbon dioxide is CO2. Carbon dioxide is produced in the several
processes, prominent ones being respiration in plants and animals (including human
beings) and combustion of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide in small amounts is also produced in
several geothermal processes, such as eruption of a volcano. Recent estimates reveal, that
the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere has increased to 387 parts
per million by volume. This gas features second in the greenhouse gases list, constituting 9
to 26 percent of greenhouse gases.

2.3 Fuel Efficiency Standards
Properly executed, vehicle fuel consumption standards could mean:-
 Significant improvements in the fuel efficiency and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission
performance of the average type of motorcar and light delivery vehicles;
 Noticeable and progressive improvements in fuel consumption of new vehicle
models introduced between 2010 and 2020; and,
 Depending upon stringency and the form of new standards, new technology
innovations aimed at reducing fuel consumption could become more common (e.g.,
hybrids, diesel engines, vehicle mass reduction, engine downsizing, electric
architecture, homogeneous charge compression ignition, direct fuel injection,
turbochargers, etc.)
2.3.1 Green Fleets

Although no single definition of a green fleet exists, green fleets tend to focus on two
overarching goals:-
 The optimising of efficiency in its various incarnations (i.e. mode of travel, fuel, route
planning, fleet operation, vehicle size, etc.); and,
 Increasing the use of alternative fuels and sustainable technologies. The City of
London, UK, defines a green fleet as “one that does its best to minimize fuel
consumption and exhaust emissions. It will also seek to minimise the amount of
traffic it generates, by utilising vehicles efficiently, by using alternatives to the car
wherever possible and by conducting its business so as to minimise the need for
travel.”
Key components of an effective green fleet plan should include fuel efficiency targets, a
GHG baseline, and an overall plan which includes goals, implementation strategies,
milestones, roles and responsibilities, monitoring and reporting commitments and a stated
commitment on various levels of the organisation to continuous improvement. A well
configured fleet data management system is an important asset to a green fleet, as it
provides a tool to evaluate and identify areas for improving efficiencies (and can save as
much as 20 percent of annual operating budget, if not more).
Green fleet programs generally have the following in common:-
 An institutional culture that encourages environmental leadership;

 Commitment to greening the fleet at the most senior level of the organisation;
 Carefully managed risk and a willingness to experiment;
 A strong communications team to share successes;
 Green fleet commitment, stated in policy;
 Procurement policy that takes into consideration the value of life cycle costs;

 Carefully prepared green fleet plans that are based on reality and practicality;
 Capturing reliable and consistent fleet operating data; and
 Measurable, measured, and achievable green fleet goals.
It is worth noting that these attributes fall within two broad strategies: one being an overall
receptive organisational culture and comprehensive commitment to sustainability, as
evidenced by policy commitments and the general willingness to accept leadership
responsibility and secondly that this commitment is backed by a set of measures that will
support organisational rigour and deliver on the execution of these programs.
Although not meant to be an exhaustive list, a typical “Green Fleet” may have several of the
following supporting operating and technical strategies in place. The best green fleet
operators will have given consideration to each of these elements, among others.
 Fleet and Fuel Management; A computerized and comprehensive Fleet and Fuel
Management System which can help identify and evaluate fuel usage, asset
monitoring, vehicle right-sizing and life cycle optimization, vehicle sale and disposal,
and a myriad of other important metrics that can identify opportunities for efficiency
improvements;
 Preventive Maintenance Program; A preventative maintenance program that
consists of the scheduled inspection and follow-up repairs of vehicles and equipment
in order to decrease on-road breakdowns and excessive downtime;
 Green” Maintenance and Repair Facilities, for example to ensure that a facility that
is equipped with catch basins, uses low energy and environmentally friendly lighting
and heating, has fast roll doors, recycles water in the vehicle wash, uses
environmentally friendly parts cleaning fluids, and has well maintained fuelling
infrastructure as well as waste oil and anti-freeze storage tanks, among other
options;
 Technician and Driver Training Programs to keep technicians up to date on new
technologies and procedures and educate drivers on how new technologies may
affect them and their driving practices. This should also consider “green”
maintenance and repair policies and procedures to outline the use and disposal of
various chemicals and fluids used in the repair and maintenance of vehicles and
equipment. Policies and procedures can also specify anti-idling practices and
promote the preferred use of environmentally responsible suppliers, among other
options;
 Hybrid Vehicles and Alternate Fuels; Considers the use of hybrid vehicles and
alternate fuels in various categories. Hybrids are playing a growing role in the
greening of most transportation fleets abroad today because of the significant
improvements in fuel economy and GHG reduction they can deliver. Alternative fuels
can lower exhaust emissions and when derived from a sustainable source, reduce a
fleets’ carbon footprint. Appropriate technician and driver training, in addition to

sound infrastructure planning, must accompany the introduction of these vehicles
and fuels to a fleet.
The fleet manager with the assistance of senior law enforcement administrators shares the
responsibility to convince top management to accept a green fleet.
The steps for creating sustainable change are as follows:-
 Develop awareness of the need for change;

 Create a clear and shared vision;
 Gain management commitment and behaviour;
 Elicit stakeholder engagement;
 Create a supportive structure and supportive procedures; and
 Identify clear performance measures.
All of these steps are necessary to support a strategy of sustained change and each step has
very specific requirements in the fleet context, as outlined in subsequent sections.
Alternative vehicles for Traffic Control – Ney York Police

2.3.2 Develop Awareness of the Need for Change
The first challenge facing fleet managers is to develop awareness of both the need for
change in fleet operations and the benefits associated with these changes: for example,
cost-savings; reduced GHG emissions, and leadership. Municipalities that experience
frequent smog (air pollution) alerts understand the health impact on children and seniors of
poor air quality, but the financial benefits associated with reduced emissions are at times
less apparent. Municipal vehicles typically idle 35 - 45 percent of their operating time and
reduced idling (without consideration of reduced engine wear-and-tear and lower
maintenance and repair costs) can provide impressive savings. (Toronto Police could save
$570,000 annually with a 10 percent improvement in fuel efficiency as enforcement vehicles
typically idle 65 - 85 percent of operating time)
2.3.3 Create a Clear and Shared Vision

Progressive public sector institutions have a vision statement which embeds environmental
objectives. However, subsequent plans to meet those objectives may not always consider
the opportunity for more effective fleet management. It is important that elected officials
and public service managers understand that fleet operations can and must play a key role
in any environmental stewardship program. This can be accomplished by creating a vision
statement for fleet operations that supports an institution’s broader vision.
2.3.4 Gain Management Commitment and Behaviour

Management commitment to a green fleet program can be achieved through assigning
specific budget and resources to this program and by ensuring there is a degree of and some
depth to management participation in the undertaking. Significant fuel savings are possible
through improved fleet management and when an institution invests in a green fleet
program. However, many organisations assume that the additional responsibility of
‘greening’ the fleet can be added to the workload without additional staff. The most
successful institutions have assigned a skilled project manager to oversee the program until
new programs are fully integrated within the institution’s hiring and performance
management systems. Thereafter it should be – business as usual!
2.3.5 Engage as Many People as Possible

Many employees will be affected by a comprehensive Green Fleet Program. Consulting with
each of the affected groups to address opportunities and constraints and including their
perspectives in the program design and application will be critical to success. Department
supervisors must understand the goals of a Green Fleet Program and actively support
improved fuel efficiency to ensure success. Accountability for driver performance must
often be clarified before performance measures and reporting systems can be established.
Continuous communication with department supervisors is also important to ensure that
the installation of new technology (LED lights, auxiliary batteries and telematics, etc.) do not
disrupt work schedules more than is absolutely necessary.
2.3.6 Create Supportive Structures and Procedures

Clear accountability and reporting systems must accompany the installation of technology
that facilitates the monitoring of fuel efficiency (telematics) and the reduction of idling. For
example, telematics can provide an extraordinary amount of performance data but without
clear accountability, performance targets and performance reporting. Achieving the
anticipated return-on-investment available through improved fuel efficiency may prove
difficult. Public sector institutions have traditionally addressed fleet vehicles as a fixed cost
rather than an operating practice that must be actively managed. As few people welcome
additional performance measures, consultation with supervisors and managers is critical
when designing a performance management system in order to ensure compliance and
project success.
2.3.7 Create Clear Performance Measures

Performance measurement enables the evaluation of the progress of a program in achieving
its defined goals and objectives. In doing so it provides managers and stakeholders with an
understanding of how value is created and at what cost. A relatively small number of
performance measures that are: (a) clearly linked to the program objectives, (b) focusing on
the key performance issues, and are (c) timely, reliable, and easily relatable, can facilitate
good outcomes.
There are several performance measures that can assist with the transition to improved fuel
management. These are:-
 Corporate Idling Policy:- Approval of a agency idling policy helps to raise awareness
and support for improved fuel efficiency and is an invaluable first step towards
development of a performance management program.
 Fuel Efficiency Baselines:- The gathering and reporting of fuel efficiency baselines
(and variances) is indispensable when measuring improvements and fuel savings,
and invaluable for increasing awareness of current practices. Idling, in particular, is
so habitual that it is often invisible both to drivers and supervisors. The
documentation of fuel efficiency (kilometres per litre) and engine downloads of
idling incidence will provide evidence of current driver performance and of fuel
saving opportunities.
 Approval of Performance Targets:- Once baseline data has been gathered and
performance variances have been identified, each department can develop targets
that reflect their specific operating conditions. Institutions have a 3-5 year schedule
of improvements that reflect increased awareness and commitment to fuel
efficiency and reflect emerging opportunities as new technology is installed. The
performance of the vehicles can be managed by means of statistical process control
techniques.
 Reporting Program:- While the gathering of information and progress reports are
essential, clear accountability for fuel efficiency is essential before progress is

assured. Ideally the finance department will have fleet performance targets
embedded as part of the public institution’s climate change and/or sustainability
program and goals. If such a program does not exist, fleet operations will benefit
from reporting to the most senior level as possible, and especially from involving a
politician that is a strong champion of green initiatives.
2.4 Managing Green Fleet Assets Effectively

One of the single most critical factors in asset management is utilisation, whether these
assets are buildings, machinery, heavy equipment, vehicles, or other items. Logically, the
sinking of capital in any asset would dictate that these assets should only be retained so
long as they serve some worthwhile purpose toward achieving the organisation’s objectives.
For example, new vehicle purchases are often repeatedly deferred in order to stretch
available monies for other pressing public projects. Unfortunately, this decision sometimes
means that worker productivity and fleet efficiency can suffer. Conversely, some fleets may
have vehicles that are under-utilised. This begs the question as to why organisations
continue to maintain, store, fuel, license, insure and pay all of those associated vehicle
ownership costs for units that are not being fully utilised. Put another way, why not free up
the capital and operating expenses tied up in under-utilised and/or redundant vehicles and
invest it in upgrading the fleet to include more best-in-class, fuel efficient new vehicles?
For over-utilised units, vehicles may be double-shifting or even 24 hours per day or they
may operate in more demanding environments and will wear out more quickly. Not
recognising this situation in a timely manner will eventually lead to decreased service levels
and frustration for end users because of poor reliability. Escalated maintenance and
operating costs will result for the fleet section and the organisation as a whole. Also, these
extra costs may not be fully recovered through internal charge-back mechanisms, which will
result in stranded costs.
2.4.1 Life Cycle Analysis and Fleet Retention Strategies
As mentioned earlier, the single most critical factor in asset management is utilisation.
Essentially, if capital is tied up in an asset of any kind, the institution needs to be able to
evaluate whether this asset is still serving a worthwhile purpose to the organisation. This
may also apply to vehicles that are not fully utilised, such as those allocated to office staff.
A key question to address is whether and how long an asset is retained, or whether it should
be replaced. An understanding of the value of the vehicle at a particular point in time can
help define the answer to this question. When a vehicle ages there are definite financial and
operational consequences with downtime. Delaying the replacement of vehicles may cost
more in the long run.

The graph hereunder (Figure 2.1) illustrates the issue of maintenance costs that escalate
over the life cycle of the vehicle in months, whereas the market and book value decreases
over the same period.
The area where the maintenance costs start to ‘overtake’ the book and market value of the
vehicle is the point where the vehicle must be replaced. In cases where vehicles are kept in
the fleet for too long, only accentuates the inevitability i.e. higher maintenance, longer
periods during which the vehicle stands in workshops, etc. This may have a serious impact
on the productivity of the law enforcement agency. Police vehicles that are not maintained
meticulously may endanger the lives of officers as well as the public.
The fleet policy must create an environment conducive for replacement irrespective of the
fact that they still may seem fit for police work.
Vehicle Maintenance Costs

250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Book Value Market Value Repair/Downtime
Figure 2.1 Maintenance costs versus vehicle values
The economic life is that time when the total cost takes the lowest value – and is the time to
replace this vehicle. It is critical to identify issues associated with the buying and disposing
of assets and their annual costs. Broadly speaking, life cycle optimisation can be slotted into
the following five categories:-
 Constant annual utilisation or steady use over a year;

 Varying annual utilisation, in that as equipment ages, it breaks down and leads to
more intermittent use;

 Technological improvement;
 Monitoring individual units; and
 Repair vs. replace.
2.4.2 End-Of-Life Vehicle Disposal
Older vehicles that remain on the road generate more air pollution than new vehicles – for
example, a 12 year old vehicle can generate up to 30 times more pollutants than a vehicle
manufactured today. Extrapolating this point means that 15 percent of the collective public
vehicle fleet is responsible for 50 percent of the entire fleet’s pollutant producing emissions.
Fleet aging has another downside, that being decreased driver/passenger and public safety
as critical components and systems begin to fail. Conversely, newer vehicles are
technologically superior in terms of fuel economy, emissions, safety, power and
performance, comfort, drivability, and reliability. There are other, less tangible upsides to a
newer fleet, including the opinion that modern vehicles will boost driver morale in the
agency and present a better public image to society.
2.4.3 Care for End-of-Life Vehicles

Guidelines for the fleet manager in respect of responsible disposal include looking at the
long term view for your vehicle specifications. Running vehicles into the ground does not
necessarily translate into lower operating costs, and further, these emissions can be
significantly higher than that for new vehicles. Supply better vehicles initially; vehicles that
drivers will appreciate and perhaps treat better will likely have better surplus or salvage
recovery value at the end of their life cycle. This makes their in-service costs to the
organisation lower. When it comes to final disposal, ensure that end-of-life vehicles not
destined for an auction are disposed of in terms of the institutions’ financial prescriptions;
Support environmental codes of practice for the recycling industry. On an operational level,
fleet managers may benefit by placing data collection as an important priority. Among other
parameters, the following is important:-
2.4.3.1 Monitor the Fleet Average Age:-
Monitoring the average age of the fleet on an on-going basis will help to stabilize and better
predict short/long term capital and operating plans, and improve the service levels provided
to clients, ensuring inter alia, and higher levels of officer satisfaction.
2.4.3.2 Monitor Operating Costs by Category/Age:-
A comprehensive data management system will enable decision makers to make accurate
predictions of future performance relative to fleet aging by knowing the historic operating
costs and availability levels of the existing fleet. In a public sector fleet it means a new level
of fiscal responsibility, stabilisation of costs and service.
2.4.3.3 Use Fleet Age Date to Define Retention Strategies:-

Life Cycle Cost modelling is of critical importance in order to accurately determine a fleet
retention strategy. How long vehicles are kept is directly related to success as a fleet service
provider on a number of levels. It is virtually impossible to correctly determine a valid
retention strategy without historic age, cost and reliability data. Three to five years of
collated data will allow management to take the most appropriate decisions pertaining to
retention.
2.5 Maintaining a Successful Green Fleet

Basic preventive maintenance (PM) is essential for optimising fuel and emissions
performance. For example, should an engine malfunction go undetected (a lack of
preventive maintenance), it could over-fuel the system and result in the release of
unburned hydrocarbons into the air. In most instances this problem would eventually be
detected in an emissions test but until that point the vehicle would produce greatly
accelerated rates of greenhouse gases and criteria air contaminants. Other problems like
leaking fluids are not only a sure sign that the vehicle needs repair, but are also harmful to
the environment. Dirty filters can also exacerbate fuel consumption, causing an engine to
consume over 2 percent more fuel. Rural vehicles travelling on dusty roads will need air
filter changes more often. Proper tyre pressure is also important and can be accessed via
PM programs – Tyre pressure can have a significant impact on fuel economy and vehicle
operation. Emerging and chronic problems such as the above examples can be detected
through implementing routine preventive maintenance inspections. Preventive
maintenance saves money that could be reallocated to fund more green fleet initiatives or
other worthwhile purposes. Through effective data management and careful analysis of
exception management reports, a few proactive fleets have actually taken a step beyond
preventive maintenance and into the realm of predictive maintenance for additional
savings.
In the operation of a fleet and in particular its “working garage” it is not always evident
where the largest impact may be. Engine oil for example reduces wear caused by friction
between the moving parts of the engine and removes acids, sludge and other harmful
substances. Eventually, oil becomes contaminated and its performance additives
deteriorate, so it is important that the oil be changed regularly and especially that this oil be
disposed of responsibly. This means that in addition to vehicle preventive maintenance,
steps should also be taken for “waste preventive maintenance” to ensure responsible
management of the waste stream of the working garage such as used oils and related
materials. There can also be other areas of impact of the “working garage” that should be
considered and these can be identified through the execution of an Environmental
Management System (EMS).
This section provides fleet managers with information on how to best maintain a
departmental fleet and green vehicles, and insights on how to reduce the environmental
footprint of the workshop.

2.5.1 Maintaining the Green Fleet
A major component to maintaining a green fleet is regular preventive maintenance
inspections and follow-up repairs. A good Preventive Maintenance Program consists of a
number of essential elements – some of which are listed in the following sections. Many law
enforcement practitioners see preventative maintenance as a nuisance factor. It may be
argued by them that this is purely a strategy by the workshop management to keep the
mechanics busy and that these scheduled inspections/services interfere with more serious
work; police work!
2.5.2 Documenting Maintenance History

Keeping accurate vehicle and equipment history and maintenance files are an important
data gathering aspect to sound preventative maintenance processes. This information can
help a fleet manager to:-
 Monitor equipment operating and maintenance costs;

 Monitor fuel and oil costs;
 Monitor tyre costs;
 Monitor downtime costs;
 Monitor labour (technician) costs;
 Monitor parts costs;
 Monitor body damage repair costs;
 Develop accurate life cycling models;
 Enable accurate operating and capital budget forecasting;
 Print ad-hoc reports on a particular piece of equipment, a particular equipment
category or the overall fleet; and
 Cross-reference equipment by unit number, serial number or license number.
Further, such records will enable the identification of fleet operation abnormalities, such
as:-
 Excessive fuel consumption (in comparison to identical units performing similar
functions);
 Excessive oil consumption (in comparison to Original Equipment Manufacturer
(OEM) recommendations and identical engines within the fleet);
 Excessive tyre wear that can result in premature tyre replacement;
 Excessive downtime due to unscheduled repairs; and
 Part and equipment swapping by drivers.
Other important benefits to retaining good maintenance history files include:-
 The ability to identify repeat repairs and component replacement, which

demonstrate that often the end result of the problem is being repaired but the root
cause of the failure is not being addressed.

 Ensuring maximum warranty cost recovery, as without good maintenance history
files, the recovery of the cost of replaced parts that are still under warranty can be
missed. Depending on the size of the fleet, this could be a substantial amount of
money over the course of a year.
 Regular downloading of the ECM (Engine Control Module), which will enable the
Fleet Manager to spot trends, potential problems and driver habits. Further, in the
event of a crash, near miss or traffic violation, the fleet manager, or police can
determine actual vehicle speed; engine RPM, hard brake application, stopping time,
point of impact, etc. This data can be essential in ensuring the accuracy of the details
of the incident.
The ECM's trip-recorder function is primarily intended to aid in the analysis of fleet
operations and safety. Capturing this data allows an analyst to see exactly how drivers have
been operating their trucks and assess the safety and efficiency of their fleet.
The trip-recorder data can also be used in the reconstruction of the crash. A reconstruction
generally includes the analysis of vehicle speeds, impact angles, time-distance relationship
of vehicles, etc. The most valuable data for reconstruction purposes is the pre-crash speed
data. We stress that this data cannot stand alone, and should only be used as a tool to
analyse a crash; just as any other evidence would be used. Investigators have a tendency to
take this data at face value, but caution is in order.
This trip-recorder evidence can be very valuable and provide a lot of insight into what
happened in a collision. However, it must be analysed in conjunction with other evidence to
ensure its reliability. A crash reconstructionist must properly analyse and thereafter develop
hypothesis of what the vehicle dynamics were prior to the crash. He must then determine
whether the vehicle's pre-crash dynamics affected the recorded vehicle speed. He must also
know that the vehicle speed data comes from a vehicle speed sensor (VSS) that effectively
measures the rotation of the wheels. However, wheel speed and vehicle speed are not always the
same. For example, a vehicle that is rolling-over with its tyres off the ground, or sliding sideways, or
braking hard, would have a wheel speed that is different than its forward speed. These factors have
to be taken into consideration to correctly analyse the data. (www.crashforensics.com) Crash
investigators must be available to assist with the post-crash investigation and disciplinary
procedures, if found warranted.
The Criminal Procedure Act, 1977, (Act 51 of 1977) authorises law enforcement officers to
seize and examine electronic control modules from vehicles that have been involved in
crashes and where the law enforcement officer is of opinion that the driver of the vehicle
was involved in any illegal driving act that precipitated the crash.
2.5.3 Encourage Skilled and Well Trained Technicians

Engine and component technologies are changing rapidly as manufacturers strive to reduce
emissions, increase power, increase fuel economy, increase the life cycle of the engine and
components and meet the requirements of current and any proposed new legislation.

In order for a fleet manager to operate the fleet efficiently, it is essential that all technicians
are trained in the newest technologies and kept up-to-date with the latest “Technical
Service Bulletins”. This can be achieved in the following ways:-
 In-house technical training programs. Many large fleets have their own training staff.
For smaller fleets, it is recommended senior technicians attend ‘Train-The-Trainer’
courses on new technologies. This senior technician can then conduct the requisite
in-house training for other technicians.
 Training institutions are developing and offering technician training. Programmes are
periodically upgraded to reflect on new technologies to meet the ever-increasing
demand from fleet operators.
 Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) training courses. Increasing numbers of
fleets are specifying in the purchase contract that the OEM must provide technician
training on the new equipment/technologies. This is especially important when it
comes to technologies such as the use of hybrids which can involve very different
operating protocols.
 Subscriptions to OEM “Technical Service Bulletins.” These are issued on a regular
basis and will keep the technicians informed on recalls, “fixes” for particular failures,
proper repair procedures for particular failures, etc.
 Participation in various trade associations.
2.5.4 A Good “Predictive Maintenance” Program:-

Predictive Maintenance (PM) is a critical part of any Preventive Maintenance Program.
Predictive Maintenance is the timely replacement of a part or component just prior to its
known time of failure in time (hours) or kilometres. The replacement of these
parts/components should be scheduled as part of a regularly scheduled Preventive
Maintenance Inspection - (PMI). The replacement can be scheduled through considering:-
 Components and intervals determined by the OEM and stated in the OEM
Maintenance Manual;
 Components and intervals determined by the fleets’ own maintenance history for
each category of equipment (failure analysis).
The benefits of predictive maintenance to a fleet include the reduction of on-road failures
and downtime, reduced maintenance costs and higher driver morale due to more reliable
equipment.
2.5.5 A Reliable “Oil Sampling” Program:-

Although not stipulated by the OEM’s, including oil sampling as part of a PM Inspection can
enable fleet operators to avoid costly engine or major component failure. Oil Sample
Reports will enable a fleet manager to:-
 Monitor metal contaminants in the oil, which indicate the wear rate on internal
components;

 Monitor oil condition for soot, acid, etc.
 Extend or shorten oil and filter change intervals as recommended by the company
performing the testing of the oil; and
 Obtain warranty on failed internal components.
Some contaminants are important to monitor and analyse because they are root causes of
premature oil degradation and engine failure. Other contaminants are symptomatic of an
active failure condition that requires a response other than just an oil change. For instance,
seal damage leading to fuel dilution or glycol contamination cannot be remedied by
performing an oil change or switching to a better quality lubricant. Such symptom-based
contaminants are also root causes that enable new failures to occur. The value of oil analysis
in detecting problems early goes without saying. (Fitch, 2007)
2.5.6 Well Trained Drivers:-

A good Driver Training Program will substantially increase the benefits of a green fleet. This
is achieved through:-
 The elimination of fast acceleration starts and hard braking. Drivers are trained to
accelerate from a stop gradually and to predict red lights and ease up to them and
stop signs. This process can save as much as 30 percent in fuel, as well as reduce
wear on brake components;
 The elimination of unnecessary engine idling will not only reduce emissions and
reduces fuel costs, but it also reduces wear and tear on the engine resulting in lower
maintenance costs; and
 The reporting of vehicle/equipment deficiencies, unusual noises or handling
characteristics and fluid leaks to the Maintenance Department. This will result in the
repair of minor problems before they become serious problems resulting in safety
issues or a major break-down.
2.5.7 Additional Recommendations to Make a Fleet Greener:-

There are further initiatives that can provide cost savings and aid the environment:-
 Use recap tyres on all but steering axles as this reduces operating costs and reduces
the number of tyres for disposal; (This does not apply to patrol vehicles due to the
potential for high speed pursuits)
 Use re-refined oil or synthetic oils;
 Use environmentally friendly hydraulic oils and greases;
 Use environmentally friendly parts cleaning fluids;
 Use alternative fuels; Biodiesel, Ethanol, Natural Gas, Propane and Hydrogen;
 Use where available, recycled water for vehicle/equipment washing; and
 Ensure proper disposal of used parts, batteries and other waste.

