Articles (1): introduction

1 How much do articles matter?

The correct use of the articles (a/an and the) is one of the most difficult points
in English grammar. Fortunately, most article mistakes do not matter too
much. Even if we leave all the articles out of a sentence, it is usually possible
to understand it.
Please can you lend me pound of butter till end of week? However, it is
better to use the articles correctly if possible.

a In English, when we are talking about people or things in general we do not

usually use the with uncountable or plural nouns.
Life is complicated, (NOT The life is complicated.)
My sister loves horses, (NOT ... the horse)
 b In English, we normally put a/an with a noun that is used for classifying - saying
what class, group or type somebody or something belongs to, what job, role or
position somebody or something fills, etc.
She’s a dentist, (NOT She’s dentist.)
I’m looking forward to being a grandmother.
(NOT ... to being grandmother.)
I used my shoe as a hammer, (NOT ... as hammer.)

articles (2): summary of the rules

1 articles are determiners
The articles a/an and the belong to a group of words called ‘determiners’.
(Determiners also include possessives like my, demonstratives like this and
quantifiers like all. For more information, see 157.) Articles normally come at
the beginning of noun phrases, before adjectives.
For the word order in structures like How strange an idea, see 16.
For the word order in quite a... , see 154.2,5; for rather a... , see 154.2; for such a... , see 544.1;
for what a..., see 201.2.

2 What are articles used for?

a/an is called the ‘indefinite article’. The is called the ‘definite article’.
Some/any is often used as the plural of a/an. And if we use no article, this has
a different meaning from all the others. There are really four articles.
Articles are used to show whether we are referring to things that are known
both to the speaker/writer and to the listener/reader (‘definite’), or that are not
known to them both (‘indefinite’).
Articles can also show whether we are talking about things in general or
particular things.

3 the = ‘we know which one(s)'

We say the doctor, the salt or the dogs (for example), when we expect the
listener/reader to know which doctor, salt or dogs we are talking about. In
other cases, we use a/an, some/any or no article. Compare:
- I’ve been to the doctor. (You know which one: my doctor.)
A doctor must like people. (- any doctor at all)
- Could you pass me the salt?
(The listener knows that it is the salt on the table that is meant.)
We need some more salt, (not particular ‘known’ salt)
 - Have you fed the dogs?
(The listener obviously knows which dogs are meant.) Do you like dogs?
(dogs in general)
4 particular and general
We can use articles to show whether we are talking about particular things or
things in general. Compare:
- There are some children in the garden. ( particular children) Children
usually start walking at around one year old.
(children in general)
- They’re delivering the oil tomorrow. ( particular oil)
Oil has nearly doubled in price recently. (oil in general)
Note that with plural and uncountable nouns we use no article, and not the, to
talk about people or things in general.
Oil has nearly doubled in price,
Children usually start walking...
But we can sometimes use the + singular countable noun to generalise.
Who invented the telephone?

Articles (3): countable and uncountable nouns

Articles are used in different ways with countable and uncountable nouns.

1 the difference
Countable nouns are the names of separate objects, people, ideas etc which we
can count.
a cat three cats
a secretary two secretaries
a plan two plans
Uncountable nouns are the names of materials, liquids and other things which
we do not usually see as separate objects.
water
wool
weather
energy

2 use of articles
A singular countable noun normally has an article or other determiner with it.
We can say a cat, the cat, my cat, this cat, any cat, either cat or every cat, but
not just cat. (There are one or two exceptions.) Plural and uncountable nouns
(e.g. cats, water) can be used with or without an article or other determiner.
 3 a/an
Plural nouns cannot be used with a/an (because a/an has a similar meaning to
‘one’), and uncountable nouns are not generally used with a/an, though there
are a certain number of exceptions.