TOP 3 STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Monitor the Maintenance Ratio: Preventative/Reactive: The importance of timely preventive

maintenance to ensure service excellence cannot be under-emphasized.
Is the PM Scheduling System up to the Task? Can the scheduling system forecast and schedule fleet
maintenance due by using multiple parameters, tailored to each unit in the fleet? These parameters
may include time, kilometres travelled, hours operated, Power Take-Off (PTO) hours operated, fuel
consumed and many more depending on requirements. Each improvement to the timing of the PM
intervals results in savings of thousands. Optimising PM intervals in large fleets can result in huge
savings.
Don’t Over or Under Maintain the Fleet: Servicing a vehicle prematurely is wasteful. Resources such
as oils and other lubricants, as well as technician time are costly. Under-maintaining is equally
damaging, and can translate into the premature failure of expensive components or induce
worker/driver safety issues, negatively affecting service levels for your clients.
2.6 Reduced Idling and Alternative Fuels

Another item of considerable implication for operating costs is fuel. Many public sector fleet
operators face a considerable challenge in accurately forecasting fuel cost requirements for
their budget years. Budgetary allocations for fuel are often spent at a very high rate and can
result in operating budget shortfalls. In a typical vehicle fleet operation, fuel is the highest
cost item after labour, to the point where public sources have indicated that the rising cost
of fuel is impacting their ability to deliver programs and meet responsibilities effectively and
responsibly.
Fuel consumption is the amount (volume) of fuel used per unit distance e.g. litres per 100
kilometres. The less fuel is consumed, the more economical a vehicle will be to travel a
specific distance. Some people refer to kilometres travelled per litre. The latter is not the
official measure to depict fuel consumption. In South Africa we use litres/kilometre or to a
lesser extent litres/km. It is easy to ascertain a vehicle’s fuel consumption as these are
accurately determined and published in motor vehicle magazines. The consumption figures
cited by vehicle manufacturers are sometimes over-optimistic and not a true reflection of the
consumption under real life driving conditions. It may also be beneficial to make a distinction
between the consumption in an urban (city) driving environment and long distance travel. In the
case of law enforcement, the city driving consumption figures will be of particular significance.
The decision to reduce the use of traditional fuels and/or explore the use of alternate fuels
and hybrids as a method of reducing environmental impact is a good one. Alternate fuels for
consideration include biodiesel, ethanol, natural gas and propane. However the importance
of reducing the use of the traditional fuels cannot be overstated. Anti-idling policies, for

example, provide an important means to reduce traditional fuel consumption for a fleet and
contribute directly to bottom-line fuel savings. Although initial upfront costs exist, alternate
fuels can mean life-cycle cost savings for fleets. For example, while the use of compressed
natural gas means costly vehicle conversions and the upfront installation of fuelling devices
at facilities, the overall capital expense will most often be recovered through fuel cost
savings and operational savings, leaving ample time in unit life cycles to significantly
capitalize on operating cost savings. This section contains information on how to reduce the
use of fossil fuels and the opportunities for alternative fuels in public fleet operation.
Guidelines for responsible fuel procurement are also included.
2.6.1 Reducing the Use of Petrol and Diesel: Idling Reduction

Idling has several undesirable attributes, which include but not limited to:-
 Impact on engine operating life, as one hour of engine idle is equivalent to two hours
of driving and results in the more frequent servicing and replacement of spark plugs,
fuel injectors, valve seats, and piston crowns;
 Higher cost, through incurring an additional R12.50 in vehicle maintenance for every
R10.00 of fuel consumed; and
 Reducing engine oil life by 75 percent, from 600 engine hours to 150 engine hours.
 Unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions.
Green fleet management requires the ability to measure – and address - the financial and
environmental impacts of avoidable idling. Lowering fuel costs through reduced idling can
provide a quick-win for a Green Fleet Program that will capture managements’ attention
and possibly provide funding for additional green fleet Initiatives. A change-management
approach to idling offers the best opportunity to sustain behavioural change and lower fuel
costs. This approach is described in the following sections.
2.6.2 Need for Change

Few fleet managers or drivers understand the extent of waste associated with unnecessary
idling. In illustration, an anti-idling program labelled as “Repair Our Air” in Canada has
analysed engine data from sixty fleets during 2000-2005 with the following results:-
 Municipal service fleets: 30 - 50 %

 Transit: 35 - 40 %
 Enforcement: 65 - 85 %
 Utilities: 30 - 75 %
The above percentages indicate the amount of operating time the fleet spent idling. The
fuel-saving opportunities associated with reduced idling are significant. In 2005, the City of
Hamilton (USA) saved approximately R1.2m in fuel costs and 720 tonnes of GHGs by
controlling idling and further estimates that it could save R14m to R21 million annually and
reduce GHGs by 4,800 tonnes if the idling policy were fully enforced. While many drivers
argue that they are idling to keep warm (or cool), protecting the engine starter and running

emergency lights, most idling is unrelated to the outside temperature or equipment
requirements and is simply a bad habit. That said, changing driver habits is not a simple
process and requires persistence and constant reinforcement.
Fleet managers can build a solid business case for their anti-idling program by assessing
current fuel efficiency (litres per 100 kilometres) against best practices and estimate the
public institution’s potential for fuel savings and greenhouse gas reduction.
2.6.3 Creating a Clear Shared Vision

The vision for a reduced idling program is best linked with an organisation’s Green Fleet Plan
or sustainability program. It is also ideally expressed in a corporate policy that provides
guidance to all managers and drivers. RST, a freight carrier based in the Maritimes, provides
an example of such a policy:-
“Anyone operating a vehicle owned by or leased to RST industries shall not allow their
company vehicle to idle more than five consecutive minutes when not in motion or being
used to operate auxiliary equipment that is essential to the job requirements.”
A corporate policy may be complemented with a commitment to providing leadership

within the community and amongst government institutions. Blue emergency lights may
consume power to such an extent that a patrol vehicle’s battery may run flat. Newer types
of emergency lights are not so power hungry as the old rotator type of lights. Many law
enforcement officers on patrol are ignorant about the usefulness of anti-idling benefits and
keep their vehicle engines running at incident scenes without any specific reason. There is
also a tendency to keep diesel engines running as they do not warm as easily as petrol
driven vehicles. The challenge as stated is therefore to convince the officers of the
advantages of switching off vehicle engines when there is no specific need to keep them
running. Managers must ensure that the equipment they procure for police vehicles are
energy efficient. These units may initially cost slightly more, but the cost savings over time
in terms of fuel consumption make them better suited for the job.
2.6.4 Management Commitment

Management commitment is essential to the success of a reduced idling campaign.
Developing the necessary commitment is best done in stages that include:-
 Provision and publication of fuel-efficiency data for each department;

 Agreeing on efficiency targets for each department;
 Engagement in the design of a corporate idling policy;
 Participation in the design and implementation of an idling challenge; and
 Participation in the development of a public “Green Fleet” Plan.
The level of management commitment will become evident when a budget is requested for
the purchase or lease of telematics to measure idling incidence, and when direct
participation in the idling campaign is requested. While reduced idling can provide a “quick

win” for any Green Fleet program, note that the measurement and control of idling will
require an initial capital outlay for certain types of equipment, such as LED lights for
emergency vehicles, cabin heaters for working vehicles, and/or auxiliary power units (APUs)
or batteries for computers and equipment. Fuel efficiency can be monitored by comparing
mileage to fuel usage but telematics can be invaluable for providing reliable reports that
identify patterns of waste and for providing regular feedback to drivers, supervisors and
managers.
Telematics typically refers to the integrated use of telecommunications and informatics, also
known as Information and Communications Technology. In general, it refers to the use of
systems within vehicles that transmits a range of information to a central command station
where the data is captured and collated.
2.6.5 People Involvement

Research has shown that by itself, information on the financial and environmental impact of
idling is insufficient to change driver behaviour. Drivers will only change behaviour patterns
when they understand the frequency and impact of idling, receive regular reports on their
own performance, and have personal contact with supervisors and other drivers who
support reduced idling. The importance of personal contact in changing a driver’s behaviour
cannot be overstated, especially when idling becomes socially unacceptable both to
members of the public and to fellow employees. An organisations’ vehicle culture can be
altered through a series of informative campaigns directed both at employees and the
public at large.
2.6.6 Community Participation

Reduced idling within the organisation’s fleet (read also law enforcement fleet) will be much
easier if the public is also engaged in controlling idling within their personal vehicles and
unnecessary idling becomes socially unacceptable in the community. Public awareness
campaigns that have succeeded when communities share the following similar features:-
 Approval of an idling policy;

 Launch of a public information campaign that includes media releases and signage at
key locations;
 Regular ‘enforcement blitzes’ that are supported by media campaigns;
 School poster contests; and
 Challenges to fleet operators including utilities, transport, police and emergency
medical services, school buses, taxis, couriers, government contractors and private
fleets.
2.6.7 Supporting Structures and Process

In addition to a corporate idling policy and possibly a municipal by-law, there are a variety of
structures that will support a successful anti-idling campaign. These include clear
accountability and union support.

 Clear accountability: Ideally, accountability for fuel efficiency is included within a
department’s performance measures and is already assigned to a specific individual.
In the absence of such, departments participating in an idling reduction program or
campaign should assign a project leader (a champion for this cause) who is
responsible for gathering and reporting idling data to the campaign committee.
 Union support: Unions are often concerned about the increased surveillance made
possible through the use of telematics. Most telematics will not only record idling
incidence but can also report speeding, the location of a driver and the duration of
visit to a particular location. While this information can generally be retrieved
through an engine download without telematics, the telematics will deliver the
information daily to a manager’s desk, making driver behaviour more transparent.
Discussions with unions regarding the reporting and use of this data are
recommended as early as possible in order to identify mutually acceptable solutions.
Unions may also be concerned about driver safety and driver comfort associated
with reduced idling. Fleet managers must work with union representatives to
develop guidelines on acceptable cabin temperatures and on vehicle maintenance
standards that will ensure vehicle starters and batteries are maintained at a level
required by the department’s workload.
2.6.8 Performance Measures

The launch of an idling program will raise a variety of performance issues questions,
including the following:-
 Who is accountable for fuel efficiency?

 What is being measured?
 How can targets be customized for different operational environments? and
 How are measures reported?
Accountability: In many organisations, accountability for fuel efficiency is overlooked, since

there is often little understanding and appreciation of the efficiency opportunities that are
available. Fleet managers are typically responsible for the procurement, maintenance and
disposal of vehicles and have no authority over the drivers of the vehicles or how the
vehicles are used. An idling campaign will raise awareness of significant fuel saving
opportunities that should be of interest to both to the Chief Financial Officer and other
departmental heads. Once that awareness exists, clear accountability for driver behaviour is
essential before savings can be captured. Every agency has an operational budget and fuel
forms an integral part thereof. It can therefore be surmised that savings can be affected at
every level of the institution including individual drivers of law enforcement vehicles!
Measurement: There are two parts to the question - “what is being measured?” Unions
often argue that the vehicle should be measured rather than the driver, thereby avoiding

potential disciplinary action. Unions are perceivably more concerned about their members
than the financial aspects of rendering a public service with public funds! As vehicles are
often shared within a department, a fleet manager can side-step this concern by not using
specific keys to identify individual drivers. More importantly, organisations have often found
that continual reinforcement of good performance is more effective than disciplinary
actions against recalcitrant drivers. A second question relates to how the telematics system
is set up. Most can be adjusted to report all idling (the engine is engaged but the vehicle is
not moving) and/or idling over an allowable period, such as two minutes (to accommodate
traffic lights) or three minutes to accommodate a corporate policy. Many telematics will
provide two sets of data and some will also identify the time, duration and location of idling
infractions.
Customised targets: Police patrol vehicles and vehicles used by supervisors have very
different operating requirements and will benefit from targets that accurately reflect their
work environment. Fleet managers are encouraged to collect data by vehicle category and
to customise guidelines and targets in partnership with client departments in order to
ensure both support and appropriateness of fuel efficiency targets. It is self-explanatory that
a vehicle operated by a patrol officer will reflect higher fuel consumption figures than a
similar vehicle in use by the health clinic officials. The targets for fuel reduction programs
must therefore reflect the different operating conditions referred to above.
Performance reporting: Idling data is of little value if accountability for fuel efficiency is
unclear and the data is not shared with drivers and senior management. A strong idling
program will require a clear communications strategy that includes weekly/monthly
reporting. Many fleets have lost their return-on-investment in telematics because fuel
efficiency reports were irregular or poorly distributed. A strong communications program
and clear accountability will help to avoid this circumstance. First-line supervisors should get
the information to ensure that the results are discussed with officers operating patrol
vehicles.
REDUCING FUEL USAGE AND IMPROVING FUEL EFFICIENCY

An idling campaign provides an excellent opportunity to increase awareness of idling incidence and
the financial opportunities associated with improved fuel efficiency. Broad participation in the
campaign, clear and regular reports, and clear accountability will ensure that this awareness evolves
into sustained improvements in driver performance as well as lower fuel bills and reduced
greenhouse gas emissions.
Operationally, there are several things fleet managers can do in assessing how idling impacts their
fleet and fuel costs and further their fuel efficiency performance. These include:-
1. Manage Exception Units: Monitor fuel usage by unit and category. Monitor fuel
consumption data regularly. Determine the vehicles that are performing below and above

the average value for their respective types. Be proactive in correcting the issues that are
causing poor fuel consumption and consider using vehicles that historically use less fuel in
the fleet i.e. for the next round of vehicle acquisitions.
2. Manage Idling and Driver Behaviour: Consider fuel-efficient driver awareness and training
programs. Consider an internal communications plan that will help change those persistent
mind-sets that wasting fuel is acceptable. Law enforcement officers do not have carte
blanche to waste public funds allocated to the law enforcement agency.
3. Determine “Best in Class” Vehicles: Through historical fuel usage data for the fleet or from
external sources such as reputable motor magazines, determine the most fuel-efficient
vehicles for the operation. Consider hybrids and alternate fuels for the fleet. Taking action to
manage the above high fuel consumption exception units will ultimately reduce fuel
expenses and greenhouse gas output. The following are some basic questions to consider
when taking action on high fuel exception consumption units:-
 Are there mechanical problems in the vehicle?

 Are the vehicles matched to their job requirements? (e.g., are the vehicles too big or too
small?)
 Are the vehicles technologically out-dated? (e.g., modern electronic diesel coupled with a
programmable electronic transmission versus out-dated petrol/diesel power with a driver
controlled manual transmission).
 Can lower cost/emission fuels be employed? (e.g., diesel/biodiesel, compressed natural gas,
hybrids, alternate fuels, etc.)
 Are there operational issues that can be improved? (e.g., route planning, trip optimisation)
 Are the units idling unnecessarily? (e.g., driver awareness)
 Are there idling reduction technologies that can be employed? (e.g., auxiliary cabin heaters
or battery systems)
 Are there better transportation options available? (e.g., car-pooling, car-sharing, employee
provided vehicles, modal shift to public transit, etc.)
 Is the fuel posted to units actually going into the vehicles? (e.g., perhaps it’s being used for
gas powered tools, other fleet vehicles or even pilfered)
 Do law enforcement officers use vehicles for private purposes or not?
2.6.9 Use Less Fuel and Use it Efficiently

The first and possibly the best thing a fleet manager can do for the environment and to
reduce costs, is to burn less fuel; (e.g. encourage use of transportation alternatives, stop
unnecessary idling, perform regular preventative maintenance and prevent excessive
speeding among other things.
Although the single most effective way to reduce fuel use is to decrease dependence on the
use of vehicles, the reality is that vehicles are still in demand and in high use today. It is
therefore important to try to optimise vehicle use as much as possible. As a starter, some
recommended options that enable better fuel efficiencies include:-
 Use Best in Class Vehicles: Review the best-in-class options at every opportunity
when replacement vehicle strategies are being planned. For light duty vehicles

including light delivery vehicles, consult reputable car magazines for fuel
consumption figures. For medium and heavy duty trucks, consider the inclusion of
fuel economy ratings and specifying concerns around greenhouse gas output in
replacement vehicle specifications. Consider the ‘long view of the fleet assets’ –
increased capital costs are sometimes mitigated by more fuel-efficient vehicles over
their entire life cycle. The expression “long term gain for short term pain” is quite
valid.
 Fuel Type: Carefully consider the expanded use of diesel and biodiesel-fuelled
vehicles to replace gas units. Investigate using additional alternative fuels and
inclusion of more hybrids in the fleet.
Operational Improvements: Driver training in the area of fuel-efficiency and working

collaboratively with internal user departments to find ways of reducing idling, fuel use and
greenhouse gasses will pay considerable dividends as employees and the public become
aware of the departments’ efforts to green its fleet. Clever administrators can also leverage
the public’s greater understanding of the impact of global warming and climate change.
The important thing to impart is that as a fleet manager, one of the best things that one can
do is first, use less fuel, and second, look for or insist upon some type of certification that
the fuel you are receiving was produced in an environmentally sound manner. Public sector
fleet managers have an important and influential role to play in this arena as leading-edge
fleet operators with dual concern for fuel efficiency and environmental impact. In the long
run what will help is to support a marketplace that allows fuel to compete on environmental
performance. Public sector fleet managers, as early adopters of alternative fuels, are the key
players in this outcome.
Figure 2.2
Emission testing apparatus – Source – AutoLogic

2.7 Management Systems to Optimise Fleet Efficiency
It is imperative that public law enforcement agencies move towards implementing a

modern, efficient vehicle fleet that maximizes cost savings, program operation, workplace
quality, and consideration for environmental issues. This includes establishing the true cost
of fleet operations as it relates to fuel consumption and the use of internal benchmarks for
comparison (vehicle to vehicle, department to department, etc.) to reveal opportunities for
improving fuel and emissions performance as well as goal setting. Further, fuel data
management should, wherever possible be used to develop estimates of greenhouse gas
emissions generated as a result of fleet operation and thereby enables monitoring of
reductions over time.
There are many available frameworks for effective fleet management and a variety of
important attributes to measure in such frameworks. First and foremost is comprehensive
data collection and evaluation as this is a critical component to effective fleet operation and
management. Every fleet manager should carefully review all fuel expenditures. This
constitutes an asset management perspective of fleet operations and a clear mechanism or
guidelines for reducing fleet fuel costs. Although not yet widespread, comprehensive data
collection and evaluation is becoming gradually more recognised as a critical tool for
effective fleet operation, cost management and environmental responsibility. An effective
vehicle fleet management system will enable administrators to identify problems in an early
stage before they become major issues. This facilitates the development of preventative
strategies to cut costs and to maximise a fleet’s efficiency.
2.8 Maintaining a Green Fleet

A major component to maintaining a green fleet is regular preventive maintenance
inspections and follow-up repairs. A good preventive maintenance program consists of a
number of essential elements, but to start, keeping accurate vehicle and equipment
maintenance files are an important data gathering aspect that should be maintained over
the long term. In order for a fleet manager to operate a fleet efficiently, it is essential that
all technicians are trained in the newest technologies and kept up to date.
Predictive maintenance is also a critical part of any preventive maintenance program, which
is the timely replacement of a part or component just prior to its known time of failure. The
replacement of these parts or components should be scheduled as part of a regular
preventive maintenance inspection. (Municipal Green Fleet Management in Ontario: Best
Practices Manual , 2008)

Figure 2.3
New generation police interceptor vehicle
New generation vehicles, such as the new fuel-efficient Ford Police Interceptors (Figure 2.3)
deliver at least 20 percent higher power and fuel economy, reducing fuel costs for law
enforcement agencies. Law enforcement administrators have a major responsibility to
ensure that cost effective strategies are put in place to curtail costs and to minimise the
impact of the vehicle fleet on the environment. Big flashy cars may create a type of macho
image, but it may not necessarily contribute to a positive impact on earths’ environment.
Every institution, small, medium and large can make a significant contribution to protect our
planet for future generations. Vehicles are polluters, and minimising their carbon footprint
is everyone’s business. Law enforcement agencies, worldwide are large consumers of fuel
and their impact on society and earths long term wellness cannot be underestimated. Most
of the time, all that is needed is a few forward looking administrators to champion this
cause!
2.9 Conclusion
Law enforcement agencies cannot separate themselves from the collective responsibility to
curb greenhouse gas emissions. Although it is appreciated that patrol officers work under
very trying conditions, they too have a responsibility to make a contribution to minimise the
effects of global warming. Saving costs due to more fuel efficient vehicles are secondary
gains that will be achieved. The challenge is to get officer “buy-in” for the strategies
identified in this Unit.

Figure 2.4
Fuel Cell Police Car
0oo0oo0

UNIT 3
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT FOR LAW
ENFORCEMENT VEHICLES
 Define and differentiate between vehicle visibility and conspicuity.

 Describe the legal prescriptions pertaining to the installation and use of emergency
warning devices on law enforcement and other emergency service vehicles.
 Explain the concepts associated with retro-reflectivity.
 Motivate the provision of effective retro-reflective materials on law enforcement
vehicles.
 Identify the advantages of the Battenburg Livery Scheme.
 Describe the importance of fluorescent colours.
 Provide information on the use of emergency warning lights on law enforcement
vehicles.
 Differentiate between the different types of emergency warning lights on vehicles.
3.1 Introduction
Law enforcement vehicles are probably the most important “tool” in the police
department’s arsenal to fight crime. Policing cannot be performed properly without
vehicles. The provision of transport is an expensive item on the law enforcement agency’s
budget. The cost of vehicles is generally very prohibitive and agencies are always on the
lookout to reduce costs. Public policing is funded from taxes and it is therefore imperative
that everything possible is done to curtail expenditure, but without endangering the lives of
law enforcement officers who have to operate their vehicles for long hours, often in highly
dangerous situations.
Many law enforcement officers lose their lives in vehicle crashes during the execution of
their duties. The 3 “E” Concept in Traffic Science studies is as relevant for law enforcement
personnel as it is for the public. The 3 “E”’s refer to:-
 Engineering;
 Education; and
 Enforcement.
A 4th "E” can be added and refers to Evaluation. This Unit will deal primarily with the
engineering issues pertaining to law enforcement vehicles and more specifically the

equipment that should be affixed to a vehicle to enhance its performance and the safety of
the officer. Law enforcement administrators responsible for police vehicle fleets have an
important role i.e. to ensure that the type of equipment adds value to the policing function
and enhance the safety of law enforcement officers. The correct equipment can increase
the productivity of law enforcement personnel as well as minimising crash risks. Vehicle and
human characteristics can influence the morbidity and mortality rates of law enforcement
personnel operating along the country’s road network. Studies in the USA suggest that
increasing emergency vehicle visibility and conspicuity may enhance first responders’ safety
when exposed to traffic both inside and outside their response vehicles. (FEMA, 2009) The
hypothesis therefore is that the type of emergency equipment installed and the manner in
which patrol vehicles are marked, will increase their visibility and conspicuity. (The
information in this Unit is primarily from the Federal Emergency Management Agency –
FEMA in the United States of America)
It is important to note that the potential risks associated with the effectiveness of lighting
systems deployed on emergency vehicles are hardly limited to the danger posed to first-
responder personnel.
Other risks include:-
 The potential for injuries or fatalities to civilians as well as other public safety officers
during a criminal pursuit or response to an emergency call.
 The possibility of rapidly deteriorating medical conditions due to ambulances being
delayed in traffic either to or from crash sites.
 Increased property damage or loss resulting from emergency vehicles being delayed
in traffic.
The potential for costly litigation resulting from personal injury or property damage claims
resulting from emergency vehicle crashes. (Federal Signal, 2012)
3.2 Vehicle visibility and conspicuity.
South Africa’s National Road Traffic Act, 1996, Act 93 of 1996 provides specifically for the
installation and use of certain categories of emergency equipment for law enforcement
vehicles. The Act and the regulations promulgated under this Act inter alia prescribe as
follows:-
3.2.1 Regulations
The following regulations govern the fitting and use of emergency equipment on vehicles
used by law enforcement personnel and emergency services:-
176. Identification lamps

(1) A bus or a goods vehicle, the gross vehicle mass of which exceeds 3 500
kilograms, and which is not a motor vehicle referred to in sub-regulation (2), (3)
or (5), may be fitted above the windscreen with two or more identification
lamps and each such lamp shall-
(a) not exceed a capacity of 21 Watts:

(b) be visible from directly in front of the motor vehicle to which it is fitted;
and
(c) emit a green or amber light.
(2) An ambulance, fire-fighting or rescue vehicle may be fitted with a lamp or lamps
emitting an intermittently-flashing red light in any direction.
(3) (a) Subject to paragraph (b), no person shall operate a motor vehicle fitted
with, or in or on which is displayed, a lamp or lamps emitting a blue light or
capable of emitting a blue light.
(b) The provisions of paragraph (a) does not apply to a motor vehicle operated
by a member of the Service or a member of a municipal police service,
both as defined in section 1 of the South African Police Service Act, 1995
(Act No. 68 of 1995), or a traffic officer, or a member of the South African
Defence Force authorised in terms of section 87(1)(g) of the Defence Act,
1957 (Act No. 44 of 1957) to perform police functions, in the execution of
his or her duties.
(c) A motor vehicle referred to in paragraph (b) may be fitted with a lamp or
lamps emitting an intermittently flashing-
(i) blue light;

(ii) blue and amber light;
(iii) blue and red light; or
(iv) blue, amber and red light, in any direction which may, at the will of
the driver, display the word “stop”.
(4) A motor vehicle which is-
(a) a vehicle employed in connection with the maintenance of public road;

(b) engaged in the distribution and supply of electricity;
(c) engaged in the supply of other essential public services;
(d) operated in terms of the authority granted by the MEC in terms of section
81 of the Act;
(e) a breakdown vehicle;
(f) a refuse compactor vehicle;
(g) a vehicle carrying an abnormal load and the vehicle escorting it if any, may,
but a breakdown vehicle shall, be fitted with a lamp or lamps capable of

emitting an intermittently-flashing amber light in any direction: Provided
that such lamp shall only be used at the place where the breakdown
occurred, where the maintenance or other work or an inspection is being
carried out, when such breakdown vehicle is towing a motor vehicle, or in
the event of a vehicle carrying an abnormal load.
(5) A motor vehicle used by a medical practitioner may be fitted above the
windscreen with one lamp emitting an intermittently flashing red light in any
direction: Provided that such light may only be used by such medical practitioner
in the bona fide exercise of his or her profession.
(6) A vehicle driven by a person while he or she is engaged in civil protection as

contemplated in section 3 of the Civil Protection Act, 1977 (Act No. 67 of 1977),
may be fitted with a lamp or lamps emitting an intermittently flashing green
light in any direction.
(7) A vehicle –
(a) owned by a body or person registered as a security officer in terms of the

Security Officers Act, 1987 (Act No. 92 of 1987); and
(b) driven by a security officer as defined in section 1 of the said Act in the
course of rendering a security service, also defined in section 1 of the said
Act,
may be fitted with a white lens bar containing a lamp or lamps emitting an intermittently-
flashing diffused white light in any direction, and containing a notice illuminated by a white
light containing the word “security” and the name of the owner of the vehicle in black
letters: Provided that the said lamp or lamps shall not be capable of emitting a rotating or
strobe light.
[Sub-reg. (7) inserted by G.N. 2116/2001]
177. Use of spot lamp
No person shall operate on a public road a motor vehicle if it is fitted with a spot lamp,
which can be so adjusted as to enable a beam of light emitted there from to be
deflected in any direction: Provided that a spot lamp which is adjustable-
(a) may be fitted and used for official purposes on any ambulance, rescue-, fire-
fighting-, police-, or traffic-control vehicle;
(b) may be fitted to a vehicle owned by a medical practitioner or veterinarian, and
used in the execution of such person’s professional duties; or
(c) may be fitted to a breakdown vehicle or a vehicle employed in connection with
the supply of electricity or other public essential services: Provided that it is used
solely at the scene of an accident or breakdown or for the examination of
overhead telephone, telegraph or power lines.

183. Lamps to emit steady light
Unless otherwise provided elsewhere in these regulations, a lamp fitted to any vehicle shall
emit a steady light when in operation: Provided that an ambulance, rescue vehicle, fire-
fighting vehicle, a motor vehicle operated by a traffic officer in the execution of his or her
duties, or a motor vehicle operated by a member of the Service or a member of a municipal
police service, both as defined in section 1 of the South African Police Service Act, 1995 (Act
No. 68 of 1995) in the execution of his or her duties, may be equipped with a device which
enables the driver of such vehicle to operate the vehicle’s head lamps in such a manner that
they flash intermittently.
201. Warning devices
(1) Subject to the provisions of sections 58(3) and 60 of the Act, no person shall operate on
a public road-
(a) a self-propelled motor vehicle, unless it is equipped with an efficient warning device
which is in good working order and, when used, capable of emitting a sound which, under
normal conditions, is clearly audible by a person of normal hearing from a distance of at
least 90 metres;
(b) a pedal cycle, unless it is equipped with an efficient warning device which is in good
working order and, when used, capable of giving adequate warning of its approach;
(c) a vehicle to which a siren is fitted; or
(d) a vehicle to which a device is fitted which emits a sound of which the tone of pitch
varies:
Provided that the provisions of paragraphs (c) and (d) shall not apply to a motor vehicle to
which an anti-theft device which incorporates a siren is fitted, or to a fire-fighting vehicle, a
fire-fighting response vehicle, a rescue vehicle, an emergency medical response vehicle,
ambulance or vehicle driven by a traffic officer in the carrying out of his or her duties, or to a
vehicle driven by a person while engaged in civil protection as contemplated in section 3 of
the Civil Protection Act, 1977 (Act No. 67 of 1977).
[Sub-reg. (1) substituted by G.N. R1341/2003]
(2) The device referred to in paragraph (b) of the proviso to sections 58(3) and 60(b) of the
Act shall be capable of emitting a sound of which the tones of pitch shall-
(a) be (commonly known as the “Klaxon”}
(b) sweep rapidly between 400 and 1 500 Hertz at a rate of between 120 and 180 cycles per
minute (commonly known as the “yelp”); or

(c) sweep slowly between 400 and 1500 Hertz at a rate of between six and nine cycles per
minute (commonly known as the “wail”)
3.2.2 Section 60 of the Act
Section 60 of the National Road Traffic Act, 1996 governs the use of the equipment referred
to in 3.2.1 above:-
“60. Certain drivers may exceed general speed limit
Notwithstanding the provisions of Section 59, the driver of a fire-fighting vehicle, a fire-
fighting response vehicle, a rescue vehicle, an emergency medical response vehicle or an
ambulance who drives such vehicle in the carrying out of his or her duties, a traffic officer or
a person appointed in terms of the South African Police Service Act, 1995 (Act No. 68 of
1995), who drives a vehicle in the carrying out of his or her duties or any person issued with
the necessary authorisation and driving a vehicle, may exceed the applicable general speed
limit: Provided that-
(a) he or she shall drive the vehicle concerned with due regard to the safety of other traffic;
and
(b) in the case of any such fire-fighting vehicle, fire-fighting response vehicle, rescue vehicle,
emergency medical response vehicle, ambulance or any vehicle driven by a person issued
with the necessary authorisation, such vehicle shall be fitted with a device capable of
emitting a prescribed sound and with an identification lamp, as prescribed, and such device
shall be so sounded and such lamp shall be in operation while the vehicle is driven in excess
of the applicable general speed limit”
3.2.3 Vehicle visibility
A number of interrelated factors affect the visibility of an emergency vehicle to adjacent

drivers during both a response and while parked at an incident or crash scene. These
variables include the vehicle’s size, colour scheme, (also called “livery”) passive conspicuity
features such as marker lamps and retro-reflective striping, and the presence/operation of
active warning devices such as emergency lighting systems or audible sirens and hooters.
Environmental conditions also influence visibility; chief among these are time-of-day,
ambient lighting, weather, and the presence of driver distractions or visual ‘clutter’ in the
surroundings.
While a high degree of visibility is usually a desirable characteristic for emergency vehicles,
there are times when public safety personnel do not want their vehicles to be readily visible.
Law enforcement officers, for example, may actually want to be almost invisible to other
drivers when conducting certain types of enforcement or patrol activities. There is also a
point-of-view that, while parked off the roadway at incident, emergency vehicles should

reduce their conspicuity to avoid being hit by drivers who are potentially attracted to
activated warning devices.
The dichotomy between the need for emergency vehicles to be highly visible under some
scenarios, and less visible under others, creates different conspicuity requirements for
emergency vehicles compared to vehicles like school buses where high visibility is always
desired.
3.2.4 Conspicuity
Conspicuity refers to, “the ability of a vehicle to draw attention to its presence, even when
other road users are not actively looking for it.” (Cook et. al. 1999) All the vehicles sold for
public road use in South Africa come factory-equipped with certain legally-required devices,
making them conspicuous to some extent. This includes headlamps, parking lamps, brake
(stop) lamps, tail lamps, marker lamps, signal lamps, reflex reflectors, etc. Beyond any
original equipment manufacturer installed conspicuity features, emergency vehicle visibility
is meaningfully affected to the extent that a vehicle is deliberately made more conspicuous,
or less inconspicuous, to other drivers. Unmarked, undercover, and low-profile vehicles are
at one end of the conspicuity spectrum; while a brightly coloured, perhaps even fluorescent,
fire apparatus truck equipped with multiple active warning systems and passive conspicuity
treatments anchors the other end of the continuum.
Historically, emergency vehicle operators primarily relied on active signalling, using various
mechanical devices, to enhance their vehicles’ visibility and conspicuity while responding to,
and at the scene of emergency incidents. These technologies include emergency warning
lights and audible systems designed to attract surrounding drivers’ attention. While active
devices will likely always be needed to promote emergency vehicle visibility/conspicuity,
passive treatments using retro-reflective sheeting and other materials are increasingly being
used to complement lights and sirens.
Studies conducted in the United States of America and other countries suggest efforts to
increase emergency vehicle conspicuity using passive treatments hold potential for
enhancing emergency responders’ safety when exposed to traffic during responses or at the
roadside. However, given the number of variables present in a wide range of driver-
emergency vehicle interaction scenarios, it is vital to recognise the optimal combination of
conspicuity markings and active warning systems for every possible situation probably does
not exist. In fact, the best choices for conspicuously marking emergency vehicles that are
stationary could be quite different from the best choices for enhancing the visibility of those
same vehicles while in motion. (Tijerina et al. 2003; Donelson & Ayers, 2007)
3.2.4 Vehicle recognition and identification
The purpose of making any vehicle conspicuous goes further than simply enhancing its
visibility. While catching the eye of another driver is the “first thing,” the more obvious goal

is to help provide other drivers with information about a vehicle's presence, size, position,
speed, and direction of travel. As a driver, the critical objectives of conspicuity are to:-
 Clearly broadcast your own aims;

 Easily recognise surrounding drivers’ intentions; and
 Enabling the appropriate action to avoid a crash.
For emergency vehicles, recognition and identification are likely very important aspects of
promoting this so-called “cognitive conspicuity.” (Tijerina et. al., 2003)
3.2.5 Action
Beyond recognising the presence of an emergency vehicle, civilian drivers must know what
action(s) to take after identifying it. There are two opposing viewpoints on this front:-
 It might be preferable for drivers to simply recognise the presence of something they
need to avoid, without any specific information on why they should do so (avoiding
distraction as drivers turn their attention away from driving) or;
 Drivers should be able to quickly recognise and specifically identify basic types of
emergency vehicles, since doing so will help them determine the right course of
action to avoid impeding a response vehicle or safely negotiate an incident scene.
The previously identified lack of research on driver’s interaction with emergency vehicles
makes it extremely difficult to answer fundamental questions about the ultimate
effectiveness of visibility and conspicuity treatments on the safety of emergency vehicles in
the overall traffic system.
3.2.6 Signal Interpretation
In reducing the risk of road crashes associated with emergency first-responder vehicles,
three primary factors come into play:- (Federal Systems, 2012)
 Detection.
This refers to the initial recognition of the signal. Early detection is crucial. The
sooner the observer detects the signal the better. In urban environments, where line
of sight is limited, the audible warning system will most likely be detected first.
 Recognition.
After detecting the signal, the observer must determine that it is in fact an
emergency warning. For lighting, light colour, light pattern and frequency all play a
part in helping the observer identify the type of vehicle, as well as the status and
direction of approach. In addition to emergency lighting, audible siren signals (i.e.
sirens) are repetitive which leads to faster recognition, especially near intersections.
 Response.
The object of a warning signal is to modify observers’ behaviour. A “collective
knowledge” based in part on driver education and social conditioning generally
prompts motorists to yield and respect the sight and sound of approaching

emergency vehicles by either pulling off the road and stopping, or moving to the
right. Ideally, emergency signals should not only warn motorists, but also inform
them by providing direction that the observer can interpret and then react to, but in
situations where the vehicle is asking for the right of way, this is not always possible.
3.3. Retro-reflectivity
Generally speaking, every surface reflects light to some degree. This physical property
allows us to see objects when they do not emit their own light source. There are two
principal and one specific type of reflection:- (See Figure 3.1)
 Diffuse reflection occurs when light strikes a rough surface and is reflected or
“diffused” in all directions.
 Specular, or "mirror-like," reflection occurs when light strikes a smooth surface (like
mirrored glass) and the reflected light is returned along the same angle as the
incoming path, returning an image along with the reflected light.
 Retro-reflection by design occurs when a surface is specially engineered to reflect
light back to its origin.
Figure 3.1
Types of reflection – (Source: FEMA)
Within the law enforcement, fire service, and emergency medical (EMS) disciplines,
emergency warning lights are the predominant method for making emergency response
vehicles conspicuous. The United States Fire Administration (USFA) and other organisations
continue producing research to refine emergency vehicle lighting systems and enhance their
effectiveness. Another method of advancing night-time emergency vehicle conspicuity is
through the increased use of retro-reflective materials. Retro-reflective materials are
defined as those that (re)direct incoming light back to the viewer, such as the driver of a
vehicle approaching a roadside incident scene.

Retro-reflectivity doesn’t just happen! For materials to exhibit their retro-reflective
properties, an external light source is needed. While emergency vehicles carry their own
light sources in the form of headlamps, marker lamps, and emergency warning lights, they
also depend on light from other vehicles’ headlamps for visibility. The degree to which a
retro-reflective object (including a police vehicle treated with retro-reflective striping)
reflects light back to its origin depends on the amount of incoming light hitting the retro-
reflective surface(s), as displayed in Figure 3.2
Figure 3.2
Retro-reflectivity and distance – Source: Texas Transportation Institute
The intensity of light emitted from vehicle headlamps and other sources is measured in
candelas – (Cd). The amount of light striking a surface is expressed as luminance and
measured in lux - (Lux). Light reflected back to an observer, seen as “brightness” and called
luminance, is measured in candelas per meter-squared (cd/m²). The coefficient of retro-
reflection (RA) is the ratio of light reflected (luminance) from a retro-reflective surface to
the luminance, as described by the formula:-
RA = cd/m²
The RA is a relative measure of efficiency for a given retro-reflector at a specific
viewing geometry.
The viewing geometry of a retro-reflector is a function of two angles - (1) the angle that
incoming light strikes the target (such as a traffic sign, vehicle, person, or other object), the
entrance angle (ß), and (2) the angle where light reflected back from the target is observed,
the observation angle (a). Changing the angles at which a retro-reflective target accepts

incoming light and reflects it back to the viewer(s) changes the visibility/conspicuity of retro-
reflective materials, as displayed in Figure 3.3
This phenomenon has crucial implications for the use of retro-reflective materials on
emergency vehicles since, unlike a fixed traffic sign where the expected viewing geometry is
largely predictable, in a vehicle-mounted application the relative positions of target and
observer are continually changing, thus changing the viewing geometry.
Figure 3.3
The effect of entrance and observation angles on reflectivity
3.3.1 Retro-reflectivity technology (Passive treatments)
Manufacturers of retro-reflective sheeting products are constantly developing new

technology, and refining existing materials to increase retro-reflective efficiency while
providing other characteristics (e.g., low cost, ease-of-installation, flexibility, durability,
colour selection, customization, etc.) demanded by customers.
Contemporary retro-reflective sheeting products are made by applying microscopic glass

spheres (beads), or engineered micro-prisms (cubes), to a more-or-less flexible substrate in
an arrangement promoting internal reflection and the efficient return of incoming light back
to its source. The surfaces of the spheres or micro-prisms are further engineered to
promote retro-reflectivity through polishing and/ or coating with metallic or non-metallic
materials to give a “mirror” effect. The optical properties and arrangement of these two
geometric structures combine to direct incoming light back toward its origin, as displayed in
Figure 3.4

The amount of light returned to a source by a given retro-reflective material, at a specific
viewing geometry; retro-reflective efficiency generally ranges from 7 to 14 percent for
sheeting made with glass beads, up to 32 percent for “truncated-cube” micro-prismatic
sheeting, and 58 percent for “full-cube” micro-prismatic sheeting. It is important to note
that a higher retro-reflective efficiency does not necessarily imply a “better” material.
Different sheeting types have other properties that make them more or less suitable for a
particular application (e.g. cost, flexibility, durability, ease-of-installation, colour,
customization, etc.). Furthermore, while beaded sheeting is relatively less efficient than
micro-prismatic sheeting, the use of spheres versus cubes helps maintain its performance
over a wider range of viewing geometries.
Figure 3.4
The two principles for creating retro-reflective properties – Source: Lloyd
3.3.3 Retro-reflectivity of police vehicles

During the past 10 years, the United Kingdom Government researched and deployed a set
of visibility/conspicuity standards now used on law enforcement vehicles throughout the
UK. Efforts to develop conspicuity specifications in the United Kingdom were undertaken
with several objectives in mind:- (Harrison, 2006)
• Recognisable at a distance from 200 to >500 meters;
• Assist with high-visibility policing;
• Readily identifiable nationally as a police vehicle, with room for local markings; and
• Acceptable to at least 75 percent of the staff using it.

Anecdotal evidence suggests these standards are being emulated, to various degrees, by
other public safety services (Fire, EMS, etc.) across the United Kingdom, in other nations
(e.g., Australia, South Africa, Sweden, and New Zealand), and some places in the United
States. This section describes notable features of the liveries used in the United Kingdom, as
well as some considerations in their development.
The “Specification for the Livery on Police Patrol Cars” (Thomas, 1998) was designed to
make police vehicles operating along high-speed roadways in the United Kingdom “visible
throughout the day and night and be clearly identifiable as a police car.” This design
considers a minimum viewing distance of 500 meters under weather conditions including
“rain, mist, etc.” with night-time illumination provided by an approaching vehicle with
normal headlights. (Thomas, 1998) In addition to retro-reflective chevrons on the rear of the
patrol car, this livery also requires a retro-reflective “Battenburg” (also seen as “Battenberg”
or “harlequin”) pattern along the sides, ostensibly to improve both day- and night-time
conspicuity and recognition as a police vehicle, as seen in Figure 3.5
Figure 3.5
Retro-reflective - Battenburg Pattern
In 2004, the United Kingdoms’ Home Office Scientific Development Branch published a
subsequent specification detailing a “high-conspicuity” livery for police vehicles used in
cities and towns. (Harrison, 2004) In addition to the “full-Battenburg” scheme used on
patrol cars primarily assigned to high-speed roadways, the 2004 document specifies a “half-
Battenburg” pattern for patrol vehicles deployed in the urban environment. An example of
the latter mentioned scheme is displayed in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6
Retro-reflective - Half-Battenburg Pattern
Figure 3.7 depicts an example of the United Kingdom high-conspicuity livery for police
motorcycles. This demonstrates the consideration placed on the officer's
visibility/conspicuity as part of the overall scheme for making the vehicle (and rider) highly
visible to surrounding traffic. (Harrison, 2006)
Objectives of the Battenburg Livery Scheme:- (Harrison, 2004)
 Enhance officer and public safety by reducing the likelihood of road crashes where
the conspicuity of the police vehicle is a factor;
 Be recognisable as a police vehicle up to a distance of 500 metres in normal daylight;
 Assist in high visibility policing so as to reassure the public and enhance the potential
deterrent benefits of proactive traffic patrol activity;
 Be readily identifiable nationally as a police vehicle, but retain the ability to associate
different force corporate logos with it;
 Capitalise on the latest materials and systems available and seek to achieve a cost-
neutral option when compared with the average costs of current liveries; and
 Be acceptable to at least 75 percent of the staff using it.

Figure 3.7
Motorcycle conspicuity in the UK – Battenburg pattern
3.3.4 Retro-reflective material and visibility
It seems clear that properly applied and maintained retro-reflective sheeting materials can
effectively increase the night-time visibility and conspicuity of treated objects, as frequently
used across the United States in a wide range of traffic control applications. (FHWA, 2007)
While generalising practices used in other disciplines and countries remains a concern, the
current research suggests that leveraging the properties of readily available retro-reflective
sheeting products, by incorporating them into U.S. emergency vehicle designs, appears
promising for enhancing emergency vehicle visibility and conspicuity, especially during dark
lighting conditions. Retro-reflectivity is of limited benefit with daylight illumination.
A wide range of factors affect the visibility and recognition of emergency vehicles such as:-
 The presence and operation of active warning devices such as lights and sirens;
 Retro-reflective conspicuity treatments (at night);
 Lettering and graphics; and
 Colour scheme combinations.
The lettering used to mark emergency vehicles almost certainly affects the ability of
surrounding drivers to recognise them. Multiple studies have demonstrated that retro-
reflective sheeting; type, font style, size, word count, and colour are meaningful factors in
determining the legibility of traffic signs and vehicle markings. (Schmidt-Clausen, 2000)
These results have over the years extended to emergency vehicles. One United States study
for instance suggested yellow, white, green, and orange as good choices for promoting the
legibility of retro-reflective lettering while a European study identified red, white, yellow,

and green. (Schmidt-Clausen, 2000) However, as Texas Transportation Institute researchers
concluded, “The results of this project demonstrate that it is not practical to identify one
combination of font, sheeting, and colour that optimises sign performance in all conditions.”
(Chrysler, 2002) Beyond lettering, which requires approaching drivers to read it, European
studies suggest the use of retro-reflectorized logos and graphics can positively impact the
visibility/conspicuity, and likely the recognition, of large vehicles. (Schmidt-Clausen, 2000)
Visibility and recognisability are likely influenced by the colour scheme(s) in which
emergency vehicles are painted or decorated. The literature reviewed identified multiple
colours, and combinations or patterns, as beneficial for improving vehicle conspicuity. From
these inconclusive results, it seems clear that no single particular colour represents the
optimal choice for enhancing emergency vehicle visibility and conspicuity under every
possible scenario. Beyond the physics and psychology of how different colours are seen
under varying conditions, it seems probable that cultural factors are also salient in terms of
how civilian drivers interpret the use of colour in traffic safety applications. One obvious
example is the association of red and white with a “stop” message; perhaps due to this
connection, and the use of red tail lamps on vehicles, several studies identified the colour
red as a good choice for marking the rear of a vehicle. (Administration, 2009) Different
colours also behave differently in terms of their luminance when applied to objects using
different types of retro-reflective sheeting. One study judged red, green, blue and orange as
“brighter,” according to test subjects, than white or yellow. (Administration, 2009)
There is some literature on the selection of different paint colours for emergency vehicles.
Solomon suggested the predominant colour scheme on United States fire apparatus change
from red to “lime-yellow.” (Solomon, 1995) The rationale for this proposal is based on the
assertion that yellow-green is an easy colour for the human eye to discern in both day and
night lighting conditions, as well as providing contrast with typical backgrounds. United
Kingdom researchers Langham and Rillie proposed a single-colour paint scheme, using
fluorescent orange, as the appropriate choice for emergency vehicle visibility and
conspicuity under most environmental conditions. Whatever the specific colour, research
performed for this report suggests what is more important is the ability for drivers to
recognise the vehicle for what it is. (Schmidt-Clausen, 2000) The use of a standardised
colour or paint scheme for certain types of vehicles may be helpful in this regard. An
example is the ubiquitous "yellow school bus" prevalent throughout the United States.
These vehicles are instantly recognizable and likely promote immediate behavioural
responses by surrounding drivers. Similarly, U.S. Postal Service (USPS) or other mail delivery
trucks painted in a standard colour may also prompt drivers to behave in certain ways (i.e.,
expecting multiple stops at any time). Following this principle, it is a common belief that
people are more likely to identify red with a fire apparatus than other colours, regardless of
the conditions. It seems as if it would have been a good idea if all public taxis in South Africa
were painted and then marked in a specified colour to enhance their visibility and to create
an expectation that they do stop anywhere.

Different marking patterns can also change driver responses. The association of the down-
and-away chevron pattern with a “danger” or "slow down" message probably has
something to do with its widespread use on traffic barriers, as specified in the U.S. Manual
on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. A similar scheme is used to mark immovable roadside
objects in many European Nations. Whether or not the chevron pattern actually confuses
drivers when it is seen on the back of a moving emergency vehicle is an open question.
Some researchers have suggested the best use of chevrons might be deploying them on the
rear of emergency vehicles only when they are stopped. (Tijerina, 2003) Again, there is a
critical need for additional research to identify the best colour and pattern selections for
emergency vehicles in the United States and elsewhere.
Beyond recognising the presence of an emergency vehicle, civilian drivers must know what
action(s) to take after identifying it. South African law enforcement agencies often leave the
marking of police vehicles to those companies who get the order to mark their vehicles.
They more often than not have no idea whether the colour combinations and markings are
best suited for visibility and conspicuity. There are two opposing viewpoints in connection
with this issue:-
 It might be preferable for drivers to simply recognise the presence of something they
need to avoid, without exact information on why they should do so (avoiding
distraction as drivers turn their attention away from driving), or
 Drivers should be able to quickly recognise and specifically identify basic types of
emergency vehicles, since doing so will help them determine the right course of
action to avoid impeding a response or safely negotiate an emergency scene. Absent
targeted research on drivers’ interaction with U.S. emergency vehicles, it seems
likely the “correctness” of either perspective depends on the situation. (i.e., whether
involved emergency vehicles are moving or stopped; the complexity of an incident
scene; ambient lighting; weather; road conditions; presence or absence of
distractions; degree of visual clutter; etc.).
It is apparent, however, that U.S. emergency services i.e. law enforcement, emergency
medical services, as well as fire and traffic safety agencies need to better define and
educate civilian drivers on the preferred action(s) to take after seeing/recognising different
types of emergency vehicles. One example of such an education program was created in
2007 by “Move Over, America,” a partnership between the National Safety Commission, the
National Sheriffs’ Association, and the National Association of Police Organisations with full
support from the American Association of State Troopers. (www.moveroveramerica.org) To
date, all but seven U.S. States have enacted “Move Over Laws,” but they vary widely in
terms of specific provisions and coverage. This and other initiatives can be implemented as
part of broader efforts to improve the overall traffic safety culture in the United States.
(Administration, 2009)

In South Africa, the general public seem to have scant respect for a marked police vehicle.
Motorists often commit traffic violations in full view of police drivers without any fear of
prosecution. This is mostly due to the fact that members of the South African Police Service
and to a lesser extent, metropolitan police departments see traffic violations as insignificant
and not worth pursuing.
3.3.5 Contrast
The use of contrasting colours can positively affect conspicuity by assisting drivers with
locating a hazard amid the visual clutter of the roadway. There are basically two types of
contrast:-
 Luminance contrast— the degree to which an object is brighter than its background;
and
 Colour contrast—the difference in an object’s colour(s) and those found in its
background.
Contrast is enhanced by using colours not normally found in the environment, including
fluorescent colours.
3.3.6 Fluorescent Colours

The effectiveness of fluorescent colours for enhancing daytime visibility/conspicuity in
traffic safety applications is well-established in literature. (Administration, 2009) Since
fluorescence relies on ultraviolet radiation, fluorescent colours offer no additional benefit at
night.
Fluorescent colours are brighter than ordinary colours because they are capable of
converting light energy that is normally absorbed and wasted to visible light, which in turn
reinforces the colour in intensity. Hence, there is greater visibility in daylight conditions.
Extending the concept to emergency vehicles, police patrol car and motorcycle liveries in
the United Kingdom liberally employ fluorescent colours to enhance daylight conspicuity.
The specific colour choice may or may not be important with respect to fluorescents,
perhaps depending on background characteristics. In a 1994 study, “...fluorescent yellow
was found to be best detected and fluorescent orange was found to be best recognised
against any of the three backgrounds investigated.” A recent study of traffic safety garments
showed no statistical difference in the daytime conspicuity of fluorescent red-orange and
fluorescent yellow-green, although fluorescent yellow-green had a significantly higher
luminance value, compared to the background, than the fluorescent red-orange. Research
performed at the Texas Transportation Institute also demonstrated the benefits of
fluorescent colours, in this case fluorescent-orange work zone signs, citing greater
recognition distance and accurate colour perception during the day. (Administration, 2009)
3.3.7 The “Moth Effect”

There is limited scientific evidence to support the notion that drivers steer toward bright
lights, such as those used to increase the visibility of emergency vehicles, as “moths to a
flame" (often called the “moth effect” and technically, “photo-taxis”). Several recent
studies, however, suggest that while bright lights may not be the cause, drivers' fixation on
roadside objects can cause their steering to drift in the direction of their gaze. This effect
may be more pronounced with other impairments. The implications of these findings on
emergency vehicle visibility and conspicuity are unknown, but certainly support the need for
additional research on how to design passive conspicuity treatments so they draw drivers’
attention enough to induce the appropriate (“stay away”) response, without causing the
potentially negative results of visual fixation. Drivers under the influence of intoxicating
instances may be affected by the “Moth effect.” This aspect however still needs to be
researched thoroughly. It is not uncommon for intoxicated drivers to crash into other
vehicles or obstacles at incident scenes with a large number of police and emergency
personnel present at the scene.
3.3.8 Overdoing It
It is theoretically possible to “overdo” the use of retro-reflective materials and interfere
with drivers’ ability to recognise other hazards. Making an emergency vehicle “too
conspicuous” could also lead to the driver fixation phenomenon described above. Overdoing
the use of retro-reflective sheeting is probably not a major concern unless it is applied to
the vehicle without attention to how it might be interpreted by approaching drivers.
(Harrison, 2004) Additional research is needed to determine the effects of varying levels of
conspicuity treatments under different scenarios i.e. during an emergency response versus
being stationary along the roadside).
3.3.9 Battenburg Pattern