4 exceptions: uncountable nouns treated as countable

Many normally uncountable nouns can be treated as countable to express the
meaning ‘a type of’ or ‘a portion of’.
Have you got a shampoo for dry hair?
Three coffees, please.
Many other normally uncountable nouns can have ‘partly countable’ uses:
they do not have plurals, but can be used with a/an. This can happen when the
meaning is particular rather than general.
We need a secretary with a knowledge of English.
You’ve been a great help.
I need a good sleep.
But some uncountable nouns (e.g. weather, progress) cannot normally be used
in this way.
We’re having terrible weather.
You’ve made very good progress.
Note also:
She speaks very good English.
Some nouns that are countable in other languages are uncountable in
English. Examples are information, advice;

Articles (4): the (details)

1 the - ‘you know which one(s)'
The usually means something like ‘you know which one(s) I mean’. We use
the before a noun when our listener/reader knows (or can work out) which
particular person(s), thing(s) etc we are talking about. Compare:
Did you lock the car? (The listener knows very well which car is meant.)
We hired a car to go to Scotland. (The listener does not know which one.)
The listener/ reader may know which one(s) we mean because:
a we have mentioned it / them before
She’s got two children: a boy and a girl. The boy’s fourteen and the
girl’s eight.
‘So what did you do then?’ ‘Gave the money straight back to the
policeman.’ (The speaker uses the because the listener has already heard
about the money and the policeman.)
b we say which one(s) we mean
Who’s the girl over there with John?
Tell Pat the story about John and Susie.
What did you do with the camera I lent you?
 c it is clear from the situation which one(s) we mean Could you close the door?
(Only one door is open.)
Ann’s in the kitchen.
Did you enjoy the party?
What’s the time?
2 the = ‘the only one(s) around’
The listener may know which one(s) we mean because there is no choice - we
are talking about something unique, like the sun, or something that is at least
unique in our environment, like the Government, the police.
I haven’t seen the sun for days.
the moon the stars the planets the earth the world
the unions the railways
the Japanese (There is only one Japanese nation.)
This use of the (to show that there is no choice) is possible even when we are
talking about somebody/something that the listener knows nothing about.
You don’t know the Aldersons, do you? (The use of the makes it clear that
there is only one Alderson family in the speaker’s social environment.)
Have you never heard of the Thirty Years’ War? (There was only one.)
3 physical environment
The is also used with a number of expressions referring to our physical
environment - the world around us and its climate - or to other common features
of our lives. The use of the suggests that everybody is familiar with what we are
talking about. Examples are:
the town the mountains the fog the future
the country the rain the weather the universe
the sea the the wind the night the sunshine
seaside
Do you prefer the town or the country?
My wife likes the seaside, but I prefer the mountains.
I love listening to the wind.
Note that no article is used with nature, society or space when these have a
'general' meaning.
4 superlatives
We usually use the with superlatives because there is normally only one best,
biggest etc individual or group (so it is clear which one(s) we are talking about).
For the same reason, we usually use the with first, next, last, same and only.
I’m the oldest in my family. Can I have the next pancake?
We went to the same school.
5 the meaning ‘the well-known’
After a name, an identifying expression with the is often used to make it clear
that the person referred to is ‘the well-known one’.
She married Richard Burton, the actor.
I’d like you to meet Cathy Parker, the novelist.
 6 possessives and demonstratives
We do not use the with possessives or demonstratives.
This is my uncle,
I like this beer.
7 proper names
We do not usually use the with singular proper names (there are some
exceptions).
Mary lives in Switzerland,
But note the use of the (pronounced /ði:/) with a person’s name to mean
‘the well-known’.
‘My name’s James Bond.’ ‘What, not the James Bond?’
8 things in general
We usually use no article, not the, to talk about things in general - the does not
mean ‘all’.
Books are expensive,
9 pronunciation
The is pronounced /ði/ before a vowel and /ðə/ before a consonant. Compare:
the ice / ði ais/ ðə snəu/
the snow /
The choice between /ði/ and / ðə / depends on pronunciation, not spelling.
We pronounce /ði/ before a vowel sound, even if it is written as a consonant.
the hour /ði auə/ the MP / ði em pi:/
And we pronounce / ðə / before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a
vowel.
ðə ju:ni'və:siti/
the university /
the one-pound coin / ðə 'wʌn 'paund 'koin/
We sometimes pronounce a stressed / ði:/ before a hesitation, or when we
want to stress the following word, even if it begins with a consonant.