It appears the idea of alternating square blocks of contrasting fluorescent colours to
increase vehicle visibility and conspicuity reaches back to a 1965 study titled “Development
of a Paint Scheme for Increasing Aircraft Detectability and Visibility.” Resembling the
“Harlequin” pattern recommended for law enforcement vehicles by U.S. researchers in a
1981 NIJ report, application of the Battenburg pattern to police vehicles across the United
Kingdom was intended to enhance their visibility; conspicuity and identification with law
enforcement agencies. (Harrison, 2004) Various configurations and colours of the
Battenburg pattern were tested in experimental trials for the United Kingdom Police
Scientific Development Branch (PSDB) from 1992 to 1998. These test results underpinned
the ultimate specifications published by the PSDB and the United Kingdom Home Office
Scientific Development Branch. (Harrison, 2004, 2006)
Several studies expressed concern that the Battenburg pattern might actually hinder
visibility by creating a camouflage effect, particularly against a visually-cluttered
background. Additional research is needed to determine if, on balance, the
Harlequin/Battenburg pattern aids or impedes emergency vehicle visibility and conspicuity.
Without specific studies evaluating its real-world success at reducing crashes, the

effectiveness of the Battenburg pattern in the United Kingdom appears primarily related to
its widespread association with police vehicles in that country; this standardisation effect
likely alters drivers’ actions in the United Kingdom upon recognising an emergency vehicle.
Since it remains a relative novelty in the United States, it is not clear that importing the full-
or half-Battenburg pattern for use on U.S. emergency vehicles is a wise idea, especially given
the present lack of research specific to its effects on visibility, conspicuity and driver
behaviour in the U.S. traffic system. (Harrison, 2004)
South African law enforcement agencies have generally opted for the type of vehicle
markings found in the U.S.A. rather than the Battenburg patterns prevalent in the United
Kingdom. It is important that a fleet manager conducts a fair amount of research in order to
develop appropriate specifications for the marking of police vehicles. In the absence of the
capacity to conduct research, law enforcement administrators should at least conduct a few
practical tests to ensure that their livery schemes are effective during a range of light
conditions. It is also not necessary that every vehicle in a law enforcement fleet be marked
in the full range of markings. The type of vehicle and its deployment application will to a
large extent prescribe the range of markings that will be applied.
3.10 Emergency lights on police vehicles

Emergency vehicle lighting refers to any of several visual warning devices, which are known
as light bars or beacons, fitted to a vehicle and used when the driver wishes to convey to
other road users the urgency of his journey, to provide additional warning of a hazard when
stationary, or in the case of law enforcement as a means of signalling a driver to stop for an
interaction with an officer. These are additional to any standard lighting on the car such as
hazard lights and are often used along with a siren (or occasionally sirens) in order to
maximise their effectiveness. In many jurisdictions, the use of these lights may afford the
user specific legal powers, and may place requirements on other road users to behave
differently, such as compelling them to pull to the side of the road and yield right of way so
the emergency vehicle may proceed through unimpeded.
3.11 Perception
A study at Loughborough University in the United Kingdom showed that strobe lighting
conveyed a greater sense of urgency to other road users, with the faster the flash the
greater the urgency, potentially helping to speed the emergency vehicle through traffic. It
also concluded that factors such as flash pattern were important, with simultaneously
flashing beacons attracting attention far quicker than alternately flashing versions, although
this did increase discomfort glare. Unsurprisingly, attention was gained far quicker the
higher the intensity of the light was, and where more beacons were present. (Cook, 2000)
This same study compared different light colours for glare and detection time under both
daylight and night conditions. While red and blue both compared favourably with amber for

glare under various conditions, some contradictory findings were observed for detection
time. When all colours were held at equal intensity, amber had the poorest detection time
both daytime and night. But when the light source was held at constant intensity, the amber
filters, which generally let the most light through, had the best detection time. (Cook, 2000)
3.11.1 Potential hazards
There may be a number of hazards to other road users related to the use of emergency
beacons, and these effects should be mitigated as far as possible during vehicle design.
These potential hazards include:-
 Photosensitive epilepsy - This is an epileptic reaction to flashing lights in susceptible

persons, which can range in severity from an unusual feeling or involuntary twitch to
a generalised seizure. This epileptogenic response can be triggered by lights flashing
in the frequency range of 10 – 20 Hz, regardless of colour. While individual light
sources used on emergency vehicles generally have much lower flash rates than this,
the Loughborough study suggests that such possibilities be minimised. It also notes
that emergency workers may report distraction and eyestrain unrelated to epilepsy
from working under the lights.
 Glare - A bright light source in a person's field of view can reduce their ability to see
other objects. The effect may be exacerbated by rain, windshields, or eyeglasses. The
study distinguished between "disability glare", where a driver may be temporarily
blinded and unable to see hazards in the road, versus "discomfort glare", which is a
more general effect from lights which may cause motorists to avert their eyes. The
worst effects for disability glare occurred with amber beacons, strobe beacons, and
especially bright lights.
 Photo-taxis - This is the so called 'moth-to-flame' effect, where the hypothesis runs
that some drivers may be so distracted by the beacons that they are 'drawn' to
them. The Loughborough study, referencing the February 1998 issue of the U.S.
trade journal Tow Times, asserts that there was a lawsuit in the U.S. where a tow
truck operator was found liable for a crash for this reason, though the study authors
were unable to locate any supporting scientific research.
3.12 Optical types of emergency lights

The optical and mechanical characteristics of the lights used can have a significant effect on
the look of the vehicle and how readily it gains attention in emergencies.
3.12.1 Steady burning lights
The simplest form of lighting is a steadily burning lamp. These may be white lights used at
the scene to enable emergency workers to see what they are doing, or they may be
coloured lights that advertise the emergency vehicle's presence. In the latter case, steadily

burning lights are often used alongside rotating or flashing lights rather than on their own,
though historically some emergency vehicles only displayed steadily burning lights.
3.12.2 Rotating light
Revolving lights may contain a single bulb around which a curved mirror is spun, creating a
rotating beam of light, which appears to flash when viewed from a stationary position.
Larger rotating lights may contain 2 or 4 modular or sealed-beam lamps which rotate as an
assembly.
To protect the workings of the beacon, a plastic dome often covers the assembly. These
domes usually come in solid colours, but in some cases the front and back halves of the
dome are different colours. Other beacons use a clear dome with coloured lenses on each
lamp. Rotating lights often use a quartz-halogen or conventional incandescent bulb, though
some rotating beacons are now made with LEDs rather than bulbs. Rotating lights may be
used in light bars as well as in single beacons. In a modern enclosed light bar, generally 'V'-
or diamond-shaped mirrors are provided between the lamps to give the effect of multiple
flashing lights.
Figure 3.8
Rotating Light
3.12.3 Strobe lights
Some emergency lighting is based on strobe lights similar to those used in flash
photography. These xenon flash lamps put out a very brief but very bright flash by ionizing
and then discharging a large current through the gas. The light produced has a somewhat
bluish emission spectrum, which makes red light bars glow a fuchsia-pink colour when lit.

3.12.4 LED Lights
LED-based lighting is becoming very popular in the emergency services for several reasons.
Light-emitting diodes are small, completely solid state, very power-efficient, long-lasting (as
they have no filaments to burn out) and can be seen very easily even at great distances.
Figure 3.9
Amber Strobe Light Bulb – Source (www.slickcar.com)
Whether as light bars or single beacons, LED-based lights typically use a clear, colourless
dome because the light colour is an intrinsic property of the LEDs themselves. LED-based
light bars can be made very thin, reducing wind resistance by around 8 - 10 percent, or
made very flat and used in novel applications, for example to flip up under a sun visor. The
effect of lights on fuel consumption must not be underestimated, particularly in the case of
high speed police work and more specifically freeway driving.
LED lights are often used in a mode similar to conventional strobe lights; however they can
be programmed with a wider variety of flash patterns because of their ability to be switched
directly by electronics, as opposed to discharging a capacitor through a gas-filled tube.
LED lights produce relatively little heat when in use. In colder inclement climates, this has
resulted in LED emergency vehicle warning lights (as well as traffic lights) being obscured by
the build-up of frost or snow, raising safety concerns. Solutions are being researched to
provide a heat source, as necessary in certain weather conditions, to keep LED lights clear of
snow and frost.

3.13 Conclusion
It is clear from this Unit that the use of emergency warning signals and retro-reflective
material is an important component for law enforcement activities. A lot of research has
gone into the use of these components. It is incumbent upon fleet managers to closely liaise
with law enforcement administrators before they procure and install the equipment.
Figure 3.10
Australian Highway Patrol Car – Source: PARZ
0oo0oo0

UNIT 4
PROCUREMENT OF VEHICLES
After you have completed this Unit, you should be able to:-
 Define and describe the concept; strategic fleet management.
 Identify and discuss the benefits of strategic fleet management.
 Select and use the correct principles for the procurement of new vehicles.
 Explain the concept – whole-of-life costs of vehicles.
 Consider the impact of police equipment in police vehicles.
 Discuss the issues important in the selection of tyres for law enforcement vehicles.
4.1 Introduction
The procurement of vehicles for law enforcement purposes always remains a thorny issue.
From the outset it must be reiterated that public institutions operate with funds primarily
obtained through rates and taxes. Taxpayers will therefore always remain critical about the
type of vehicles procured and its use by public officials. Administrators have to balance the
needs of law enforcement officers with the available funds. The different departments at
every sphere of government must “fight” for their fair share of the available public funds.
No person in his right mind will purchase expensive German cars for parking enforcement
units. Similarly it can be said that freeway patrol units cannot be expected to drive around in
small 1100 cmᵌ cars without ABS – braking and other vehicle performance systems. The
latter type of vehicle will precipitate more danger to police drivers and other road users.
Criminals often have the very best vehicles in terms of performance and it would be suicidal
for drivers of small vehicles to attempt high speed hot pursuits.
The biggest challenge law enforcement administrators’ face with a fleet management
program is securing funds for the replacement and proper maintenance of vehicles. Law
enforcement administrators have a major role to play in the budgeting process. Selecting
the wrong type of vehicles for law enforcement purposes may have serious implications
down the line for many years.
The role performed by support departments in the day-to-day operations of an organisation

is not well understood by financial managers. They may think that cutting fleet budgets is an
easy way to reduce expenses. Avoiding investments in the fleet infrastructure might save
money immediately but usually results in higher costs later.

Organisations sometimes consider outsourcing their fleet management services as a way to
combat rising costs, labour shortfalls and the technological sophistication of vehicle
management. Often, outsourcing activities in a fleet management program shakes up a fleet
manager’s responsibilities. They then become fleet contract administrators.
4.2 Strategic fleet management

Fleet management has to do with the strategic decisions that impact upon the law
enforcement agency’s fleet asset base. Strategic thinking is the process of planning what the
fleet will consist of - how and where it will operate - to meet the stated goals and objectives
of the agency.
Transport management is highly operational as the structural and systems driven side of
transport. Transport management is concerned with real-time information, incident control
and daily routine. Transport management summarises data for fleet management to
interpret in terms of strategic fleet policies. Transport management handles the daily crises
of patrol vehicles via technical staff, drivers, crews and administrators. Typically questions
that concern transport management are:-
 Do the monitoring, accounting and operating systems close all loopholes that may
precipitate fraud wastage and corruption?
 Does the patrol operation run within the parameters of a well-defined budget?
 Are the systems and software providing administrators with useful information in
real-time?
 Do the officers have all the required equipment and are they trained in the use of
this equipment to be fully productive?
 Does the agency monitor fuel consumption per vehicle against standards set for the
specific operational conditions?
 Do the vehicle inspections, start-up procedures and defect reports support
preventative maintenance?
 Do the law enforcement administrators measure and control the incidents of road
transport that give rise to operational costs?
 Are all accidents and incidents reported and investigated?
Strategic thinking, as the core ‘driver’ of effective fleet management, relies on informed
decisions being taken from validated research. Transport managers (fleet administrators)
have little time for research. - In fact, it is usually the historic data from the transport
manager's files that is used in making decisions that impact on the future of the fleet.
A strategic fleet manager focuses on policy development, safety program initiatives, vehicle
selection criteria based on exhaustive lifecycle cost analyses, implementation of a corporate
sustainability program, and the establishment of data-metrics to manage fleet suppliers.
Law enforcement administrators may not be directly involved with some of these issues, but
whatever is decided and implemented, affect the law enforcement agency. Law
enforcement administrators must therefore not abscond from a commitment to remain

intimately involved with everything that impacts directly on the performance of the law
enforcement fleet, costs and service delivery standards.
Besides having fleet management expertise, fleet managers are intimately aware of their
institutions’ services, marketing objectives, institutional culture, and the needs of user
groups. They are proactive and anticipate changes in the corporate environment. Fleet
managers implement fleet programs that contribute to the achievement of overall
institutional goals. For instance, some institutions focus on cash flow, while others zero-in
on employee retention, hiring, productivity, and in the case of law enforcement agencies
also service delivery and client satisfaction. Each institutional objective dictates different
policies and fleet programs. Fleet managers manage the fleet to support these objectives.
Fleet management is resembles other specialised management practices, possessing its own
industry specific terms and accepted strategies that are applied more often than others. But
the truth is the terminology is not nearly as important as the results, and what works for the
majority is not always the best solution. Questions like what fleet vehicle best represents an
organisation's image, or makes a driver happy behind the wheel, are nearly impossible to
evaluate on a spread sheet. It's situations like these where the services of a talented fleet
consultant can make all the difference. There are numerous ways to go about improving a
fleet management program, but a thorough study of current fleet practices is probably the
most valuable asset a fleet consultant can provide to an organisation. Only by
understanding everything about how the fleet is being managed can improvement goals for
the future be established and strategies for achieving these goals be formulated. (Koelsch,
2011)
Save
Save Time
Money
Improved
Safety
Strategic Fleet Management

4.2.1 Benefits of strategic fleet management
The benefits of managing a fleet compared to ad hoc purchasing, selling and maintenance of
vehicles include the following:- (FAC, 2011)
Saving money:-
 When selecting vehicles, the ‘whole-of-life’ costs must be considered and compared
instead of just the purchase price. This can save the organisation money because a
vehicle with a lower purchase price may cost more over its lifespan than a higher-
priced vehicle. This process also involves analysing future estimated resale values
(residuals), an important factor in the ‘whole-of-life’ cost of a vehicle. This however
does not mean that other factors can be ignored such as the suitability of the vehicle
as a law enforcement vehicle. ‘Whole-life-costs’ imply that vehicle purchases are
based upon every element of cost the vehicles will incur during their working life.
These include monthly repayments on the capital Budget, to service and maintain
them and the cost of fuel. The latter is becoming more of an issue due to the high
costs associated with fuel consumption.
 Predictable vehicle replacement schedules are established which control costs by
considering vehicle operating costs, reliability history and estimated resale value.
 Fleet managers can often negotiate discounts on purchase price e.g. by buying
multiple vehicles at once as well as discounts on fuel, insurance, servicing and
repairs.
 Analysis of fleet management activities of other organisations, local dealer targets
and market fluctuations can help choose the best time to buy or sell a vehicle and
the types of vehicle to purchase.
 In reviewing market fluctuations, the motor vehicle auction process used by
National, Provincial and Local Governments is a useful guide and auctions often
provide better returns on sale than dealer trade-in prices.
 Fuel card information systems and other fleet records provide data for monitoring
fuel consumption and vehicle performance enabling implementation of strategies to
reduce fuel, maintenance, administration and other costs.
 Maintenance is scheduled which can increase the lifespan of vehicles and reduce the
costs of unexpected downtime and breakdowns. Vehicles with service records also
return a higher resale value.
 Strategies to minimise the impact of a fleet on the environment also have cost
benefits e.g. selection of vehicles of the appropriate size and decreased fuel
consumption.
 Strategies to improve safety can reduce insurance premiums, time taken off by
injured employees and downtime of vehicles.
Saving time:-
 Scheduled maintenance can mean less vehicle downtime for breakdowns or repairs.
 Registration procedures can be streamlined because fleet management systems
identify when vehicles are due to be re-registered and multiple vehicles can be
registered at once.

 Regular maintenance and efficient driving practices often increase the lifespan of
vehicles; so less time is spent replacing vehicles.
 Fleet management rules, policies and procedures increase efficiency.
 Predictable vehicle replacement schedules increase efficiency because notice can be
given to dealers early when a vehicle is due to be replaced and delivery can be
scheduled.
 Fuel cards decrease time needed for administration of fuel costs.
 On-going analysis, monitoring and record-keeping reduces time needed to research
and gather information when selecting and replacing vehicles and reporting back to
management.
Selection of vehicles suited to the organisation’s needs:-
 When selecting vehicles, detailed comparisons are completed taking into account
the organisation’s needs including analysis of vehicle usage, safety, whole-of-life
costs, estimated resale values, environmental impact, business plans and available
resources. This means vehicles selected are more likely to be compatible with the
organisation’s operational objectives and context.
Minimising environmental impact:-
 The impact of a fleet on the environment is minimised by strategies like training

employees to use efficient driving techniques, reducing fuel consumption, selecting
fuel-efficient vehicles, considering alternative fuels and maintaining vehicles.
Better safety:-
 Vehicle selection usually involves analysis of vehicle safety ratings.

 Drivers are educated about safe driving via policies and procedures; driver’s
handbooks and instructions; and employee induction and training.
 Monitoring of maintenance records, repairs and vehicle performance can help to
identify and reduce safety risks.
Easier to plan:-
 Monitoring of estimated and actual residual values for vehicles can assist with fleet
planning.
 The order and delivery process can be managed to ensure there is enough time to
consider replacement options, place the order and for the new vehicle to be
delivered by the replacement due date.
 Maintenance and servicing of vehicles is scheduled so replacement vehicles or
alternative transport can be organised.
Greater accountability:-
 Fleet management records enable regular monitoring and reporting.

 Checking processes ensure vehicles delivered match the original specification and
order.

 Fuel cards and their associated information systems provide accountability for fuel
usage and costs.
Organisational image and employee satisfaction:-
 Selection of appropriate vehicles can have a positive impact on driver satisfaction

and the organisation’s public image.
 A positive safety record can enhance the organisation’s public image and boost
employee morale.
4.3 Selecting the right type of vehicles

The purchase of patrol vehicles is one of the largest expenditure items a law enforcement
agency faces. For many years, police fleet administrators have had numerous choices to
make when choosing a vehicle, including overall vehicle size, engine and transmission
combinations and other performance-enhancing options, all of which can affect the overall
capabilities of the vehicle. To further complicate the selection process, the environment
(e.g., urban, suburban, rural) that the agency operates in can also play a significant role.
(Police Patrol Vehicles Comparative Evaluation Program, 2011)
The following principles could guide administrators in the procurement of law enforcement
vehicles:-
 Maintain a modern vehicle fleet that is fit for purpose and fully supports the delivery
of operational policing;
 Evaluate new vehicle models and alternative fuel types and build on progress to
equip vehicles with state of the art technology providing officers, whilst out on
patrol, access to the information they require to do their job more effectively;
 Commitment to a “Green Agenda” and the adoption of environmental best practice
as well as the implementation of working practices that follow sound principles of
environmental management;
 To provide vehicles which are fit for purpose and provide both an efficient and safe
working environment;
 To develop a corporate approach to vehicle allocation and utilisation which reflects
the policing requirement of each area;
 To provide vehicles which are a cost-effective solution to operational requirements,
within the law enforcement agency’s overall aims and policing style;
 To maximise levels of vehicle availability and utilisation within resources available;
and
 To achieve best value in road transport.
It is generally accepted that the vehicle fleet is a major consumer of law enforcement
budgets, and fleet managers have come under increasing pressure to reduce costs and, at
the same time, improve or at least maintain levels of service. Some factors which can be
considered include:-

 Standardization – The vehicles in a fleet are as far as possible standardized. This
implies reduced costs for spares, special equipment and tools. (The latter applies
where a department maintain its own vehicles)
 Fleet management information systems – Such a system must be able to provide
administrators with any conceivable type of information pertaining to the fleet, the
vehicles and their drivers. This will enable fleet managers to identify fraud and
abuse. This is very important information for law enforcement agencies and
specifically for the supervisory staff. Every perceived deviation must be thoroughly
investigated.
4.4 Types of police vehicles

Law enforcement agencies use a variety of vehicles for different purposes. The following
reflects the most obvious functional applications:-
 Patrol car
The car used to replace walking for the 'beat' police officer. Their primary function is to
convey police officers between various localities (such as responding to a wide variety of
calls for service, taking statements or visiting witnesses, etc.) The vehicle is also used to
patrol areas as part of preventative policing. Patrol cars are also able to respond to
emergencies and as such would most likely be fitted with visual warning markings and
audible warnings systems. It is also the most visible of police vehicles due to its continued
use over long periods of time in a patrol precinct area.
 Response car
A response car is similar to a patrol car, but is likely to be of a higher specification, capable
of faster speeds and will certainly be fitted with high intensity audible and visual warnings.
These cars are used primarily to respond to emergency incidents, so are designed to travel
fast, and may carry specialist equipment, such as large firearms, traffic cones, etc. Some
traffic law enforcement agencies use these faster cars as freeway patrol vehicles.
 Traffic patrol car
Also known as Road Policing Units, these cars are designed for the job of enforcing traffic
laws, and usually have the highest performance of any of the police vehicles. They must be
capable of pursuing most other vehicles on the road. They may be fitted with special
bumpers designed to force vehicles off the road, and may have visual and audible warnings,
with special audible warnings which can be heard from a greater distance. In some law
enforcement agencies, the term traffic car may refer to cars specifically equipped for traffic
control in addition to enforcing traffic laws. As such, these cars may differ only slightly from
a patrol car, including having radar and laser speed detection equipment, traffic cones and
flares, and traffic control signs.

 Multi-purpose vehicle
Some police departments do not distinguish between patrol, response and traffic cars, and
may use one vehicle to fulfil some or all roles even though in some cases this may not be
appropriate (such as a city vehicle in a freeway high speed pursuit chase). These cars are
usually a compromise between the different functions with elements added or removed.
 SUV’s
In South Africa, SUV’s or better known “bakkies’” are extensively used as law enforcement
vehicles, especially for canine units, units where a lot of equipment must be transported, in
rural areas, etc. These vehicles may for instance be used to transport equipment to
locations where protest marches take place or in the event of major incidents and disasters.
 Unmarked patrol car
Many law enforcement agencies also operate unmarked cars, in any of the roles shown
above, but most frequently in traffic and as response cars for detectives. They have the
advantage of not being immediately recognisable, and are a valuable tool in apprehending
criminals while the crime is still taking place. In some areas, unmarked cars may be known
as slick top cars (which normally have marking but no light bar), ghost squad cars, stealth
units, plain clothes cars, etc. An observant person, however, is often able to identify
unmarked police cars (if they know what to look for). The use of unmarked patrol cars in
South African traffic law enforcement agencies have declined over the last three decades
due to the impact that their presence had on law abiding citizens. The use of unmarked
patrol vehicles may be abused by criminals who may emulate this practice. The use of
unmarked vehicles has recently re-emerged in some of the larger metropolitan police
departments and although it is branded as a new development in law enforcement, it has in
fact been in existence for almost 40 years.
 Dog Unit Car (K9 – Vehicle)
This type of car is used to transport police dogs. In some jurisdictions, this will be a station
wagon or double-cab, due to the installation of cages to transport the dogs.
 Surveillance car
Law enforcement agencies may operate surveillance cars. These cars may be marked or
unmarked, and are there to gather evidence of any criminal offence. Overt marked cars may
have CCTV cameras mounted on the roof to discourage wrongdoing, whereas unmarked cars
would have them hidden inside. These vehicles are usually required to investigate specific
types of crimes such as terrorism and also for the investigation of criminal activities
associated with crime syndicates. Some traffic law enforcement agencies use surveillance
vehicles for specialised traffic policing activities e.g. illegal street racing.

 High visibility decoy car
Some law enforcement agencies abroad use vehicles (or sometimes fake 'cut outs' of
vehicles) to deter crime. They may be old vehicles retired from use, stock models restyled as
police cars, or a metal sign made to look like a police car. They are placed in areas thought
to be susceptible to crime in order to provide a high visibility presence without committing
an officer. Examples of these can be seen on many main roads, freeways and motorways. In
2005, Virginia's (USA) legislature considered a bill which stated, in part: "Whenever any law-
enforcement vehicle is permanently taken out of service ... such vehicle shall be placed at a
conspicuous location within a highway median in order to deter violations of motor vehicle
laws at that location. Such vehicles shall ... be rotated from one location to another as
needed to maintain their deterrent effect." Such cars may also be used in conjunction with
manned units hidden further down the road to trick speeders into speeding back up again,
and being clocked by the manned car. In Chicago, Illinois a small fleet of highly visible vans
are parked alongside major state and federal routes with automated speed detection and
camera equipment, monitoring both for speeders and other offenders by license plate.
Tickets are then mailed to the offenders or, in case of other crimes related to the licensed
owner, may be served by a manned vehicle further down the road. The use of decoy
vehicles has not taken off in South Africa.
4.5 Type of equipment used in police vehicles

Fleet managers responsible for the procurement of law enforcement vehicles must have a
proper understanding of the types of equipment required by officers. The following is an
indication of equipment that may have to be installed in police vehicles.
 Two – way radio’s
Almost every law enforcement vehicle will be equipped with a two-way radio. This is
probably the most important piece of equipment available to a law enforcement officer.
Traditionally these radios operated on UHF/VHF frequencies but due to the possibility of
illegal monitoring, agencies now prefer more secure systems such as Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM) and Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA).
 Equipment consoles
There are a multitude of different types of equipment consoles available for use by law
enforcement agencies. The consoles can be part of the vehicle or can be fitted afterwards.
The consoles are required to store equipment such as loose two-way radios, flashlights,
firearms, rifles, etc. Some vehicles have a dashboard lay-out that facilitates the installation
of a host of terminals, radio’s etc. On the other hand, some vehicles have “sporty”
dashboards that can only be modified at considerable cost. This is something that the fleet
manager must consider in the procurement process.