Articles (5): a/an (details)

1 a/an

a We can use a/an to talk about one particular person or thing, when the listener /
reader does not know which one is meant, or when it does not matter which
one.
My brother’s going out with a French girl.
(The listener does not know which particular French girl it is.)
She lives in a nice big house.
Could you lend me a pen?
b We can also use a/an to talk about any one member of a class.
A doctor must like people. (= any doctor)
A spider has eight legs.
c And we can use a/an after a copular verb or as to classify people and things - to say
what class, group or type they belong to.
She’s an architect, (NOT She’s architect.)
I’m looking forward to being a grandmother.
‘What’s that noise?’ ‘I think it’s a helicopter.’
He decided to become an engineer.
He remained a bachelor all his life.
Don’t use your plate as an ashtray.

2 a/an, some/any and no article

a/an is mainly used with singular countable nouns. (The original meaning of
a/an was ‘one’.) Before plural and uncountable nouns, we normally express
similar meanings with some/any or no article.
plural nouns
We met some nice French girls on holiday, (NOT nice French girls...)
Have you got any matches?
Doctors generally work long hours.
Both my parents are architects.
uncountable nouns
I think there’s some butter in the fridge.
Whisky is made from barley.
‘What’s that on your coat?’ ‘It looks like paint.’
3 adjectives
a/an cannot normally be used with an adjective alone (without a noun).
Compare:
It’s a good car.
It’s good.
4 possessives
a/an cannot be used together with a possessive. Instead, we can use the structure
a... of mine /yours /etc .
He’s a friend of mine.

5 when a/an cannot be dropped

Note that a/an is not normally left out in negative expressions, after prepositions
or after fractions.
‘Lend me your pen.’ ‘I haven 't got a pen.
You mustn’t go out without a coat,
Three-quarters of a pound .
 6 a and an
We do not normally pronounce the sound /a/ before a vowel. So before a
vowel, the article a (/ə/) changes to an. Compare:
a rabbit a lemon
an elephant an orange
The choice between a and an depends on pronunciation, not spelling.
We use an before a vowel sound, even if it is written as a consonant.
an hour /ən 'aua/ an MP /ən em 'pi:/
And we use a before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a vowel.
a university /ə ju:.../ a one-pound coin /ə wʌn ...I
Some people say an, not a, before words beginning with h if the first syllable
is unstressed.
an hotel (a hotel is more common)
an historic occasion (a historic... is more common)
A is sometimes pronounced /ei/ before a hesitation, when we want to
emphasise the following word, or when we want to make a contrast with the.
It’s a /ei/ reason - it’s not the only reason.

Articles (6): the difference between some/any and

no article
1 use with uncountable and plural nouns
Uncountable and plural nouns can often be used either with some/any or with
no article. There is not always a great difference of meaning.
We need (some) cheese. I didn't buy (any) eggs.
Some is used especially in affirmative sentences; any is more common in
questions and negatives.
2 the difference
We use some/any when we are thinking about limited but rather indefinite
vague numbers or quantities - when we don’t know, care or say exactly how
much/many. We use no article when we are thinking about unlimited numbers
or quantities, or not thinking about numbers/quantities at all.
Compare:
- We’ve planted some roses in the garden.
(A limited number; the speaker doesn’t say how many.)
I like roses. (No idea of number.)
- We got talking to some students. (A limited number.)
Our next-door neighbours are students.
(The main idea is classification, not number.)
- Would you like some more beer?
(An indefinite amount - as much as the listener wants.)
We need beer, sugar, eggs, butter, rice and toilet paper. (The speaker is
thinking just of the things that need to be bought, not of the amounts.)
- Is there any water in the fridge? (The speaker wants a limited amount.)
- Is there water on the moon?
(The interest is in the existence of water, not the amount.)
 - This engine hardly uses any petrol. (The interest is in the amount.)
This engine doesn't use petrol.
(The interest is in the type of fuel, not the amount.)
We do not use some/any when it is clear exactly how much/many is meant.
Compare:
- You’ve got some great books.
You’ve got pretty toes. (A definite number - ten. You’ve got some pretty toes
would suggest that the speaker is not making it clear how many - perhaps
six or seven!)