 Transport enclosures for suspects
These enclosures are steel and plastic barriers which ensure that a suspect - who has been
frisked, disarmed, handcuffed and seat belted, is unable to attack the driver or passenger
and unable to tamper with equipment in the front seat. These may be simple bars or grilles,
although they can include high impact resistant but not bullet resistant glass. Many use
expanded steel instead of plastic glazing for the upper half of the partition.
 Firearm lockers
Some law enforcement agencies equip some of their patrol vehicles with dedicated firearm
lockers. These lockers are designed to house rifles such as shotguns and rifles that would
normally not be carried on the person of the officer.
Figure 1.1
Data Terminals in a Patrol Vehicle – Source - Wikipedia
 Mobile data terminals (On-board computers)
Some of the larger law enforcement agencies install mobile data terminals in their patrol
vehicles that allow officers to access information such as vehicle details, outstanding traffic
tickets, wanted persons etc. The terminal also allows the officer to upload data such as
reports on incidents. In practice it is desirable that the crew member operates the terminal
in order to free the driver officer to concentrate on the driving task.
 Vehicle tracking systems
Some patrol vehicles are fitted with vehicle tracking systems that alert the officer(s) when a
vehicle that has been reported stolen, is in their immediate vicinity. The system then hones
in on the suspect vehicle in order for the officer to affect an arrest. There are different

systems available on the market and law enforcement agencies generally enter into some
sort of an agreement with one or more private providers of vehicle tracking services.
 Closed circuit television systems
Closed circuit video recording systems are sometimes installed to assist officers with data
and evidence collection. These systems are often used to record the interactions between
law enforcement officers and members of society with whom they interact. These systems
can be used to refute claims of abusive behaviour by members of the public.
 Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR)
Automatic number plate recognition systems is a relatively new development and larger law
enforcement agencies now invest in this technology to assist them in crime prevention
operations as well as in the traffic enforcement environment i.e. to identify drivers against
whom traffic warrants of arrest are outstanding. Some departments modify large
commercial type vehicles for the purpose of scanning vehicles for outstanding traffic fines.
 Speed measuring equipment
The use of mobile speed measuring equipment in traffic patrol vehicles is well established.
Some systems such as VASCAR have been in operation for more than 30 years. These units
generally measure the speed of a vehicle over a distance. Laser mounted units are now the
preferred systems.
 Global positioning systems (GPS)
Many law enforcement agencies install GPS systems in patrol vehicles to assist officers to
get to an address as quickly as possible. These systems reduce reaction times to calls for
assistance. The GPS can also be used to precisely locate the position where a traffic crash
has occurred. The GPS can also be used by police control centres to locate the position of
every patrol car in order to deploy the nearest cars to a call for service.
 Push bumpers
Push bumpers are usually fitted to traffic patrol vehicles that operate on freeways. The
purpose of the push bumper is to remove cars from a traffic lane quickly in order to restore
traffic flow. It is obvious that the push bumpers can only be fitted to vehicles that are large
enough and those that have sufficiently large engine capacities to perform these tasks. It is
however a highly efficient method to maintain an effective and efficient traffic flow when
disabled vehicles block traffic on public thoroughfares.
Fleet managers must have a proper understanding of the requirements of law enforcement
agencies and should ensure that these requirements match the type of vehicles that have to
be procured. The requirements for patrol vehicles must be determined prior to the
publishing of the specifications for vehicles. The extent of equipment will have an impact on

the type of vehicle that must be acquired. The use of a number of on-board systems coupled
to the use of emergency lights may have a profound effect on the battery type that must be
installed in a police patrol vehicle.
Figure 1.2
Canadian Police Vehicle with Push Bumper – (Source – Wikipedia)
4.6 Selecting tyres for police vehicles

Personnel involved with procurement often consider cost as the only (or the most
important) criterion when selecting tyres for law enforcement patrol vehicles. This is a
shortsighted approach that can lead to crashes at high speeds in pursuit driving conditions.
Normal patrol driving requires relatively little from a tyre. Most corners are taken slowly,
starts and stops are usually gradual and speed is not particularly high. However, high speed
pursuit and emergency driving, with many similarities to road racing, require the tyre to be
capable of withstanding high speeds and severe cornering, quick steering inputs, and both
hard acceleration and braking. It is important to know that all tyres are the result of a
number of compromises or trade-offs made by their manufacturers. No tyre is the top
performer in every category. Three of such compromises are: tread design (contact patch
surface area), rubber compound and sidewall stiffness.
Traction is a direct result of friction between the surface of the tyre and the road surface.
The greater the tyre surface area where the tyre and the pavement meet— the contact
patch— the more friction will be produced and ultimately the better the traction. The tyre

with the greatest surface area is a racing slick, which has no grooves or tread. Slicks are used
in racing because they provide the greatest traction on dry road surfaces.
A slick tyre produces almost no traction on wet, snowy or icy roads. Consequently, tyre
manufacturers have devised various tread designs, or grooves in the tyre surface, that help
to move water or snow away from the tyre so it can still grip the road surface. Of course,
each groove or tread cut into the tyre surface reduces the surface area of the tyre, thereby
reducing the traction available on a dry road. In other words, some dry traction is sacrificed
so the car can still be driven when it rains or snows.
Another compromise has to do with the rubber compound used to make the tyre. A harder
rubber compound will provide longer wear and lower operating costs but will not handle as
well as a softer, stickier rubber compound. Of course, the softer compound will handle
better but will not last as long. Clearly, a compromise is necessary to reach an acceptable
balance between wear and handling.
A third example is related to precise handling versus ride quality. A tyre with relatively stiff
sidewalls will tend to react very quickly to steering inputs and will generally provide very
precise handling. Such a tyre will also usually produce a significantly harsher ride than one
with softer sidewalls that might be a little less precise. The tyre manufacturer must balance
the importance of ride quality against precise handling. Ultimately, it’s a matter of balance.
Different tyres produced by the same manufacturer, as well as those from competing tyre
manufacturers, may have significantly different performance characteristics because their
designers have made different decisions regarding where the compromises should be made.
This does not necessarily make any of them bad. Any given tyre might be the best one to
use in a specific application or under certain conditions.
The shape of the contact patch has an effect on handling and drivability. Here again,
compromises or trade-offs have to be made— this time by the purchaser. For example, a
wide tyre will provide more resistance to lateral slippage than a narrow tyre and thus should
provide better dry pavement cornering. The down side, however, is that the wide tyre will
also be more prone to aquaplaning on wet roads than the narrow tyre, which is better able
to slice through water puddles. There are numerous such positives and negatives to each
type of tyre. Generally speaking, the police vehicle manufacturers have carefully selected
the size and aspect ratio of the tyres supplied as original equipment on their cars. Come tyre
replacement time, significant changes in either width or aspect ratio should be avoided.
The original equipment tyre size currently found on all three of the police package cars
offered by the American Automobile Manufacturers is P225/60R-16. Taken in its individual
parts, this size designation can be interpreted as follows: P designates PASSENGER car (LT
would designate Light Truck) 225 indicates the width of the tyre in millimetres, measured at
the widest point of the sidewalls, not the tread; 60 designates the aspect ratio of the tyre—
the ratio of the height to width— which in this case, the sidewall height is 60 percent of the
width; R indicates that the tyre is of radial design, as opposed to bias or bias-belted; 16 is
the diameter of the wheel rim in inches.

The tyre size designation is often followed by a number— the load index— and by a letter—
the speed rating of the tyre. The most common load and speed designation on current
police tyres is 97V. In this case, the 97 indicates that each individual tyre is capable of
supporting 800 Kilograms at the maximum inflation pressure indicated on the sidewall. The
V shows that the tyre is capable of safely sustaining speeds of up to 240 km/h under perfect
conditions.
4.6.1 Speed Rated Tyres for Police Cars
Some fleet buyers, and even some police administrators, ask why speed rated tyres are
important for their police patrol vehicles. They often cite their agencies’ no pursuit policy, or
limited patrol areas and generally low speeds as reasons why they should not have to
provide their officers with (expensive) speed rated tyres. Clearly, there are many agencies
whose patrol vehicles will never approach the 210 km/h limit of H rated tyres, let alone the
240 km/h for V rated tyres. It is important to understand, however, that speed rated tyres
are superior in a number of ways not specifically related to the speeds to be driven. The
design parameters required to construct a tyre that is capable of withstanding high speeds
will nearly always result in improvements in other characteristics as well. Due to the internal
design of a speed rated tyre, including the way the steel belts are laid in, they will generally
exhibit better overall handling and cornering than a tyre with a lower speed rating.
When vehicle manufacturers design patrol vehicle suspension systems, they attempt to
optimise the way the suspension geometry and the tyres work together to provide good,
predictable handling under a variety of circumstances and road conditions. Patrol package
vehicles are designed and supplied with speed rated tyres as original equipment. Equipping
a patrol vehicle with any tyre that has a lower speed rating than was originally supplied with
and recommended for the vehicle will result in less than the optimum design performance.
In essence, it would be similar to purchasing high quality handguns for officers but supplying
them with the least expensive ammunition that will fit in the gun, with no regard to
performance.
4.6.2 Selecting the Best Tyre
Because of the compromises discussed earlier, there is no simple, clear-cut answer as to

which tyre is best for the patrol vehicle fleet. Any tyre is a series of compromises that make
it better in one aspect, and usually correspondingly worse in another. For that reason, it is
critical to examine operating environment and performance needs very carefully before
making a selection. The law enforcement agency must be consulted prior to a decision is
made to buy a specific type of tyre for patrol vehicles.
The vehicle manufacturer specifies the original equipment tyres because they have proven
to be the best all-around tyre for the greatest variety of conditions. Obviously, if the agency
is located in the West Coast where rain is extremely infrequent, a tyre that does best on dry
pavement surfaces may be a better choice. If, however, the agency is located on the eastern
side of the country where wet roads occur much more frequently, selecting the best tyre for
wet pavement handling and braking may be the wisest choice. In addition, there are
differences in the way different vehicle makes and models perform with any given tyre. The

same tyres sometimes perform differently on different types of vehicles. The key is in
reviewing the test results available for the various tyres offered for law enforcement service
and applying them to a situation. Select the tyre that performs well on the vehicle makes
and models in the fleet and under the road and weather conditions most common, and for
the patrol situations most often encountered. (Vandenberg, 2002)
4.7 Conclusion
It is clear that selecting the right type of vehicle for a law enforcement agency’s fleet is an
important aspect for the fleet manager. The South African law enforcement industry does
not warrant the development and introduction of dedicated police patrol vehicles. Vehicles
therefore have to be purchased as standard vehicles and then fitted with the requisite
equipment. The selection of the right tyre is an extremely important component of vehicle
safety and costs should not be the overriding factor in the selection of tyres for patrol
vehicles. This is particularly true for high-speed vehicles operating on freeways. As was
indicated in this Unit, it may not be so easy to buy vehicles for law enforcement purposes as
not all vehicles can accommodate the large range of equipment in use by these agencies.
Some vehicles are just better suited for police work than others.
0oo0oo0

UNIT 5
PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE
 Define and describe the concept – preventative maintenance.
 Motivate top management to value a preventative maintenance strategy.
 Identify the technologies available for preventative maintenance.
 Develop new improvement strategies for the law enforcement agency.
 Introduce and manage productivity measures for the operation of the fleet.
 Identify and develop strategies for training in the agency.
5.1 Introduction
Preventive maintenance (PM) has the following meanings:- (Weibull, 2007)
1. Care and servicing by personnel for the purpose of maintaining equipment and
facilities in satisfactory operating condition by providing for the systematic
inspection, detection and correction of incipient failures either before they occur or
before they develop into major defects.
2. Maintenance, including tests, measurements, adjustments and parts replacement,
performed specifically to prevent faults from occurring.
5.2 Preventive Maintenance (PM)
Preventive maintenance is a schedule of planned maintenance actions aimed at the

prevention of breakdowns and failures. The primary goal of preventive maintenance is to
prevent the failure of equipment before it actually occurs. It is designed to preserve and
enhance equipment reliability by replacing worn components before they actually fail.
Preventive maintenance activities include equipment checks, partial or complete overhauls
at specified periods, oil changes, lubrication and so on. In addition, workers can record
equipment deterioration so they know to replace or repair worn parts before they cause
system failure. Recent technological advances in tools for inspection and diagnosis have
enabled even more accurate and effective equipment maintenance. The ideal preventive
maintenance program would prevent all equipment failure before it occurs.
5.3 Value of Preventive Maintenance
There are multiple misconceptions about preventive maintenance. One such misconception
is that preventative maintenance is unduly costly. This logic dictates that it would cost more
for regularly scheduled downtime and maintenance than it would normally cost to operate
equipment until repair is absolutely necessary. This may be true for some components;

however, one should compare not only the costs but the long-term benefits and savings
associated with preventive maintenance. Without preventive maintenance, for example,
costs for lost production time from unscheduled equipment breakdown will be incurred.
Also, preventive maintenance will result in savings due to an increase of effective system
service life. (Weibull, 2007)
Long-term benefits of preventive maintenance include:-
 Improved system reliability;

 Decreased cost of replacement;
 Decreased system downtime;
 Better spares inventory management;
 Increased productivity; and
 Customer satisfaction.
Long-term effects and cost comparisons usually favour preventive maintenance over
performing maintenance actions only when the system fails.
Preventive maintenance (PM) consists of scheduled servicing, inspections, and vehicle

repairs to prevent potential problems and maximise vehicle availability. Preventive
maintenance is used to proactively avoid or reduce vehicle breakdowns and is based on
time, mileage, engine hours, or litres of fuel used. Preventive maintenance actions include
vehicle inspection, lubrication, adjustment, cleaning, testing, repair, and/or worn parts
replacement. (Bartole, 2006) To maximise the availability of vehicles, PM services must be
performed on a scheduled basis. If preventive maintenance is not performed regularly,
vehicle life span will be greatly reduced. Some vehicles may be prone to excessive
breakdowns requiring expensive repairs, causing a vehicle to be out of service when least
expected and possibly when needed most. Vehicles may become unsafe due to lack of
preventative maintenance. Proper maintenance will also help prevent litigation from
negligence, particularly in a law enforcement environment.
Preventive maintenance is as important as driver safety programs. If a vehicle becomes

unsafe due to lack of maintenance or repair, the fleet manager can be held liable for
negligent entrustment. As defined, liability is premised upon providing an employee with a
dangerous tool or instrument, such as a vehicle, while knowing, or having reason to know,
that the use of the vehicle creates unreasonable risk or harm to others. Simply stated, the
vehicle must be safe to operate. Should the brakes fail causing a serious crash or fatality, the
vehicle is impounded by authorities for investigation. If the investigation determines that
defective brakes or other vehicle malfunctions contributed to the crash, the authorities can
seek a court order to obtain vehicle maintenance records. If the institution fails to practice
preventive maintenance under these circumstances, the fleet manager could be prosecuted
for a negligent act, which he failed to prevent. (Bartole, 2006)
5.3.1 Driver is First Line of Defence

The vehicle operator is the first line of defence against unexpected breakdowns and repairs.
It is important that the driver communicates vehicle problems immediately to the fleet
management section. This allows the vehicle operator to participate in the PM program,
proactively reducing breakdowns. The following vehicle systems should be monitored by the
driver:-
 Vehicle safety items (e.g., tyres, wipers, horn, brakes, steering, etc.);
 Vehicle drivability items (e.g., misfire, rough idle, etc.);
 Vehicle body (e.g., glass, body damage, cleanliness, etc.); and
 Vehicle miscellaneous repair items (heater, radio, etc.)
The vehicle operator must be held accountable for inspecting these items. The PM program
depends on the driver for continued success. Should the vehicle operator fail to inspect the
vehicle prior to, during, and after a trip, a potential problem may go unnoticed causing a
breakdown or unsafe condition.
Training and accountability are important. The vehicle operator must be trained on proper
inspection procedures and be held responsible for failure to inspect and report vehicle
problems. This requires the support of each department and senior management. As a team
effort, the PM program can be a great success. (Bartole, 2006) Law enforcement supervisors
in charge of shifts have a primary responsibility to inspect vehicles daily after the officers
have been signed on for duty.
Patrol officers are by nature reluctant to inspect their patrol vehicles regularly and it often
requires either incentives or threats of disciplinary action to motivate them to do so.
5.4 Technologies for preventative maintenance

Preventive maintenance can be scheduled manually or by using fleet management software
(automated computer systems). Manual systems can be tedious and time-consuming to
manage, especially for larger fleets. Nowadays, technology is affordable even for the
smallest fleet. Computerized systems are a more efficient method for gathering timely
reports on all aspects of fleet management. Reports can be generated faster and more
accurately, allowing the fleet manager to make timely proactive decisions.
Affordable software systems can be purchased from reputable companies specialising in

fleet management software. When it comes to hardware, most companies have an
information technology department that can supply fleet management with the appropriate
computers or an information technology expert can be hired.
Regardless of which scheduling method chosen, it is important to purchase a system that

can be customised to the institution’s specific application requirements. Depending on
those fleet operating requirements, the system should enable the fleet manager to create
customised preventive maintenance schedules, create and monitor work orders, monitor
fuel usage, record detailed maintenance histories and tyre logs, monitor accident and
claims, manage inventory, and monitor labour, invoicing, and stock reports. (Bartole, 2006)
Fleet managers have struggled for years to get sufficient information to enable them to do
preventative maintenance. The odometer was about the only reliable source of information,

but human error and neglect hampered fleet managers in obtaining and using this
information. The single most used strategy was to use odometer readings when drivers
refuel their vehicles. Recent developments have made it much easier to get reliable
information about vehicle usage, not only in terms of kilometers travelled, but also
information about vehicle location, speed, idle time, onboard diagnostic fault codes,
emissions systems, etc.
Vehicle location and global positioning systems, depending on the system selected, uses a
combination of satellite and/or cellular networks. A global positioning system only receives
location data, whereas an automated vehicle location system usually both receives and
transmits data. This data is transmitted to a computer database for analysis.
Secondly there are radio frequency identification devices. Such a system collects and store
data, such as odometer readings which are then collected by a receiver (such as the gate to
the office complex or fuel depot) each time the vehicle passes nearby. The data is collected
and transmitted to a computer. The data must be collated in a format that makes it user-
friendly to analyse and use.
5.5 Improvement Strategies

Every law enforcement agency must strive to contain the costs involved in managing a fleet.
There is not an unlimited source of financing and most agencies are “forced” to do more
with less. This is an old cliché, but it still holds true today. Conscientious fleet managers will
continuously look for opportunities to control costs, whether in good times or bad times.
There are always things can be done better to reduce costs. The following are key elements
to consider in public fleet management. (Robertson, 2004) Law enforcement administrators
must have a sound knowledge of these issues as they are the internal clients of vehicle fleet
maintenance and must account for expenditure and budgeting requirements. Clear and
achievable goals and objectives have to be set in order to maximize the efficiency of the
fleet.
5.5.1 Establish costs
The first step for a fleet manager is to identify costs by segments of the fleet operation. In
other words; divide the vehicles and other operations into different segments, e.g. freeway
patrol cars, motor cycles, tow trucks, cars used by administration, etc. This should be easy to
do as most authorities have computerized systems. Without information about the costs
pertaining to each segment of the fleet, it will be almost impossible to monitor costs and to
look for opportunities to reduce costs or for service improvements. The next step would be
to investigate costs within each segment. This means that the fleet manager scrutinizes cost
components such as tyre costs for freeway patrol cars, brakes for motorcycles, etc. What
are the labour costs for each category of vehicle and further what are the costs of each
vehicle?

5.5.2 Outsource certain functions
Certain jobs may have to be outsourced as this would be cheaper than to attempt to do
everything in-house. Conduct regular investigations to benchmark the cost-effectiveness of
the in-house operations with that offered by the private sector. It may be cheaper for
instance to outsource tyre replacement to an outside vendor rather than to appoint staff to
perform this function. The equipment to balance tyres and set wheel alignment may be of
such a magnitude that it is cheaper to outsource it. In large fleets this may not necessarily
be the case, but this must be tested by a proper analysis of costs. Overflow work for
instance may be outsourced rather than to increase the in-house operation. Outsourcing
must be strictly monitored as vehicle repairs and maintenance is very susceptible to corrupt
practices. The procurement policies must be strictly implemented and any sign of abuse or
deviation from prescribed policies must be investigated. Checks and balances therefore
need to be implemented and thereafter vigorously monitored.
5.5.3 Examine parts turnover
The inventory (register) for parts that are readily available in the marketplace should be left
for the shelves of vendors. Those hard-to-get parts or those that require long lead times
require careful consideration concerning the quantities that are kept in the store. The
primary objective is to ensure that only the minimum amount of spares should be kept in
stock to ensure that vehicles are not out of commission for undue long periods. Part
turnover should therefore be monitored. Calculate parts turnover by dividing average
annual usage by annual average inventory to produce a ratio. A calculated example may be
2. (Robertson, 2004) A 2:1 ratio is a less than ideal rate. Turnover rates should approach or
exceed a ratio of 4:1. If a fleet manager is in doubt he should discuss this with law
enforcement administrators as they will be affected by longer than usual lead times in the
event that a specific part must be purchased externally. Specialised equipment affixed to
law enforcement vehicles should rather be maintained and repaired by external vendors.
Law enforcement administrators must carefully examine the data produced in respect of
vehicle maintenance costs. If a specific patrol car has way above average maintenance costs,
it either reflects on the driver(s) of that car or illegal activities pertaining to theft or
procurement deficiencies.
5.5.4 Monitor productivity
The productivity of mechanics can be measured by direct versus indirect time analysis.
Indirect time refers to the time spend on acquiring parts, waiting for vehicles to be checked
in, etc. A ratio of less than 75:25 should prompt fleet managers to investigate the reasons
for this. The measurement of scheduled versus unscheduled repairs is directly related to the
effectiveness of the repair quality. Scheduled maintenance is predictable and therefore
much easier to manage and prepare for than a non-scheduled repair. Preventative
maintenance should account for approximately 65 percent of mechanic activity.

5.5.5 Standardize vehicles and parts
Law enforcement administrators must carefully consider their vehicle requirements and
attempt to standardize on specific types of vehicles for the largest part of the vehicle fleet.
When they do specify a different type of vehicle they must be able to substantiate this with
valid reasons. For instance, freeway patrol vehicles and other response units may require
tyres with a higher specification (safety rating) as the officers are involved in high speed
pursuits. These tyres are much more expensive but equally much safer. If the agency can
standardize on tyre sizes, engines, transmissions, etc. the costs to repair and maintenance
of the fleet will be reduced substantially over a period of time.
5.4.6 Establish working groups
It may be advantageous for the law enforcement agency to establish a working group with
other departments and the fleet manager to discuss all relevant issues pertaining to the
fleet operation and vehicle costs. This will place all the role players in a position where
problematic issues can be discussed and remedied. It is important that the mechanics and
law enforcement personnel interrogate issues that impact on the rendering of services to
communities and the cost implications thereof.
5.5.7 Identify highest cost items
It is important that the items that incur the highest costs to the fleet budgets be examined
and discussed at least once a year. This will facilitate a process of interrogating ways and
means to minimise their impact on the overall departmental allocations for vehicle
maintenance and repairs. Law enforcement administrators must be able to defend ultra-
high cost items. If a vehicle’s specifications are set too high it may increase the cost
exponentially to exorbitant levels. This is particularly true for the high-end patrol vehicles
with above-average performance and speed levels.
5.5.8 Training
Law enforcement officers must be trained adequately in the safe handling of patrol vehicles.
An analysis of vehicle costs will clearly indicate that some officers have higher than average
vehicle costs than some of their peers. The way an officer drives a vehicle will save the
agency on its fuel bills and brake pads. This requires only minor changes to the way they
drive. Officers have to be trained in both defensive and offensive driving techniques. The
positioning of vehicles at crash scenes may significantly reduce the risks of secondary
crashes. Regular inspections of patrol vehicles will also indicate which officers do not care
for their allocated vehicles and this may precipitate corrective action. Training is an
investment in the future and may be difficult to quantify, but will undoubtedly lead to a
higher degree of cost effectiveness. (Robertson, 2004)
5.5.9 Policies and procedures

Law enforcement administrators must carefully review their requirements. If an office
bound officer only uses his official vehicle once or twice a week, it may be more effective to
make a pool vehicle available to a number of officers in a similar situation. It is not
necessary neither compulsory to provide every law enforcement officer with a vehicle for
his/her own use. Another issue that often raises the ire of law enforcement personnel is the
departmental polices dealing with the issuance of new vehicles. Way back, in the earlier
years of policing, the practice was to issue new vehicles to those officers with the longest
service and their ‘old’ vehicles in turn were passed on to officers with the second longest
service, etc. This is not the case anymore. However, the issuance of new cars remains a
sensitive issue that often leads to accusations of nepotism, preferential treatment and even
racist practices. It may therefore be advantageous to the agency if a policy is developed and
implemented for this purpose.
5.5.10 Insurance costs
A proper fleet management operation can significantly reduce insurance costs. Vehicle
fleets that are properly maintained create an environment conducive to a more caring
attitude by vehicle drivers. Law enforcement officers must at all times be alert of the fact
that the way they drive not only reflects on the agency’s image, but it impacts on road
safety and vehicle maintenance costs. Law enforcement administrators are all aware of the
fact that some drivers are prone to neglect their official vehicles and this will cost the
agency more in downtime due to unscheduled maintenance, incidents and crashes. These
risks can be minimized through an effective fleet management system which includes
preventative maintenance as a core component thereof. All incidents and crashes must be
investigated thoroughly to instill a sense of accountability.
5.6 Conclusion
Preventative maintenance has the potential to save the law enforcement agency’s fleet
expenditure. The problem however, is to convince the supervisors and patrol officers that it
is better to prevent breakdowns than to react to them retrospectively. The problem arises
when supervisors are under pressure to produce more services with fewer officers. They
have to be convinced that taking a patrol vehicle in for a preventative check and service is
better than to work the vehicle until it breaks down completely.
0oo0oo0

UNIT 7
FLEET MANAGEMENT POLICIES
 Develop a model to identify officers who abuse police vehicles.

 Consider the available range of disciplinary options when officers are suspected of
being guilty of vehicle abuse.
 Develop a fleet management policy for the law enforcement agency.
 Specify vehicle rotation criteria.
 Develop a vehicle pursuit policy.
 Introduce a Crash Investigation Committee.
7.1 Introduction
There are literally thousands of vehicle fleet policies. Almost every organisation with
vehicles has some sort of policy or user guidelines to manage its assets. Any failure on the
part of management to introduce policies that deal with fleet operations will result in abuse
and subsequent losses. Such a vacuum will undoubtedly result in unsuccessful disciplinary
procedures. Union representatives will be the first to point out that the absence of policies
and procedures must favour the accused and not management. Policy development
therefore is essential in order to establish certainty amongst all employees. This Chapter
contains a draft policy for scrutiny. Every institution must develop its own policy that will
comply with its own unique character.
7.2 The Dilemma of Officers who Abuse Equipment

The following is an article by a veteran police officer, J. Burch. It clearly illustrates some of
the issues confronted by law enforcement administrators. (Burch, 2008)
‘As police administrators, we are always concerned about abuse issues involving our
officers, especially when the allegation is in the form of physical or verbal abuse. Yet, there
is a more common form of abuse administrators must cope with… abuse of equipment
issued to officers.
There seems to be an attitude by some officers that the equipment issued, whatever it is,
doesn’t belong to them, so why should they take care of it? How do we handle officers who
knowingly abuse or neglect equipment? How do we limit this abuse? How do we make the
employees more accountable?

First and foremost, the key ingredient to an issue that could eventually lead to disciplinary
action is a firm, detailed policy or general order addressing department-issued equipment.
The policy statement should also detail specific consequences for the employee in regard to
abuse or neglect of the issued equipment. Administrators then need to ensure that the
consequences are applied firmly and fairly with each case of proven abuse or neglect. If an
administrator is not prepared to enforce such a policy firmly and consistently, there is no
need to read further.’
Law enforcement officers are often guilty of vehicle neglect and abuse. They do not always
treat vehicles with the required level of care. This type of conduct may become endemic if
supervisors neglect their duties to monitor vehicle usage.
7.2.1 Take-home Car Program
Unless a take-home car is part of a contractual employee agreement, it is a privilege, not a

right, to be issued a vehicle. This privilege alone should be enough to ensure that the
employee cares for the assigned vehicle. The employer should put its policy in writing that
any abuse or neglect of the vehicle by the employee shall result in the employee losing that
privilege. Then have the employee sign that he has received and understands the directive.
Even if issued a subsidised vehicle, the agency can have recourse under such a policy. The
policy statement needs to list as many specific forms of abuse as possible or practical. The
employee may not drive the wheels off a car, but he may never check the oil. Providing the
employee a list of expected monthly checks is practical and useful. An administrator may
also want to designate a supervisor to perform monthly, weekly and daily vehicle
inspections to identify and report any possible abuse or neglect issues upon inspection.
Vehicle abuse or neglect has to be investigated to avoid an officer mistakenly losing a

privilege. For example, a law enforcement supervisor charged an officer for cracking the
bumper of his assigned—and brand new—patrol car. The Chief saw the cracks in the rear
bumper and went ballistic. However, the Chief did not investigate the cracked bumper and
just assumed the officer abused the vehicle. What the Chief did not realise is that ALL these
particular cars had cracked bumpers because of an alleged design flaw, and this officer had
done nothing wrong or abusive. We all know officers who have a reputation for being
“hard” on police vehicles. We have to draw a fine line between having an aggressive officer
who gets to a scene as quickly as he/she can and the sometimes lacklustre efforts of some
officers who take their time getting to a call in hopes that someone else gets their first to
take statements. Administrators have to set limits by means of policies and procedures.
There is a difference between an officer who is “hard” on vehicles and one who just abuses
a vehicle because of a poor, uncaring attitude. There may not be that many instances where
we “chase until the wheels fall off,” although some officers drive like that often. Driver
training can also address some of these issues especially if the officer does not understand
the negative impact of high speed pursuit activities. This includes officer and public safety
concerns.
A routine vehicle and equipment inspection program with a rigid vehicle equipment check-
out / check-in system should be considered. It is important to know to whom the equipment
was checked out and when it was returned to determine who had the equipment during the

time it was damaged. Major damage to vehicles or equipment should initiate an internal
investigation, assuming the department has a policy in place to address suspected abuse or
neglect. If an officer purposely drives into a flood and seizes up an engine, that officer faces
potentially serious disciplinary action. An officer who routinely causes minor damage to a
vehicle because he is just reckless usually ends up driving one of the oldest cars in the fleet
for a designated period of time. An administrator’s policy can also back him up with a rule
such as three chargeable crashes in a two-year period will result in the employee losing
driving privileges.
7.2.2 Other Forms of Abuse
Some officers get 5000 kilometres on a set of brake pads when everyone else gets almost 20
000 kilometres! If so, a supervisor may need to start riding out with this officer to determine
his driving habits. If the officer complains about a supervisor riding out with him, the easy
message is to stop pushing the car so hard. There may be a logical explanation, such as the
officer is working in a tougher part of town where calls for service are more prevalent,
meaning the officers have to drive faster more often. More likely, the officer is pushing his
vehicle too hard and could be disciplined under a rigid policy addressing vehicle or
equipment abuse. Other signs of potential abuse of vehicles exist. How about the officer
who only gets 8 km/litre consumption in his vehicle when everyone else in the same patrol
area gets 14 km/litre? This could be indicative of a different problem. How much activity
does the officer with 8 km/litre on his vehicle have in comparison to the others who get 14
km/litre? One officer has a car that gets more dings, dents, and lost hub caps than other
officers in the same district or precinct? How about the officer who goes through two new
transmissions in 80,000 kilometres of driving when everyone else never needs a new
transmission? Yes, it could be the vehicle. Make potential abuse and neglect situations
accountable in policy and procedures, and then do not deviate from the policy. Most
officers want to avoid problems and disciplinary actions. To maintain a firm policy on vehicle
and equipment abuse or neglect, one has to be prepared to fight that battle with your
employees if necessary. (Burch, 2008)
7.2.3 Abuse Prevention: Issues
In addition to having a firm, detailed policy in place when it comes to department-issued

vehicles and equipment, there are other abuse-prevention measures. For example, many
departments nowadays are installing cameras in their vehicles. Having a video or audio
recording system in a vehicle is not carte blanche for a supervisor or administrator to use in
order to try to catch officers doing anything wrong. Having said that, there should be a
policy in place allowing a review of video material for case-filing purpose, complaints, and as
a matter of routine, patrol supervisors may select a limited number of random calls to
review the video to ensure the officer is safe and responding appropriately to their calls.
Video footage may for instance show that a complaint was completely unfounded as the
officer did everything by the book as far as the call itself. However, in responding to the call,
the officer was driving his patrol car over 160 km/h to a low-priority call. It was late at night
and not many vehicles were on the street, so the officer punched it to get to the call. The
officer was counselled about the department’s driving policy and also about the liability of
driving in such a manner to a low-priority call. This response to a call-out was a form of

equipment abuse because there was no need to “push” the car like the officer did. The
officer was warned that further actions like this would warrant disciplinary action, and then
he was held to the policy statement. Mandating some type of routine inspection process is
also necessary. Officers must inspect their patrol vehicles before they depart for patrol. This
inspection should include both the exterior and interior of the vehicle as well as checking
the oil. Any new damage or suspected mechanical problems has to be reported immediately
to a designated supervisor.
In addition, the supervisors are required to conduct monthly vehicle inspections of the
exterior, interior and boot. Officers should be evaluated on the cleanliness of their vehicles
also, especially internally. Officers who pile up rubbish during a shift are held just as
accountable as one who gets several door scratches during a shift. Another option is to
require the vehicle to be inspected by the workshop or a mechanic once a month, especially
the engine and undercarriage. Some officers drive police cars like army tanks, running over
anything and everything in their path to get to a call. While we all expect officers to “drive
the wheels off” a car to help another officer in trouble or to major crimes in progress, most
calls do not need that “tank-driver” type response. Some departments have routine
supervisor ride-with programs to evaluate their officers. Why not add driving skills and
routine vehicle maintenance to these evaluations? Officers know they may harm future
merit consideration because of abuse or neglect issues. (Burch, 2008)
7.2.4 Disciplinary Options
Options for disciplining officers who knowingly and purposely abuse or neglect
departmental property vary with each department and are likely based on whether the
department has adopted a philosophy of strict compliance. However, administrators may be
able to reduce equipment abuse or neglect due to evaluations, merit consideration,
promotions or work assignments. A number of departments in the USA have a policy
statement that declares any employee who purposely and knowingly abuses or neglects
equipment is potentially responsible for reimbursing the law enforcement agency for any
repair or replacement costs of the equipment. This type policy may be fought out in court to
realize any substantial reimbursement request, but implementing such a policy from the
start will likely limit some abusive practices. A primary deterrent in most cases will be a
strong policy statement or Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to be signed by the
employee that any proven abuse or neglect shall result in the officer losing that privilege or
benefit, sends a strong message to the employee. By having the employee sign the
statement or MOU, he cannot appeal any disciplinary action based on ignorance of the
policy. Discipline options for administrators with officers who abuse or neglect equipment
varies from one department to the other.
 If it is a take-home car, take the privilege from the officer who abuses the car. Park
the car at the office when off duty, and only let the officer drive it during work hours.
If the problem is with shift-issued cars, force the officer to drive the oldest (but still
safe) vehicle in the fleet for a designated period of time.
 Force the abusive officer to only ride in a police vehicle as a passenger and don’t let
him operate a police vehicle for a designated period of time.

 It could also be useful to consider putting a patrol officer on foot patrol for a period
of time.
 Send the officer to training or remedial training regarding driving skills or whatever
form of abuse or neglect the officer was involved with.
 Implement a reward system for officers who do a good job in taking care of their
vehicles and equipment.
 Create a policy that states as a last resort, officers who continually abuse vehicles or
equipment face strong disciplinary action.
7.2.5 Document! Document! Document!
As with any issue or policy that could lead to disciplinary actions, law enforcement
administrators must ensure consistent and detailed documentation of any potential
problems with an employee. This philosophy is especially important in the public service
because of the longer and sometimes more difficult disciplinary process. As with any
potential disciplinary action, the supervisor has to build a strong documented case to have
any success with the disciplinary action. Regardless of whether the vehicle in question is a
take-home or a shift-issued vehicle, if officers know there are firm ramifications for abuse or
neglect and they will be held strictly accountable, incidents of abuse or neglect should be
minimised. Administrators can implement the same rigid policy for all department-issued
equipment. For those employees who continue to ignore policy, law enforcement
administrators must be fair, firm and consistent in holding them accountable to do their job
as expected.
7.3 Example of a fleet policy
The following section is included as an example of a policy that governs the use of official
vehicles. It covers the most pertinent aspects, but every law enforcement agency must
develop and introduce policies that meet with its own unique character and needs.
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
Introduction
The purpose of this Vehicle Fleet Safety Manual is to provide our employees and managers
with tools and materials to ensure the safety of all employees who drive City vehicles.
Vehicle crashes are costly to the City, but more importantly, they may result in injury to our
employees, occupants of other vehicles or pedestrians. It is the driver’s responsibility to
operate the vehicle in a safe manner and to drive defensively to prevent injuries and
property damage.
Policy
This policy sets the standards for managing and operating (Insert City/Agency Name) fleet
vehicles as well as personal vehicles when used on “Agency business”.

Scope
This agency policy and its associated programs apply to all drivers who may be engaged in
the operation of any agency owned or leased motor vehicles on either public or private
property.
Compliance
Agency employees who are found to have violated this policy or found to have any
indications of misconduct involving vehicles may be grounds for disciplinary action up to and
including termination. Certain offenses may result in immediate termination due to the
severity of the infraction/offence. Examples may include:-
 Driving whilst intoxicated; (DWI)
 Driving under the influence of drugs;
 Reckless Driving;
 Driving with a suspended or revoked license.
It is the intent of this policy that unsafe behaviour be identified and corrected. Should
discipline become necessary, it shall be dealt with in accordance with the official policies
and procedural guidelines approved by the institution.
Definitions
Agency vehicle - Any owned, leased or rented passenger car, light delivery vehicle, truck or
other similar type vehicle in or by which a person or property is or may be transported or
drawn on public roads.
Operation - The process of driving, operating or manoeuvring a vehicle in a forward,
backward or sideward motion.
Driver - Means an individual who is authorised to use an agency vehicle as a part of his
official duties.
Preventable - Any incident in where the operator failed to take reasonable action to avoid
such an occurrence.
Non-preventable - Any incident where the operator exercised all reasonable means to avoid
the incident.
Vehicle crash - Any event where an agency vehicle, other vehicle or property is damaged
during its operation or as a result of the operation of the agency vehicle.
Vehicle Maintenance Officer - Is a person designated as responsible for ensuring that
maintenance is performed on the respective department’s vehicles.
Each driver is responsible for the actual possession, care and use of the vehicle in his
possession. Therefore, a driver’s responsibilities include, but are not limited to, the
following:-
 Operation of the vehicle in a manner consistent with reasonable practices that avoid
abuse, theft, neglect or disrespect of the equipment;
 Obeying all traffic laws and regulations;

 As a condition for driving agency vehicles, drivers will give the agency authorisation
to conduct a Motor Vehicle Record (MVR) check and provide all necessary
information for the check;
 The use of seat belts is mandatory for drivers and passengers.
 Adhering to manufacturer’s recommendations regarding service, maintenance and
inspection. Vehicles should not be operated with any defect that would prevent safe
operation;
 Reporting the occurrence of moving violations; and
 Accurate, comprehensive and timely reporting of all crashes.
Safety Coordinator
The safety coordinator shall:-
 Audit each department’s compliance with this policy on a periodic basis;
 Monitor and document all reported vehicle crashes; and
 Assist with the identification of preventable and non-preventable vehicle crashes,
as requested.
SECTION 2
CRASH INVESTIGATION AND REVIEW
Crash Review Committee

The purpose of the Crash Review Committee (CRC) is to determine why vehicle crashes
occur and whether crashes are preventable or non-preventable. The ultimate goal for the
committee is to prevent losses by recommending corrective action for drivers and to
discourage future crashes.
Composition
The CRC shall consist of representatives from the following disciplines:-

 Traffic police – two representatives appointed by the Chief of Police/Traffic Chief.
One representative needs to have experience on a supervisory level in road crash
investigation;
 Fire – one representative appointed by the Fire Chief;
 Fleet garage – one representative appointed by the Fleet Manager;
 Engineering – one representative appointed by the Public Works Director;
 An alternate member selected by the appointing authority.
Duties and Responsibilities

 Review all vehicle crashes and to make a determination whether the crash was
preventable or non-preventable, based on the crash report (physical area and
conditions);
 Notify the driver and Head of Department, in writing of the Committee’s finding;
 Recommend any corrective action to be taken to discourage future re-occurrence.
Factors to be considered in determining corrective action to be taken include: preventability

or non-preventability of the crash, nature of the crash, number of crashes by the driver, past
performance of driver, and any other issues of importance. Corrective action may include:-
 retraining of the driver

 written or verbal reprimand,
 suspension without pay, or ultimately
 termination of services.
It is self-explanatory that disciplinary action must be taken strictly in accordance with the
relevant legislation governing labour relations, conditions of service, etc. The following
therefor purely serves as a broad guideline.
Administrative Action
A first finding of a preventable crash in an agency vehicle within a three (3) year period
immediately preceding the crash will result in:-
 A letter of reprimand and verbal counselling, and/or

 Employee being required to attend a driver safety course, traffic school programme
or undergo specific retraining, as deemed appropriate by the Crash Review
Committee.
Second finding of a preventable crash within a three (3) year period immediately preceding
the crash will result in:
 Employee being placed on ‘probationary’ driving status for 12 months. While on
probation the employee’s driving will be closely monitored and driving may be
limited at the discretion of the Head of Department. Any employee on driving
probation who is involved in a vehicle crash (unless clearly and convincingly the
crash was non-preventable), or receives a motor vehicle violation, whether involving
an agency vehicle or not, will immediately have driving privileges suspended.
Appropriate action will be taken to remove the employee from a position that
requires driving, and
 A letter of reprimand and verbal counselling, and/or
 Suspension pending a disciplinary hearing;
 Be required to attend a driver safety course, traffic school or undergo specific
retraining as deemed appropriate by the Crash Review Committee.
Third or greater finding of a preventable crash may result in:-

 Suspension without pay pending a disciplinary hearing;
 Suspension of driving privileges and transfer to a job not requiring the ability to
drive, or
 Termination of employment.
SECTION 3
DRIVERS LICENSING AND QUALIFICATIONS
Driver Licensing
The Agency requires all employees who operate an official vehicle on either an assigned or
occasional basis, to have the appropriate driver’s license prescribed for the class of vehicle
driven. It is the responsibility of the employee to obtain the appropriate license and to
ensure it is maintained and current at all times.
Driver Qualifications
An employee whose job duties involve the operation of an official vehicle shall:-
 At all times be in possession of and able to produce a valid driver’s license in the
appropriate classification;
 Be eighteen years of age or older to operate agency owned / leased vehicles;
 Be an authorised employee of the agency;
 Have at least one year of experience in the class of vehicle operated;
 Not qualify to operate an official vehicle if, during the last 36 months, the driver had
any of the following experiences:-
 Been convicted of a serious crime as prescribed in Schedule 1 of the Criminal

Procedure Act.
 Been convicted of the sale, handling or use of drugs;
 Has his insurance cancelled, declined or not renewed by an insurance
company;
 Been convicted of an alcohol or drug-related offense while driving;
 Had his/her driver’s license suspended or revoked;
 Been convicted of three or more speeding violations or one or more other
serious moving violations;
 Been involved in two or more chargeable road crashes.
A driver of an official vehicle shall immediately notify his department head of changes in
driver license status (i.e. revoked, expired, cancelled, suspended, etc.)
An employee who fails to report a change in the status of his/her driver license shall be
subject to disciplinary action in terms of the department’s official policies.

Driving Roster
Each department shall maintain a roster of all employees who are authorised to drive
official vehicles. This document will include the employees’ current driver license number
and expiration date as well as highlight the employees’ driving record. This information is to
be kept current by the Department and shall be subject to periodic review.
SECTION 4
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Vehicle Emergency Procedures

When it is absolutely necessary to stop on a freeway or urban street in case of an
emergency, use extreme caution and use one of the following methods to alert oncoming
traffic:-
 Activate emergency flashers;
 Warning signals and lights may be turned on;
 Rotating beacon(s) may be used – if vehicle is so equipped;
 Deploy warning flags, reflector triangles or other emergency equipment.
If the vehicle needs to be towed, it shall be done in accordance with the official policies and
procedures governing the removal of disabled vehicles.
Crash Procedures
In the event of a crash on a public road:-
 Notify the local police department and provide pertinent information concerning the
crash. If no phone is available, immediately contact the supervisor who is responsible
for contacting the law enforcement agency. Do not leave the crash scene until the
local (traffic) police have responded. Drivers should speak freely and accurately to
law enforcement personnel.
 Obtain the name, address, and phone number of injured person/s and all witnesses
if possible.
 Exchange vehicle identification, insurance company name and policy numbers with
the other driver.
 Take a few photographs from different angles of the scene of the crash scene, if
possible.
 Complete appropriate crash reports.
 Submit all information to a supervisor / department head within 24 hours.
 Do not admit negligence or liability.
 Do not attempt settlement, regardless of how minor.

SECTION 5
MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTIONS
Purpose
The intent of this section is to implement an aggressive and on-going vehicle maintenance
and inspection program which will ensure that the agency’s fleet vehicles are properly
serviced and maintained.
Scope
This policy applies to all departments engaged in the operation of any vehicle owned or
leased by the agency.
Compliance
Employees who fail to comply with the requirements of this policy shall be subject to
disciplinary action in terms of the department’s official policies.
Vehicle Maintenance Officer

The Vehicle Maintenance Officer (VMO) is an individual designated by the Department as
responsible for ensuring that maintenance is performed on the respective department’s
vehicles.
Responsibilities of the Vehicle Maintenance Officer

Vehicle Maintenance Officers are responsible for the following:-
 Works with the mechanical workshop to schedule department vehicles or equipment
for maintenance or repair work;
 Ensures that all vehicle and equipment reports are completed;
 Ensures that maintenance is current on all department vehicles or equipment.
Heads of Department
Heads of Department are responsible for the following:-
 Communicating the goals and objectives of this policy to supervisors.
Supervisors
Supervisors are responsible for:-
 Communicating the goals and objectives of this policy to employees under their
command;
 Ensure vehicles within their area of responsibility are clean and empty before
bringing them to the workshop for service.
Employees
Each employee is expected to:-
 Perform and document daily vehicle pre-operation inspection;
 Perform authorised maintenance (i.e. replacement of fluids) based upon type of
equipment being operated.

Vehicle Inspection
Operators of vehicles, motorcars, motor cycles and light delivery type vehicles shall be
responsible for performing a daily walk-around of their vehicles prior to it being placed into
service. Completed inspection forms are to be filed on a daily basis with the Vehicle
Maintenance Officer. Inspections will include but not be limited to:-
 Identifying any obvious visible physical damage;

 Engine inspection that includes checking fluids;
 Exterior lights (head lights, brake lights, indicators and where applicable emergency
lights);
 Brakes;
 Steering;
 Tyre pressure and condition; and any
 Miscellaneous items.
In the case that a law enforcement agency has heavy vehicles such as tow trucks; operators
shall also perform a daily walk-around inspection of the equipment prior to it being placed
in service. Daily inspections include but are not limited to:-
 General condition of a power unit;
 Fluids and belts;
 In-cab condition;
 Exterior condition;
 Transmission inspection;
 Brake inspection; and
 Towed unit inspection.
If problems are noted during the vehicle inspection, a vehicle service request form (or other
suitable means of communication) must be completed by the person finding the item(s)
needing repair or service and promptly forward it to their Supervisor or the VMO. The VMO
or supervisor will contact the Fleet Workshop to alert them of the situation. The Fleet
Workshop will in turn instruct them to bring the vehicle in or a service truck or tow truck will
be dispatched to the scene to either repair or transport the vehicle back to the workshop.
Vehicles that are found to have potential operational safety hazards must immediately be
taken out of service until such hazards are corrected. Employees who operate a vehicle with
a known safety hazard or one that has been taken out of service by the workshop will be
subject to disciplinary action. Fleet Maintenance will conduct more thorough inspections of
official vehicles at regular intervals established by the Fleet Supervisor.
Vehicle Maintenance
A sound maintenance program and the degree to which it is carried out on a daily basis are
extremely important. Not only does a well-implemented maintenance program extend the
life of the fleet, it also reduces operational costs, insurance premiums, and crash frequency.
Having vehicles that are well maintained creates a positive image with the public and
projects a safety conscious image. With this in mind, the following outlines those

procedures and/or requirements deemed fundamental for proper upkeep of all official
vehicles.
For any of the maintenance issues described in this section, proper departmental
procedures for reporting repairs or maintenance must be followed. The operator and/or
VMO will be responsible for ensuring that vehicles and equipment are serviced in a timely
manner, by monitoring service hours, mileage or service dates. When the vehicle is due for
preventative maintenance, the VMO will notify the workshop at least one week prior to the
scheduled service date to set up an appointment. If the employee or department is unable
to make the appointment, the VMO must immediately inform Fleet Maintenance so that an
alternative date may be scheduled. Failure to maintain vehicles or equipment according to
manufacturer recommendations or guidelines set forth by Fleet Maintenance will be subject
to disciplinary action.
Due to their 24 hour operational needs, police patrol units can ‘drive-in’ for routine
maintenance without an appointment. Every reasonable effort will be made to
accommodate police drivers. However, advanced scheduling is preferred in order to
guarantee faster turnaround time. Operators are responsible for the general daily upkeep
of their assigned vehicles or equipment. Vehicles and equipment must be washed only at
agency approved facilities. Due to safety, health and sanitary issues, vehicles must be clean
and empty (unless the problem with the vehicle prohibits cleaning) prior to delivering the
vehicle to the workshop for maintenance.
Emergency Maintenance
Emergency maintenance is required when a vehicle or piece of equipment breaks down and
cannot be driven or operated safely. When a vehicle or piece of equipment becomes
inoperable during normal operating hours, the problem must be reported to Fleet
Maintenance. Fleet Maintenance will be responsible for dispatching a service truck or tow
truck to the scene to either repair or transport the vehicle to the agency pound. If the
vehicle becomes inoperable after normal operating hours, on weekends or holidays, the
operator is required to contact their supervisor and advise them of the problem. Once
reported, a service truck or tow truck will be dispatched to either repair or transport the
vehicle back to the agency pound
Non-Emergency Maintenance
In the event that maintenance needs arise that are above and beyond that required by the
Preventative Maintenance Schedule, the following process shall be adhered to:-
 The Vehicle Maintenance Officer (VMO) will inform the Department, and with
approval make the necessary arrangements to schedule the repair;
 The Workshop Supervisor will schedule the work based on the current work load;
 The requesting party will be notified within 24 hours as to when they can bring the
vehicle into the workshop for servicing.
Preventative Maintenance

All vehicles within the agency’s fleet will be covered under a preventive maintenance
program. The type and frequency of preventative maintenance to be conducted is based on
mileage or time basis. These schedules are shown below:-
 Motorcars, utility vehicles and light delivery vehicles;

Level A; Every 5000 kilometres
Level B; Every 20 000 kilometres
Level C; Every 40 000 kilometres
 Motor cycles; Every 5000 kilometres
 Police patrol vehicles;

Level A; Every 5000 kilometres
Level B; Every 20 000 kilometres
 Heavy Trucks (Including tow trucks);

Level A; Every 6 months
After completing each preventative maintenance service, Fleet Maintenance will place a
sticker on the vehicle indicating the kilometres (or hours) when the next preventative
maintenance check is due. In the event where a sticker is removed or lost, the operator or
VMO should contact Fleet Maintenance to obtain the date and kilometre reading of the last
service.
Replacement
In general, most vehicles should be replaced when they reach 6 years (72 months) of service
or 160 000 kilometres; whichever comes first. However, there may be circumstances in
which vehicles may be replaced sooner (such as excessive maintenance or repair costs) or
retained longer (such as unusually low maintenance costs). Heads of Department may make
this determination on a case-by-case basis, using these guidelines as a starting point.
Specialised equipment, such as heavy highway construction equipment, may not fall under
any of the above categories. Such equipment may be considered for replacement according
to other criteria, such as hours in service.
Records
Fleet Maintenance is responsible for managing all centralised maintenance records for
agency vehicles. Records of vehicle inspections will be maintained by the using department
for a minimum of one (3) years.
SECTION 6
USE OF VEHICLES

Agency Vehicles
Insurance and Registration

Each official vehicle is required to have appropriate vehicle registration and insurance
information kept by the appropriate department. Missing information must be reported to
supervisory personnel who will ensure that the necessary replacement is obtained.
Take Home Use
Only employees allowed to take official vehicles home are those who are on 24-hour call
status and/or have normal work responsibilities that include evening and/or weekend work.
All employees allowed to take vehicles home shall be approved by Heads of Department. A
list of such employees or the names of certain positions will be retained and will be updated
by the Head of Department as needed.
Official vehicles that are taken home shall not be used for personal business while housed at
the employee’s residence unless the employee is on-call and must have ready access to the
vehicle.
Official vehicles shall not be housed outside the municipal boundaries except when
specifically approved by the Head of Department. Strict guidelines shall apply to the use and
storage of vehicles outside the municipal boundaries.
SECTION 7
RECORD REVIEW
Motor Vehicle Record Review

The intention of this section is to establish guidelines that will assist the Department in
determining those employees who will be authorised to drive official vehicles.
Motor vehicle records reflect driving behaviour both on and off the job, and are useful in
evaluating driver risk. It is a policy and requirement for employment that every employee
position with driving duties requires a motor vehicle record (MVR) meeting the grading
requirements stated below. This MVR policy applies both to drivers of official vehicles. The
agency recognises that this information is highly sensitive to the individual whose record is
being checked. Therefore, MVR information will be gathered by the Security Department
and will be shared only with those with a legitimate need to know (i.e. Department Head -
Personnel Section and the employee).
MVRs will be examined prior to the start of employment and at least annually thereafter.
Any job offer made to an employee-candidate for a position with driving duties shall be
dependent upon an MVR meeting the required standards; continued employment in a
position with driving duties also requires an MVR meeting the standards outlined below.
The standards for MVRs are as follows:-

 All operators must have a valid driver’s license for at least three years;

 No new driver will be hired with a “borderline” or “poor” MVR. MVRs will be graded
based on the table below, as minimum requirements;
 Driving records must remain “acceptable” or “clear,” as graded on the table below,
for continued employment in positions with driving duties;
 Current employees whose MVR places him within the “borderline” category will be
counselled by management and placed on a probationary driving status for one year,
conditional upon maintaining a clean Motor Vehicle Record during that period.
Additionally, the employee will be required to attend and complete a nationally
recognized defensive driving course within 30 days of notification;
 Any current employee whose MVR places him within the “poor” category will have
driving privileges suspended. Furthermore, the employee may be issued a written
reprimand and may be subject to suspension, transfer or demotion to a job not
requiring the ability to drive, or termination of employment.
SECTION 8
VEHICLE OPERATION
Vehicle Operation
Every time an official vehicle is used, the driver has a duty to drive it in a safe and courteous
manner that will reflect favourably on the agency. Drivers are expected to take extra
precautions and drive defensively. This includes:-
Lights – For vehicles without daytime running lights, driving with headlights on, day or night.
Riders and Passengers – No unauthorised riders are allowed in or on official vehicles. Seats
will not be overcrowded beyond the capacity of the available seat belts. In no cases will
workers be allowed to ride in a standing position in the back of a truck, sitting on the wheel
wells, or with any part of their body extending over the side or rear of the truck body.
Exemption of this rule would only be in the situation of an emergency or if the vehicle is
designed for rear or side riding.
Distractions – Employees shall refrain from engaging in activities that may distract them
from their primary task of safe driving while operating official vehicles. Distractions include,
but are not limited to cell phones, changing radio stations, reading, eating or conversations.
Seat Belts – Use is mandatory in all official vehicles. This applies to both the driver and all
passengers in seating locations equipped with seat belts. In operations where a seat belt
would hinder the ability of the operator to safely perform the job, will not be required
provided that the Head of Department approves the operation and the vehicle speed does
not exceed 15 kilometres per hour.