Articles (7): talking in general

1 the does not mean ‘all’
We do not use the with uncountable or plural nouns to talk about things in
general - to talk about all books, all people or all life, for example. The does not
mean ‘all’. Instead, we use no article. Compare:
- Move the books off that chair and sit down. (particular books)
Books are expensive, (The sentence is about books in general - all books.)
- I’m studying the life of Beethoven. (one particular life)
Life is complicated, (The sentence is about the whole of life.)
- ‘Where’s the cheese?’ ‘I ate it.’
I love cheese.
- Why has the light gone out?
Nothing can travel faster than light.
Note that most (meaning ‘the majority of) is used without the.
Most birds can fly. (NOT The most...)
Most of the children got very tired, (NOT The most...)

2 generalisations with singular words

Sometimes we talk about things in general by using the with a singular
countable noun.
Schools should pay less attention to examination success, and more
attention to the child.
This is common with the names of scientific instruments and inventions, and
musical instruments.
Life would be quieter without the telephone.
The violin is more difficult than the piano.
We can also generalise by talking about one example of a class, using a/an
(meaning ‘any’) with a singular countable noun.
A baby deer can stand as soon as it’s born. A child needs plenty of love. Note
that we cannot use a/an in this way when we are generalising about all of the
members of a group together.
The tiger is in danger of becoming extinct.
The sentence is about the whole tiger family, not about individuals.)
Do you like horses? (NOT DO you like a horse?)
3 difficult cases: ‘general’ + ‘known’
We use no article to generalise with uncountable and plural words; but we use
the to show that the listener/reader knows which people or things we are talking
about. Sometimes both these meanings come together, and it is difficult to
know whether or not to use the.
a the sea, the weather etc
The is used with a lot of general expressions that refer to our physical
environment - the world around us and its climate - or to other common
features of our lives. The use of the seems to suggest shared experience or
knowledge: the listener/reader ‘has been there too’.
Do you prefer the town or the country?
My wife likes the sea, but I prefer the mountains.
English people always talk about the weather.
I wish the trains were cleaner and more punctual.
He’s always after the girls.
Note that we use no article with nature, society, space and other abstract nouns
when these have a general meaning.
Love nature, (NOT ... the nature.')
It isn’t always easy to fit in with society, (NOT ... the society.)
We are just taking our first steps into space, (NOT .. .the space.)
b the Russians etc
We often use the to refer to well-known, well-defined groups of people (e.g.
nationalities), even when we are talking about these in general.
The Russians have a marvellous folksong tradition.
The Irish have their own language.
Should the police carry guns?

Note also the use of the + adjective (e.g. the blind, the old) to talk about certain
groups.

4 difficult cases: ‘half-general’

Some expressions are ‘half-general’ - in the middle between general and
particular. If we talk about eighteenth-century history, sixties music or poverty
in Britain, we are not talking about all history, music or poverty, but these are
still rather general ideas (compared with the history I did at school, the music
we heard last night or the poverty I grew up in). In these ‘half-general’
expressions, we usually use no article. However, the is often used when the
noun is followed by a limiting, defining phrase, especially one with of.
Compare:
- eighteenth-century music
the music of the eighteenth century
- African butterflies
the butterflies of Africa
Articles (8): special rules and exceptions
1 common expressions without articles
In some common fixed expressions to do with place, time and movement,
normally countable nouns are treated as uncountables, without articles.
Examples are:
to school at school in school (US) from school
to/at/from university /college (GB) to/in/from college (US)
to /at/in/into/from church to/in/into/out of bed/prison
to/in/into/out of hospital (GB) to/at/from work
to /at sea to/in/from town at/from home leave home
leave/start/enter school/university/college
by day at night
by car/bus/bicycle/plane/train/tube/boat on foot
by radio/phone/letter/mail
With place nouns, similar expressions with articles may have different
meanings. Compare:
- I met her at college, (when we were students)
I’ll meet you at the college. (The college is just a meeting place.)
- Jane’s in hospital, (as a patient)
I left my coat in the hospital when I was visiting Jane.
- Who smokes in class? (-... in the classroom?)
Who smokes in the class? (= Who is a smoker...?)
In American English, university and hospital are not used without articles. She
was unhappy at the university.