Parking – Agency vehicles or personal vehicles driven by agency employees during the
course of their employment shall not park in “NO PARKING” zones except in emergency
situations or in the required performance of their duties. If a vehicle is parked in a “NO
PARKING” zone, emergency flashers will be activated. No vehicle or piece of equipment shall
be left unattended with the keys left in the ignition. With the exception of Police and Fire
Services, all vehicles will be locked when parked and unoccupied.
Reversing – reversing of large vehicles should be discouraged unless the driver cannot avoid
it and he has a clear view of the entire area to be backed into. If such a view is not present,
the driver, if alone, will get out of the vehicle and inspect the area to be backed into or, if a
second person is in the vehicle, the second person will get out and guide the driver using
appropriate hand and/or voice signals. A back-up alarm or crash avoidance device may be
installed on those vehicles that have an increased risk for reverse type crashes (poor rear
visibility, blind spots, etc.)
Citations – Should an employee receive a citation (traffic ticket) for any moving violation
while operating an official vehicle, he or she is responsible for fines, cost of appearing in
court, and any increase in personal insurance as a result of the citation.
Each driver is required to report all moving violations to the Head of Department within 24
hours. This requirement applies to violations involving the use of any vehicle (Agency,
personal or other) while on official agency business. Failure to report violations will result in
appropriate disciplinary action. Drivers also need to be aware that traffic violations incurred
during non-business (personal use) hours will affect their driving status as well and are
subject to review as outlined in the Agency’s Motor Vehicle Record Review policy.
Vehicle Marking
Agency-owned or operated vehicles or trucks shall be marked in plain lettering of a readable
size. Appropriate markings for official vehicles include:-
 Unit number;
 The words approved by the law enforcement agency- followed by the department or
agency name; or
 Exception: Vehicles used for undercover criminal investigations may be kept
unmarked and need only bear such license plates as are required on privately owned
vehicles.
 The use of registration plates that are not applicable to a vehicle shall be authorised
by the Head of the Law enforcement agency and strict record shall be kept hereof.
This authorisation shall be limited to specific investigations and not intended for long
term use.

Law enforcement vehicles shall be kept free of any stickers or signs which indicate any
political candidate, party, organisation or theme; are in poor taste; or relate to specific
social concerns that may be found objectionable by citizens.
SECTION 9
VEHICLE CRASH REVIEW BOARD GUIDELINES
These guidelines may assist the Crash Review Committee in determining if an agency vehicle
crash was or was not preventable and to ascertain the role of the driver in the crash.
"Determining When a Crash Could Have Been Prevented"

One of the most difficult, yet important, parts of an internal agency road safety program is
determining whether a crash was preventable, and what part, if any, the employee played in
the crash. A good method of maintaining consistency in judgments is to set up clear
boundaries to determine when a crash could have been prevented. The following
descriptive boundaries may be used by the Crash Review Committee as the basis for
determining accountability.
A - Defensive Driving
Expert safe driving performance, not just average performance, is based on the concept of
defensive driving - the ability to avoid crashes in spite of wrong actions by other road users
or adverse driving conditions. The following definition of defensive driving should be applied
to all crashes:-
“A defensive driver is one who commits no driving errors and makes allowances for
the lack of skill or improper driving practices of other drivers. A defensive driver
adjusts driving to compensate for unusual weather, road, and traffic conditions and
is not ‘tricked’ into a crash by the unsafe actions of pedestrians or other drivers. By
being alert to crash-inducing situations, the driver takes the necessary precautions to
prevent the crash. The defensive driver knows when it is necessary to slow down, stop
or yield the right-of-way to avoid involvement.”
B - Standard of Performance - Crashes

Crashes involve so many factors that it is impossible to set hard and fast rules to classify
them preventable or non-preventable. The crash review committee must make this
determination. In making these decisions, the crash review committee must answer the
question, "What standard of safe driving performance do we expect of our drivers of
agency-owned vehicles?" Drivers respect a strict interpretation of the rules, so long as time
and effort are taken to ensure that the interpretation is consistent and impartial.
C - Crashes in Official Vehicles

All crashes, regardless of damage, shall be reviewed by the crash review committee.
D - Crashes Involving More Than One Driver

When two or more agency vehicles are involved in the same crash, each driver may be
charged with a preventable crash regardless of who was primarily responsible. A
preventable crash will only be charged against the person operating the vehicle, not against
passengers, even if they are employees.
E - Witness Statements
Each driver involved in a crash usually contributes to it in some degree. If the other driver
admits fault, it usually means that he sees how he contributed to the situation. The driver
may still have contributed to the crash. None of the following is conclusive evidence that a
crash is non-preventable:-
 Admission of being at fault by the other driver;

 Citation of the other driver for a traffic violation; or
 Exoneration statement for the agency driver by eyewitness or police.
F - Preventable
Unless thorough investigation shows that the employee could not have avoided
involvement by driving more defensively, the following types of crashes shall be regarded as
preventable:-
 Intersections - A driver approaching and entering an intersection must take

precautionary measures to avoid crashes. Complex traffic movement, blind
intersections or failure of another driver to conform to the law or traffic control
devices will not automatically classify a crash as non-preventable. Intersection
crashes are preventable even though a driver has not violated traffic regulations.
Crashes are preventable when a driver crosses an intersection and does not consider
the obviously potentially dangerous actions of the other driver (excess speed,
crossing the lane in turning, coming from a blind spot).
 Reverse driving - Practically all reverse driving crashes are preventable. Drivers are
responsible for reverse safely. During the manoeuvre the driver must check all
clearances himself, even if given instructions by a guide. The guide cannot control
the movement of the vehicle.
 Front-end crashes - Regardless of abrupt or unexpected stops of the vehicle ahead, a
driver can prevent front-end crashes by maintaining a safe distance at all times. A
driver must prepare for possible obstructions on the highway whether in plain view
or hidden by the crest of a hill or the curve of a roadway. Over-driving your
headlights at night is a common cause of front-end crashes. The vehicle should be
able to stop within the distance illuminated by its headlights.
 Rear-end crashes - Drivers often risk being struck from behind when they brake
sharply. A crash is preventable if a rear-end collision occurs because the vehicle rolls
back, makes an abrupt stop at a light or grade crossing, or the driver does not signal

a turn at an intersection. Failure to signal or to slow down gradually contributes to
crashes.
 Overtaking - Failure to overtake safely indicates faulty judgment as well as the failure
to consider one or more important factors before attempting the manoeuvre.
Unusual actions of a driver being passed or of oncoming traffic might appear to
exonerate a driver involved in an overtaking crash. However, the entire overtaking
manoeuvre is voluntary and is a driver’s responsibility.
 Being passed - Side swipes and cut-offs are preventable when an agency driver yields
to a passing vehicle by slowing down or moving to the right when possible.
 Lane encroachment – An agency driver is rarely a victim of encroachment by another
vehicle when changing lanes. Similarly, entrapment in merging traffic shows the
driver will not yield to other vehicles or wait for a break in traffic. Blind spots are not
valid excuses for lane encroachment crashes. Drivers must make extra allowances to
protect themselves when they cannot see far enough ahead. A driver can prevent
crashes with parked cars, pillars and other road structures by dropping back when
another driver contests a common portion of the road.
 Grade crossing - Crashes with fixed rail vehicles, such as trains, rail maintenance
vehicles, etc., occurring at grade crossings, in traffic, in a rail yard, switch area or on
private property are the responsibility of the driver to prevent. When a vehicle is
parked across a rail siding, the driver must first determine if it is safe and permissible
and, furthermore, must stand by in case conditions change by the movement of rail
cars during the parking interval.
 Opposing vehicles - When an opposing vehicle enters a driver’s traffic lane, it may be
possible for a driver to avoid a crash. For example, when an opposing vehicle is in a
passing manoeuvre the driver should slow down, stop or move to the right to allow
the vehicle to re-enter its own lane. Signalling the opposing driver by flicking the
head-lights or sounding the horn might aid in the avoidance of a crash.
 Turning - Turning movements, such as passing manoeuvres, require the most
exacting care by a defensive driver. Drivers who are making left or right turns are
responsible for squeeze plays involving other vehicles, motor cycles, bicycles or
pedestrians. Defensive action and failure to signal, to properly position the vehicle
for the turn, to check the rear-view mirrors, or to check pedestrian lanes should be
considered when determining if a crash could be prevented. A defensive driver
should watch for sudden turns by other drivers and should act on any ‘tip-offs’ from
the other driver (eye contact) or vehicle immediately before the incident. U-turns
that result in crashes are generally considered preventable.
 Passenger crashes - Passenger crashes in any type of vehicle are preventable when
they are caused by faulty operation of the vehicle. Even if an incident does not
involve a crash of the vehicle, it must be considered preventable if a driver stops,
turns, or accelerates abruptly. When passenger injury occurs as a result of
emergency action taken by an agency driver trying to avoid a crash, the situation

should be examined to determine if proper driving could have eliminated the need
for the action.
 Pedestrians - Traffic regulations and court decisions generally favour pedestrians hit
by moving vehicles. Drivers must reduce speed, be prepared to respond, and take
precautions to prevent crashes in school zones, shopping areas, residential streets
and other areas that have special pedestrian traffic. Even though a driver follows
posted speed limits or warning signs, the vehicle may be travelling faster than the
conditions allow. Drivers must be alert to pedestrians crossing at mid-block or from
between parked vehicles. They must also watch for bicycles, motor cycles and similar
equipment that are generally operated by young and inexperienced operators. A
driver who doesn’t slow down when such equipment is present has failed to take the
necessary precautions to prevent a crash. Keeping within posted speed limits alone
is not enough when unusual conditions require less speed.
 Weather - Adverse weather conditions are not valid excuses for being involved in a
crash. Rain, snow, fog, sleet or icy road surfaces has never caused a crash. These
conditions merely increase the hazards of driving. Vehicle Crash Review Boards
should decide a crash was preventable when it was caused by a driver’s failure to
"call it a day", or failure to adjust driving to the prevailing weather conditions.
Crashes that occur because a driver fails to use safety devices (such as chains)
provided in agency vehicles should be deemed preventable when it was reasonable
to expect the driver to have used such devices.
 Fixed objects - Crashes with fixed objects are preventable. They usually involve
failure to check or properly judge clearances. New routes, strange delivery points,
resurfaced pavements, inclined entrances, and marquees projecting over travelled
sections of the road are not valid reasons for excusing a driver. A driver must
constantly look for such conditions and make needed allowances.
 Parking - Unconventional parking actions, including double parking and failure to put
out warning devices generally make a crash preventable. Crashes normally are
preventable if they are caused by parked vehicles that roll-away because wheels
were improperly blocked or turned toward curb to prevent vehicle movement.
 Mechanical failure - Any crash caused by a mechanical failure that could have
reasonably been detected by a driver should be judged preventable. It is a driver's
responsibility to report unsafe vehicle conditions and to obtain immediate repairs
when continued operation might result in a crash. In this way a crash that results
from unexpected mechanical difficulties is preventable.
 Crash avoidance - Many crashes, such as overturning, jack-knifing or running off the
road result from emergency action by a driver trying to avoid involvement in a crash.
Examination of the driving procedures prior to an incident may reveal speeds too
fast for conditions or other factors. A driver’s action prior to involvement should be
examined for possible errors or lack of defensive practices.

 Miscellaneous - Projecting loads, loose objects falling from the vehicle, loose
tarpaulins or chains, doors swinging open and other hazardous driving situations that
result in damage or injury to persons are preventable if a driver fails to secure them.
Cargo damage resulting from unsafe vehicle operations is preventable.
----o----
A preventable crash is one which occurs because the driver fails to act in a reasonable
expected manner to prevent such crash from occurring. It may also imply that a driver
reacts in an unreasonable manner and thereby contributes to a crash. In judging whether
the driver’s actions were reasonable, the investigator seeks to determine whether the driver
drove defensively and demonstrated an acceptable level of skill and knowledge. The
judgment of what is reasonable can be based on the law enforcement agency’s approved
definitions and policy directives. This description of preventable crash can be used as a tool
to implement remedial action.
The concept of a preventable crash is a fleet safety management tool which achieves the
following goals:-
 It helps establish a safe driving standard for the driver;

 It provides a criterion for evaluating individual drivers;
 It provides an objective for crash investigations and evaluations;
 It provides a means for evaluating the safety performance of individual drivers and
the fleet as a whole;
 It provides a means for monitoring the effectiveness of fleet safety programs;
 It assists in dealing with driver safety infractions; and
 It assists in the implementation of safe driving recognition programs.
Fleet managers and (fleet) crash investigators must be properly trained in crash
investigation techniques, root cause analysis and interviewing techniques.
The six stage group problem solving model systematically guides the investigators through a
process that targets causal factors and avoids judgement, blame and emotional solutions.
The stages are as follows:-
 Identifying and describing the events leading up to and during the crash;
 Gathering the facts relevant to the event;
 Isolating the primary contributory factors;
 Establishing and checking remedial actions;
 Carrying out the recommended improvements; and
 Monitor the implementation processes.
A key philosophical issue is the removal of blame and fault in favour of establishing the
objective contributory factors or root causes of incidents/crashes. Assisting in-house
investigation team members to overcome attitude biases that may have been influenced by
public debate about road safety that focuses on blame through references such as “careless

driving” and by insurers that refer to as “fault” A successful investigator avoids apportioning
blame while collecting information. The investigator must therefore approach each crash
scene without preconceived ideas about the causes.
It may be advisable that the presiding officer as well as the ‘prosecutor’ in departmental
hearings be contracted from the external environment. This will alleviate fears on the part
of the “accused” and union representatives that the former may be unfairly biased.
7.4 Police – Vehicle Pursuit Policy

A police pursuit can be described as the vehicular pursuit of a criminal/suspect by law
enforcement officers. Fleet managers must be au fait (on top of things) with the principles
guiding police pursuit policies.
7.4.1 Key Terms
Motor Vehicle Pursuit – The act of attempting apprehension of the driver of a fleeing
vehicle, once the driver of such a vehicle has given some indication of his or her intent not
to stop or yield. This indication can be by increasing speed, bypassing traffic control devices,
or other means.
Resistive Behaviour – Negative behaviour exhibited by an individual after an officer has

indicated intent to control the individual. The negative behaviour can be psychologically or
physically intimidating actions or words, passive refusal to cooperate, or active resistance
(physical)—including the use of weapons.
Reasonableness – That which another person or officer, with similar training, would do
under similar circumstances.
Resistance/Control Continuum – a graphic representation of the relationship between levels

of resistance and levels of control, sometimes referred to as a - “Use of Force Continuum”
Public Harm Risk – The degree of risk to the public posed by the actions of a suspect, usually
equated with the initial act that gives rise to a pursuit. Generally comprised of two
elements; the risk inherent in the initial act or crime committed by the suspect, and the risk
faced by the public should the suspect be allowed to escape and remain at large. This is
different that the degree of risk to the public posed by the pursuit itself.
Pursuit Management Continuum – refers to a specific type of Resistance/Control

Continuum, reflecting the relationship between pursuit causation factors and the tactics and
techniques that may reasonably be used in the apprehension of a fleeing suspect.
Initial Interaction – Techniques that represent a relatively low risk of injury to officers and
the public. Often naturally occurring, these techniques do not require any special resources
or personnel.

Active Intervention – Techniques that require additional personnel, specialised equipment
or training, and/or advanced planning. These tactics represent a greater degree of risk to
officers and the public. Additionally, these techniques usually constitute “seizures” under
the Criminal Procedure Act, 1977 (Act 56 of 1977)
Critical Prohibition – Techniques that represent the greatest degree of risk to officers. These
techniques approach the use of deadly force, and should only be undertaken when high
levels of control are necessary.
Whenever a law enforcement officer uses force to control resistive behaviour, the legal
system will attempt to answer two questions. Of these, the most fundamental is whether or
not there was an appropriate and reasonable balance between the degree to which society
would be exposed to harm should the force not be used and the degree of harm to society
inherent in the level of force used. (Ashley, 2004)
7.4.2 PUBLIC HARM AND REASONABLENESS
The most critical element of any pursuit is the need to match the level of control exerted to
the degree of risk posed by the fleeing individual. In other words, what is the degree of risk
posed to the public by the offense committed by the individual, and what is the degree of
risk posed to the public should the fleeing individual make good his or her escape, and be
free to commit the offense again?
This public harm risk is different than the degree of risk posed by the pursuit itself. Most
pursuits involve dangerous activities by their very nature. While some are less hazardous
than others, the very act of engaging in motor vehicle pursuit involves vehicular operation
outside the generally accepted parameters established for normal vehicle movement and
control. At issue is the reasonableness of an officer’s actions in pursuing a fleeing violator. If
an officer’s actions are reasonable in light of the public harm risk that exists, then the
officer’s actions should be defensible in a court of law. (Ashley, 2004)
Pursuit driving is a dangerous activity that must be undertaken with due care, only after an
understanding of the specific risks as well as the need and realistic methods to apprehend a
fleeing suspect. Law enforcement agencies developing policies may wish to address this
question: For what offenses and under what conditions should police risk crashes and
injuries to pursue fleeing suspects? (Alpert, 1997)
The basic dilemma associated with high speed police pursuit of fleeing suspects is deciding
whether the benefits of potential apprehension outweigh the risks of endangering police
officers, the public, and suspects in the chase. The question is; how does this relate to fleet
management? The fleet manager is overall in charge of the law enforcement agencies’ fleet
and any policy that may impact on the use of official vehicles must form part of the
managers’ portfolio of responsibilities.

On the one hand, too many restrictions placed on police use of pursuit could place the
public at risk from dangerous individuals escaping apprehension. On the other hand,
insufficient controls on police pursuit could result in needless crashes and injuries.
7.4.3 Risk of injuries

A police pursuit can be described as the vehicular pursuit of a criminal by law enforcement
officers.
Pursuit-related crashes were found to occur more frequently when pursuits were conducted
for serious than for non-serious crimes, when they occurred on surface streets rather than
on highways or freeways, and when they happened in urban and suburban areas rather
than in rural areas. The likelihood of crashes also increased as the number of pursuing
vehicles increased. (Alpert, 1997) Police administrators must ask themselves how to balance
the need to apprehend offenders against the need to protect the general public. Some law
enforcement administrators have begun to severely restrict police pursuits, while others still
believe that violators should be apprehended at all costs. (Thompson, 2005)
7.4.4 PURSUIT MANAGEMENT CONTINUUM
The use of such a Pursuit Management Continuum must be based on several fundamental
concepts:- (Ashley, 2004) Some States in the USA for instance have legislative requirements
to the effect that every law enforcement agency develop and implement written guidelines
that governs the use of police vehicles at higher than the prescribed speed limit. There is no
similar prescription in South African law with the result that the general prescriptions
governing the use of force as reflected in the Criminal Procedure Act, 1977. Act 51 of 1977,
apply.
• Officers can disengage from pursuit, or de-escalate the control mechanisms being used at
any time they reasonably believe it to be necessary. Is it really necessary or appropriate to
pursue an errant motorist at high speeds in a residential area?
• Control alternatives pre-suppose proper utilisation of the tactics, based on reasonable

decision-making on the part of officers and supervisors, not the worst possible result
scenario. While it’s possible to envision a scenario where lethal harm results from the
application of lower level control methods, it is not the officer’s intended result. Therefore,
the actual outcome should have nothing to do with the reasonableness or unreasonableness
of an officer’s actions, given that the technique or tactic was properly and judiciously
applied. Just as one should not place firearms low on a use of force continuum, based on the
fact that most shots fired by officers miss, and therefore there is no harm—one should not
place stationary roadblocks high on the Pursuit Management Continuum because a suspect
may choose to smash into the roadblock, and die in the attempt.
• Escalation and de-escalation on the continuum is key to the level of pursuit causation
factor at work. Additionally, officers must evaluate the totality of the circumstances in which

they find themselves, when making decisions regarding the use of any control or force
option. Just as an officer should not use deadly force against a suspect who has indicated an
intent to surrender, and who does not offer an immediate threat of serious harm to
anyone—an officer should not implement a high level control option against an individual
who may have started a pursuit by committing a life threatening act, but is now apparently
slowing as if to stop.
• Officers should stay at, or below the control level that matches the pursuit level (i.e. Level
Two Pursuit, Level Two Control). It should be the suspect’s actions in escalating the pursuit
level that prompts the officer to escalate the control level utilised.
• Decisions regarding the use of particular pursuit control tactics should not be based solely
on the likely liability exposure, but should give significant consideration to the degree of risk
faced by the involved officers. Officers should only utilise tactics and techniques with which
they have been trained.
If criminals know that police will not pursue them, or have so many restrictions placed on
them it renders pursuits futile, then the job of police to uphold the law not only becomes
difficult, but almost impossible. From the above it already seems clear that there is no clear-
cut solution for the issue of police pursuits. It however remains problematic as vehicle
pursuits place immense risks on vehicle costs. A lackadaisical approach to vehicle pursuits
also does not assist fleet managers in their attempts to control costs.
7.5 Vehicle Rotation (Replacement) Criteria

Transportation equipment costs usually rank second as the greatest expenditure that a law
enforcement agency faces, just below personnel salaries and benefits. Considering cost and
frequency of fleet vehicle replacement, law enforcement agencies must consider improved
strategies for developing budget estimates and priorities. These estimates should include
the bidding process, life-cycle estimates (i.e. vehicle operation and maintenance), purchase
and lease options, vehicle rotation or replacement, and fleet liability. (Exley, 2002)
Throughout the country, law enforcement agencies of all sizes annually purchase a varied
number of vehicles to replace out dated or worn-out vehicles and, when possible, to
increase the size of existing fleets. Procurement is a small word given to a large and
extremely detailed process. Once an agency begins the procurement process, it must
examine a wide range of considerations, then prioritize and evaluate them. Agencies should
weigh specifics on equipment, such as size, dynamics, acceleration, top speed, braking,
ergonomics, communications, and fuel economy, according to their relative importance .
A law enforcement agency continually evaluates its budget according to specific needs and
potential for growth, coupled with its ability to match increasing costs of equipment and
calls for service. External factors, such as politics, hiring standards, and downsizing,
ultimately take precedence over equipment prior to the tender process. Once an agency has

established the budget and given a rand amount to the area of equipment, the tender
process can begin.
The purchasing process of law enforcement cars typically begins with a law enforcement
agency drawing up a wish list for what it wants in a vehicle. This list, called a specification, is
then submitted to area auto dealers (in some cases, corporate representatives) for bids. The
dealers calculate how much the vehicle will cost them, equipped as requested, from the
manufacturer and then add on their overhead costs along with a profit. (Exley, 2002)
7.5.1 Life-Cycle Estimates
Considering the cost and frequency of vehicle rotation or replacement, law enforcement
agencies must find better strategies for developing life-cycle estimates, including vehicle
replacement, operation, and maintenance. The development of strategies can improve
vehicle operating efficiency, reduce unnecessary equipment costs, and improve overall
agency efficiency.
Because the needs, objectives, financial and operating capabilities of agencies differ, each
agency must analyse the advantages and disadvantages of its methods of maintaining
equipment to determine which method will best contribute to the overall objectives of the
agency in a cost-effective manner. Most of all, economic life is of critical importance to
equipment managers. It relates to the total stream of costs associated with the specific unit
over a period of time. Therefore, it has an impact upon both capital and operating budgets.
The economic life of a unit refers to the length of time the average total vehicle cost is at a
minimum. Total unit expense encompasses all costs associated with the ownership of the
vehicle.
The initial purchase price of a vehicle does not always accurately or completely indicate the
cost of the vehicle. While the price of a new vehicle represents the expenditure to acquire
the vehicle, several component factors determine the cost. The identification and analysis of
these components of cost form the basis of life-cycle costing
Agencies should apply lifecycle costing (a method for projecting and evaluating the costs of
one particular vehicle with another similar, yet alternative vehicle) to determine when they
should rotate or replace a vehicle. The optimum time to replace a vehicle is when its total
costs, averaged over the vehicle's lifetime, are at a minimum. This concept, referred to as
the economic life expectancy of the vehicle, includes such costs as depreciation, operating
expenses, maintenance, and downtime. Agencies can reasonably expect that some cost
components will rise during the economic life of a vehicle, whereas others may decline.
While optimum replacement of a vehicle represents an annual economic dilemma, the key
factors in evaluating an efficient replacement program have specific data collection
requirements that constitute major concerns in any life-cycle costing. These include initial
acquisition costs, purchase price of the vehicle, cost of specifications preparation,

preparation for use, operating expenses, insurance, preventive maintenance and repair
costs, downtime, and costs related to the disposal of the vehicle. With this data, a trade-off
in costs occurs between young and old fleets. However, the younger the fleet, the lower the
fuel, maintenance, and repair costs, but the higher the capital outlay. Because a younger
fleet is less prone to breakdowns, these increased capital costs are reduced somewhat by a
decreased need for backup or spare vehicles.
An agency must set priorities to determine which vehicles it needs to replace with its
available funding. If a vehicle is due to be replaced, an agency should project the total costs
of that unit for the following year and compare that cost to the proposed replacement price.
An agency should use the price difference, in itself, as the basis for not holding the current
vehicle beyond its economic point of replacement. "In order to maintain the lowest cost and
maximum vehicle availability for top utilisation, replace older vehicles when the cost to
operate and maintain them is higher than a new vehicle or when technical obsolescence
occurs. This is the basic concept of life-cycle costing and good business common sense."
When should an agency purchase a vehicle? When it has money? Should an agency lease or
own? That depends on the amount of money available and the number of vehicles needed.
If agencies have cash, they own. If a poor cash flow exists, they have the option to choose
the action of using someone else's money by leasing. Leasing, a recent development, allows
agencies to acquire new, updated vehicles with the latest engineering upgrades. It also
allows them to take advantage of increased efficiencies and productivity demands on
operations. Agencies also can lower annual operating and maintenance costs due to the
new technology. Vehicle maintenance costs of older vehicles change, based on use, proper
or improper application, fleet mix, density, and operational or ergonomic modifications
Over the past few years, many organisations and fleet managers have pondered the issue of
fleet leasing. In today's market, leasing represents a viable option that has sustained merit
and is increasing in popularity, especially for smaller agencies. With leasing, agencies look to
step outside the traditional paradigms of buying vehicles. All agencies need to focus on - is
what makes the most common business sense when they tie the bidding process, life-cycle
costing, and specific-use requirements of patrol vehicles together.
In private industry today, fleet-vehicle leasing is a common practice, with cost as the reason
most often cited. As always, a multitude of financial options exists when considering cost
and programs available, money management, and budget constraints. A national account
agreement offers fleet managers a variety of branded products and services from multiple
vendors nationwide at uniform, predetermined, and usually discounted prices. This however
may not be available to smaller law enforcement agencies.
Many lease options or packages exist and vary from company to company. However, a
consensus of fleet managers revealed four basic sources for lease programs:-

 Direct from the manufacturer: The end-user (fleet) can negotiate an account
agreement directly with the manufacturer or service provider. However, agencies
must obtain individual agreements for each category of service or product, as well as
for each brand name. This method results in multiple billings and is subject to fleet-
size requirements. This would constitute a viable option through specific vendors for
smaller fleets operated locally.
 Through an independent service provider: These companies negotiate agreements
with multiple vendors for a variety of services, products, and brand names of
vehicles within each category. They often will perform as a vendor by generating
their own programs, including statistical reporting. Some positive features include
the agency obtaining complete coverage, benefitting from single-source central
billing, and maximising all available discounts in light of the service company's huge
volume.
 Through a leasing company: Working with a leasing company proves essentially the
same as dealing with an independent service company. However, the use of only
national account program coverage, if and when it is available, may be subject to
maximum fleet-size requirements. For those fleet managers that use a purchase
disposal program, this method carries the added advantage of combining both
programs together for a total package.
 In-house programs: Larger fleets, operating thousands of vehicles, can develop their
own account program. They can negotiate agreements with manufacturers/vendors
for desired services and brand name vehicles when desired. With this approach,
multiple billings still would occur, but would enable a company-owned fleet to
maximise its available discounts. The advantages in taking this approach would
depend on the anticipated lower cost of services and products as opposed to the
cost of setting up and maintaining the program
Regardless of the type of lease program, agencies need to pay particular attention to the
detailed requirements listed within any lease agreement. Law enforcement is noted for its
24-hour service and the maximised operations of fleets during strenuous use periods and in
all variables pertaining to weather conditions. They also commonly alter the vehicles to
accommodate the installation of radios, light bars, video cameras, screens, shotgun racks,
and other equipment. When looking at lease options, open-ended leases stand as the most
practical for law enforcement. "Fleet administrators should be looking at open-ended leases
where it doesn't matter whether holes are drilled into the vehicles or how many kilometres
they've been driven or how old the cars are.
Establishing fleet vehicle replacement criteria proves a delicate and time-consuming task.
Fleet managers continually seek new and innovative ways to aid them in their timely
decisions. Typically, they base their evaluation of existing fleet equipment and ideal
replacement decisions on criteria in several major areas. Because replacement criteria are

not always detectable from the outward appearance or operation of the vehicle, agencies
must establish such guidelines at the time of purchase.
Today, it is commonplace for all governmental entities to follow the requests of the public
and stretch existing tax rands. City councils and provincial legislatures continue to ask law
enforcement agencies of all sizes to reduce their budgets. This result in agencies buying less,
stretching supplies, and making things last longer, including patrol vehicles.
If a law enforcement agency must make its vehicles last longer, it has to ask what its needs
are and how it can work smarter to calculate how long a vehicle will last. That is a difficult, if
not an impossible question to answer. "When asked how long a car will last, vehicle
manufacturers respond, 'that is like asking, how high is up?' They're not dodging the
question; the fact is no one has done research on the subject. Even two of Michigan's major
universities, Wayne State and the University of Michigan (USA), have no idea of how long a
vehicle will last, despite the fact that they have large engineering schools that supply
engineers to all the major vehicle manufacturers. An informal survey by the Michigan State
Police shows that most police agencies take their patrol cars out of service between 100 000
and 160 000 kilometres.
Therefore, fleet managers must look at one of the most important issues when deciding
how long their agencies can afford to keep their vehicles safe, especially when trying to cut
corners to appease citizens concerned with government spending. "When I'm chasing
someone at 160 km/h in a car with over 160 000 kilometres on it, how safe am I? Even with
the best of care and detailed safety inspections, potential problems can be undiscovered.
While many parts failures are irritating at low speeds, at high speeds they can be disastrous,
even deadly! Law enforcement agencies should base replacement criteria for a fleet vehicle
on elements surrounding the age of the vehicle, operating costs, mileage, vehicle fatigue,
and current usefulness. These individual areas have their own importance and may seem
insignificant; however, when considering the criteria in combinations, they provide a whole
new perspective.
More than 75 percent of engine wear occurs on start-up and shutdown. During those times,
bearings are not lubricated and literally run dry for a short period of time. Short trips, where
the engine and other components never get a chance to fully warm up, also are hard on a
vehicle because moisture does not evaporate and can mix with the normal products of fuel
combustion to form acids that attack bearings and other engine parts. As long as the
prescribed maintenance intervals are followed, drive-train components usually incur the
more minor problems a high-mileage vehicle will suffer.
The ancillary parts of the vehicle are the ones that will break down. Suspension components
wear out or weaken and break. Parts, such as bushings, deteriorate. Brake and fuel lines and
wiring harnesses wear through at body attachment points or where they pass through
frame members. Interior components, such as seats, controls, and interior upholstery, show

signs of wear thousands of kilometres before a mechanical component. "Look at a 2-year-
old patrol car; it will still look good on the outside while the interior shows wear on the
seats, arm rests, pedals, and other areas. The passenger seat may look new, but the driver's
seat, well sprung, showing the effects of thousands of hours of patrol. Engineers agree that
two factors determine the life expectancy of a vehicle: environment and maintenance.
Maintenance is seldom a problem for police agencies; common sense dictates that they take
care of their equipment. As long as agencies follow the manufacturer's recommended
maintenance schedules during the life-cycling process, their cars should hold up reasonably
well.
However, even regular maintenance does not guarantee that a vehicle will stay in good
condition forever. Vehicles are made of plastic, steel, rubber, and aluminium, which will
weaken over time. There has to be a point when those materials are not strong enough to
take the wear and tear police give them. Because no definitive information exists on how
long various parts last in a vehicle, the question of when safety-related parts become
dangerous constitutes an arguable point. Safe-operating procedures should dictate that
parts be replaced at an arbitrary point before they show excess wear and certainly before
any potential weakness and failure can occur. Arbitrary or scheduled replacement of parts
leads to another problem-expense. Higher maintenance downtime increases costs.
Mechanics and replacement components create expenses; moreover, cars off the road do
not produce results, they produce bills that must be settled. The other factor that
determines the life expectancy of a vehicle is the conditions it operates under. Not just the
use aspect, such as law enforcement or civilian, but the actual environment. The ideal
environment for anything composed primarily of steel is a warm, dry climate. Because the
area is warm and dry, steel is less likely to rust. In areas where there are more moisture or
corrosive elements, such as salt, metal life expectancy is much shorter.
When looking at an appropriate time to rotate a vehicle out of service, agencies need to
consider several items. First, they must take a candid look at the bidding process. If agencies
address the proper specifications, they should have little problem in picking the best vehicle
from the published performance testing. Second, when they decide which fleet vehicles are
appropriate for their needs, they must look at their financial options. Some agencies have
the capabilities to purchase their fleets and other agencies may opt to lease. Third, once
agencies receive their fleet of new vehicles, they must evaluate and project the economic
life expectancy of the equipment. This happens during the vehicle life-cycling process and
includes maintenance, operating expense, downtime, and depreciation. Fuel savings
represent a big factor as a younger vehicle gets better fuel economy. Fourth, agencies must
look at the established requirements surrounding mileage restrictions and extended
warranties. Some agencies have rigid guidelines that require mandatory rotation at given
intervals. Finally, agencies must give proper consideration to litigation surrounding the
vehicles that comprise their fleets. If vehicles are causing crashes, it is imperative that
agencies make adjustments in their replacement policies

All and all, fleet rotation is not a simple process. Administrators must consider many factors
and re-evaluate them annually. The safety of law enforcement officers and the public they
serve, the image their agencies project, and the efficiency and effectiveness of their
operations depend on their decisions regarding how they manage their vehicle fleets. (Exley,
2002)
7.6 Vehicle Allocation Policy

Law enforcement agencies, especially in heterogeneous societies such as South Africa may
want to consider developing and implementing vehicle allocation policies. This will ensure
that accusations of nepotism and racism are not made when newly acquired vehicles are
given to specific officers. This in the past led to problems as the majority of experienced
officers were from one race group and new recruits from another race group. Vehicle
allocation criteria should take into account a number of issues such as productivity, the level
of care given to an official vehicle, etc.
7.7 Conclusion
It is clear that every law enforcement agency must have a clear set of policies and
procedures to ensure that officers’ conduct themselves strictly in line with the prescribed
parameters. A failure on the part of management to implement a strict regime of control
will find that in the event of a serious breach or crash, that it is almost impossible to
sanction the officer. Policies are a management tool, but it also protects an officer in the
event of capricious action by a law enforcement supervisor.
0oo0oo0

UNIT 8
LEGISLATIVE ISSUES FOR FLEET
MANAGEMENT
 Provide a broad exposition of the key elements of the AARTO legislation.

 Describe Courtesy letter
 Describe the effect of an Enforcement order
 Illustrate the impact of a Warrant of Execution
 List a number of infringements and the concomitant points lost for such
contraventions
 Discuss the effect of the AARTO legislation on operators.
8.1 Introduction
Fleet managers have an important role to play insofar as road safety legislation is
concerned. Apart from the registration and licensing of the vehicles in the fleet, the
Administrative Adjudication of Road Traffic Offences Act, 1998, Act 46 of 1998 (AARTO) has
a profound effect on the fleet management operation
The AARTO legislation intends to promote road traffic quality by providing for a scheme to
discourage road traffic contraventions, to facilitate the adjudication of road traffic
infringements, to support the prosecution of offences in terms of the national and provincial
laws relating to road traffic, and implement a points demerit system; to provide for the
establishment of an agency to administer the scheme; to provide for the establishment of a
board to represent the agency; and to provide for matters connected therewith.
In terms of this Act, a driver’s licence can be suspended when the driver runs out of points.
Points will be deducted from a total of 12, depending on the severity of the offence.
8.2 VIOLATIONS WILL BE CATEGORISED IN 3 CLASSES:-
1. Offences such as; Unlicensed driver: reckless driving (4 points);

2. Major Infringement such as; driving on right side of road (3), overtaking when not
allowed;

3. Infringements such as; Inconsiderate driving, not giving driving signals (1 point) using a
cell phone while driving (2 points);
The demerit points will be computerised and recorded against the driver. Twelve or more
points will result in the immediate suspension of a driver’s licence. Repeat offenders, whose
licences are suspended 3 times, will lose their licence and will have to re-do their tests.
8.3 INFRINGEMENT NOTICE
In accordance with the Administrative Adjudication of Road Traffic Offences Act, No. 46 of
1998 (AARTO), if a person commits a road traffic violation in terms of the National Road
Traffic Act, No. 93 of 1996, such violation will be categorised as:-
 A traffic offence;
 A minor infringement; or
 A major infringement.
A traffic offence is regarded as a very serious violation of the law, which warrants a major
sentence on conviction, such as imprisonment, or a substantial monetary fine, or both.
Traffic offences will therefore still be dealt with in terms of the Criminal Procedure Act, 1977
(Act No. 51 of 1977), which means an offender will be arrested, charged and the case will be
placed on the role for a hearing in court.
8.3.1 Minor and major infringements
Minor and major infringements mean offences categorised as such in terms of section 29(a)
of the AARTO Act, detail of which is provided in the AARTO Regulations.
 Traffic infringements will be dealt with in accordance with the administrative

procedures, as prescribed in the AARTO Act. If a person is alleged to have committed
an infringement, the traffic officer will issue an Infringement Notice.
8.3.2 Infringement Notices

Infringement notices will initially be written by hand while electronic notices, generated by
means of hand-held computers used by traffic officers at the roadside, will be phased in
over a period of time.
 In the case of so-called camera infringements, for example exceeding the speed limit
and ignoring traffic signals; Infringement Notices will be electronically generated by
the National Traffic Information System (eNaTIS), and served on the Infringer by
registered mail.
On receiving, via registered mail or served in person, a ticket (formally called an

Infringement Notice), a person has the following options within the first 32 days:-

 Pay a discounted penalty;
 Make a representation to the Road Traffic Infringement Agency (RTIA);
 Arrange to pay in monthly instalments;
 Nominate the driver of the vehicle; or
 Elect to be tried in court.
You have to nominate a driver in the first 32 days after receiving an infringement notice.
 If you received an Infringement Notice for your vehicle but you were not the driver,
you may "nominate" the actual driver.
 You cannot make a representation to indicate that you were not the driver at the
time of the infringement.
 You should use form AARTO 07 to nominate the driver (see the instructions below).
 You will need to be able to provide the following information for the driver you want
to nominate:-
o Full names;
o Residential address;
o Postal address;
o Telephone numbers;
o Copy of the driver's acceptable identification e.g. I.D. document.
The RTIA shall acknowledge receipt of the nomination of the driver on form - AARTO 05b,
within a period of 14 days from receiving such nomination.
If the nomination is accepted, the Infringement Notice will be cancelled, and a second
Infringement Notice will be sent (per registered mail) to the driver that has been nominated.
8.4 COURTESY LETTER
After 32 days you will be served with a Courtesy Letter, requesting action within another 32
days (from the date of the Courtesy Letter). Your options are less since you cannot pay a
discounted penalty any more. You will also have to pay an additional Courtesy Letter fee.
8.4.1 On receiving a Courtesy letter you may within 32 days
 Make a representation to the RTIA;

 Arrange to pay in monthly instalments;
 Nominate the driver of the vehicle;
 Elect to be tried in court.

8.5 ENFORCEMENT ORDER
If you do not respond to the Courtesy Letter, you will be served with an Enforcement Order.
The Enforcement Order will demand that you pay your penalty, plus the Courtesy Letter fee,
plus an additional Enforcement Order fee, within 32 days (from the date of the Enforcement
Order).
Demerit points will be allocated and recorded against your name. Once the Enforcement
Order is served, you do not have any of the previous options left. The only option available
to you is to:-
 Apply for revocation of an Enforcement Order.
8.6 WARRANT OF EXECUTION
If you do not respond in a satisfactory manner to the Enforcement Order, a Warrant will be
issued and handed to a Sheriff for immediate execution.
8.6.1 The Warrant may allow the Sheriff to:-
Seize and sell your movable property to defray the penalty, fees and applicable costs. Seize
and deface your driving licence and/or professional driving permit. Remove and deface the
licence disks of all your vehicles. If applicable, seize and deface the operator cards of all the
vehicles for which you are the registered operator. Immobilise all your vehicles.
8.7 THE POINTS THAT CAN BE LOST AND FINES APPLICABLE
 Failing to keep left or encroaching on the right half of a roadway - 3 points and
R1000 fine.
 Not ensuring all occupants wear their seat belts - 0 demerit points and R250.
 Vehicle not fitted with seat belts - 1 point and R500.
 Carrying a person for reward in the goods department - 3 and R1000.
 Motor vehicle displaying no number plates - 6 points and court
 Going straight in a turning-only lane - 1 point and R500
 Not yielding at a roundabout - 1 point and R500.
 Not yielding right of way at a traffic island - 2 points and R750.
 Illegal U-turn - 1 point and R500.
 Pedestrian crossing road illegally - R100.
 Not yielding to a pedestrian at a pedestrian crossing - 1 point and R500.
 Jumping a red light - 2 points and R750.
 Accelerating while being overtaken - 3 points and R1 000.
 Failure to indicate when turning or changing lanes - 1 point and R500.
 Keeping unsafe following distance - 3 points and R1 000.
 Not giving way to an emergency vehicle - 1 point and R500.
 Driving on a pavement - 1 point and R500.

 Operating a cell phone without a hands-free kit - 1 point and R500.
 Performing a wheelie on a motorcycle - 0 points and R250.
 Spinning a vehicle’s wheels - 3 points and R1 000.
 Tow-truck driver removing vehicle from accident scene without permission - 2 points
and R750.
 Driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs - 6 points, no option of admission-of-
guilt fine.
 Operating a vehicle without a licence - 4 points and R1250.
 Not having driver's licence in possession while driving - 1 point and R500.
 Failing to switch on motorcycle's lights during day - 0 points and R250.
 Failing to switch on motorcycle's lights during night - 2 points and R750.
 Using fog lamps in good visibility - 2 points and R750.
 Organising a race/sport on a public road without permission - 3 points and R1000
8.7.1 SPEEDING IN 60KM/H ZONE
 71-75km/h - 0 demerit points and R250

 76-80km/h - 1 demerit point and R500
 81-85km/h - 2 demerit points and R750
 86-90km/h - 3 demerit points and R1 000
 100+km/h in a 60 zone - 6 demerit points, no option of admission-of-guilt fine
The same scale applies to other speed zones, starting with R250 for 10-15km/h over the
speed limit, with the admission-of-guilt limit set at 40km/h over the speed limit.
The demerit points to be incurred in respect of an infringement set out against it in column
3 of Schedule 3 are as set out in column 7 of that Schedule.
The demerit points incurred in respect of an operator for infringements set out in column 11
of Schedule 3 shall be as indicated for the infringements charged for under section 49 of the
National Road Traffic Act as indicated in Column 11 of Schedule 3.
The total number of demerit points which, if exceeded, disqualifies a person from driving a
motor vehicle, as contemplated in section 29(d) of the Act, is 12 points.
The total number of points that will result in the suspension of the operator cards of an
operator shall be as contemplated in Schedule 4.
The notice contemplated in section 26(1) of the Act, by which a person must be informed
that he or she has incurred more than the number of demerit points referred to in sub-
regulations (3) and (4), must be on a form similar to form AARTO 33 as shown in Schedule 1.

An application contemplated in section 25(3) of the Act, to the issuing authority to return a
person’s driving licence or professional driving permit as contemplated in section 25(5) of
the Act, must be submitted to the issuing authority on a form LL1 or DL1, whichever is
applicable, as shown in the Road Traffic Regulations.
8.8 ADMINISTRATIVE ADJUDICATION OF ROAD TRAFFIC OFFENCES REGULATIONS, 2007
SCHEDULE 4
Total number of points that will result in the suspension of the operator card
of an operator contemplated in terms of Regulation 23(4)
Every motor vehicle, for which an operator card is issued, as contemplated in section 45 of
the National Road Traffic Act, 1996, shall be subject to the conditions of this schedule.
The total number of points that an operator may incur, shall be in accordance with the
number of vehicles owned by the operator.
The total number of demerit points, which, if exceeded, shall result in the suspension of the
operator cards of an operator, shall be the total number of points given in the table below in
accordance with the number of vehicles of the operator.
The operator of the drawing vehicle shall be charged, in the case of an infringement
committed by a combination of motor vehicles: Provided that the operator of the drawing
vehicle may submit representations to the agency, to present reasons to charge the
operator of a trailer in such combination instead of such operator.
Every demerit point over the maximum points, calculated in terms of the number of vehicles
given in the table below, shall result in a one month suspension of all the operator cards of
an operator.
Number of vehicles No. of points per

vehicle
1 to 100 12
101 to 200 11
201 to 300 10
301 to 400 9
401 to 500 8
501 to 600 7
> 600 6
Do you believe there are reasonable grounds for cancelling your ticket? You may submit a
representation (i.e. a sworn statement) indicating why you should not be held liable for the
penalty payable in terms of the Infringement Notice. The RTIA will forward the
Representations to an independent Representations Officer for consideration.

8.8.1 The Representations Officer
A representations officer may do any of the following:-
 Duly consider the Representation;

 May conduct an independent investigation to verify facts;
 May allow the Representation, if there are reasonable grounds indicating why the
infringer should not be held liable for the penalty; or
 May reject the Representation if no reasonable grounds for allowance could be
found.
8.8.2 A Representation is either allowed or rejected:
 If the Representation is allowed by the Representations Officer, the RTIA will cancel
the Infringement Notice and inform you of the decision.
 If the Representation is rejected the Representations Officer will provide reasons for
the decision and may further advise you to elect to be tried in court.
The RTIA will notify you of the decision/s of the Representations Officer by registered mail.
8.8.3 Upon receipt of the decision you have the following options:
 You may elect to be tried in court (even if not recommended by the Representations
Officer); or
 You have to pay the penalty in full, plus the prescribed fee for the Representation
plus the prescribed fee for the Courtesy Letter, if any, within 32 days; or
 You can apply for payment of the penalty in instalments within 32 days.
8.9 The National Road Traffic Act, 1996, Act 93 of 1996
The fleet manager must have a thorough understanding of the National Road Traffic Act,
1996 and its Regulations as vehicles and drivers are comprehensively dealt with in this
legislation. This knowledge will come in handy when officers are charged to appear before a
disciplinary committee for incidents and crashes. Every incident that is reported and every
crash that a driver is involved in must be investigated and reported in line with the
institutions’ policies and procedures. In the case of a crash on a public road, it must in
addition to the institutions’ own policies and procedures also be reported to the South
African Police Service. The National Road Traffic Act, 1996 is too comprehensive to be
discussed within this text book.

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ADVANCED FLEET

MANAGEMENT FOR LAW

BENJAMIN VAN ROOYEN

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 1

Unit 2 Introducing Green Fleets

Unit 3 Emergency Equipment for Law Enforcement Vehicles

Unit 4 Procurement of Vehicles

Unit 5 Preventative Maintenance

Unit 6 Monitoring Systems for Vehicle Fleets

Unit 7 Fleet Management Policies

Unit 8 Legislative Issues for Fleet Managers

Unit 9 Crash Investigation and Interventions

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 2

After completion of this Unit you should be able to:-

Fleet management is the management of a company's vehicle fleet. Fleet management

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 3

The characteristics associated with Fleet Management are the following:-

1.2 Advantages of Effective Road Risk Strategies by Fleet Managers

The advantages of a responsible road risk strategy include the following:-

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 4

The objectives of fleet safety initiatives include the following:-

 Vehicle crash prevention;

1.4.1 Technologies for Road Safety

1.4.2 Advantages of effective On-board Technology for Road Safety

1.5 The budgeting problem

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 5

 Selection of more fuel-efficient vehicles which are capable of meeting police

1.6 The driver training problem

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 6

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 7

(Photo – Independent Newspapers)

1.6.1 Concerns involving police vehicle crashes

Crashes involving police vehicles have the following consequences:-

1.6.2 Objectives of police driver training

Police training driver training should have four primary aims:-

1.7 Abuse of police vehicles

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 8

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 9

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 10

 Define the concept – “green fleet”

2.1 Introducing “Green Fleets”

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 11

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 12

2.2 Creating a “Green Fleet”

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 13

2.3.1 Green Fleets

Green fleet programs generally have the following in common:-

 An institutional culture that encourages environmental leadership;

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 14

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 15

The steps for creating sustainable change are as follows:-

 Develop awareness of the need for change;

Alternative vehicles for Traffic Control – Ney York Police

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 16

2.3.3 Create a Clear and Shared Vision

2.3.4 Gain Management Commitment and Behaviour

2.3.5 Engage as Many People as Possible

2.3.6 Create Supportive Structures and Procedures

Fleet Management for Law Enforcement Page 17

2.3.7 Create Clear Performance Measures