2 double expressions
Articles are often dropped in double expressions, particularly with
prepositions.
with knife and fork on land and sea day after day
with hat and coat arm in arm inch husband and wife
from top to bottom by inch
But articles are not usually dropped when single nouns follow prepositions.
You can’t get there without a car.
3 ’s genitives
A noun that is used after an’s genitive (like John’s, America’s) has no article
(just like a noun used after a possessive).
the coat that belongs to John - John’s coat
the economic problems of America = America’s economic problems
But the genitive noun itself may have an article.
the wife of the boss = the boss’s wife
4 the... of a...
In classifying expressions of this kind, the first article is definite even if the
meaning of the whole expression is indefinite.
Lying by the side of the road we saw the wheel of a car.
5 noun modifiers
When a noun modifies another noun, the first noun’s article is dropped. guitar
lessons = lessons in how to play the guitar
a sunspot = a spot on the sun
6 both and all
We often leave out the after both.
Both (the) children are good at maths.
And we often leave out the between all and a number.
All (the) three brothers were arrested.
We usually leave out the after all in all day, all night, all week, all year, all
winter and all summer.
We’ve been waiting to hear from you all week.
I haven't seen her all day.
7 kind of etc
We usually leave out a/an after kind of, sort of, type of and similar expressions.
What kind of (a) person is she?
Have you got a cheaper sort of radio?
They’ve developed a new variety of sheep.
8 amount and number
The is dropped after the amount/number of.
I was surprised at the amount of money collected.
The number of unemployed is rising steadily.

9 man and woman

Unlike other singular countable nouns, man and woman can be used in a general
sense without articles.
Man and woman were created equal.
But in modern English we more often use a woman and a man, or men and
women.
A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle, (old feminist joke)
Men and women have similar abilities and needs.
Man is also commonly used to mean ‘the human race’, though many people
regard this usage as sexist and prefer to avoid it.
How did Man first discover fire?
10 days, months and seasons
We use articles with the names of days of the week and months when we are
talking about particular days or months.
We met on a wet Monday in June.
She died on the Tuesday after the accident.
We’re having a very wet April.
It was the January after we went to Greece.
But articles are not used when the meaning is ‘the day/month before or after
this one’.
See you on Thursday. See you in April.
Where were you last Saturday? We’re moving next September.
To talk about the seasons in general, we can say spring or the spring, summer
or the summer, etc. There is little difference. The is always used in in the fall
(US).
Rome is lovely in (the) spring.
I like (the) winter best.
When we are talking about particular springs, summers etc, we are more likely
to use the.
I worked very hard in the summer that year.
11 musical instruments
We often use the + singular when we talk about musical instruments in
general, or about playing musical instruments.
The violin is really difficult.
Who’s that on the piano?
But the is often dropped when talking about jazz or pop, and sometimes when
talking about classical music.
This recording was made with Miles Davis on trumpet.
She studied oboe and saxophone at the Royal Academy of Music.
12 television, (the) radio, (the) cinema and (the) theatre
When we talk about television as a form of entertainment, we do not use
articles.
It’s not easy to write plays for television.
Would you rather go out or watch TV?
But articles are used when television means ‘a television set’. Compare: What’s
on TV?
Look out! The cat’s on the TV!
Articles are generally used with radio, cinema and theatre.
I always listen to the radio while I’m driving.
It was a great treat to go to the cinema or the theatre when I was a child.
But the article can be dropped when we talk about these institutions as art
forms or professions.
Cinema is different from theatre in several ways.
He’s worked in radio all his life.
13 jobs and positions
We normally use a/an when we say what job somebody has. She’s an architect,
The is not used in titles like Queen Elizabeth, President Lincoln. Compare:
Queen Elizabeth had dinner with President Kennedy.
The Queen had dinner with the President.
And the is not usually used in the complement of a sentence, when we say that
somebody has or gains a unique position (the only one in the organisation).
Compare:
- They appointed him Head Librarian.
He’s a librarian.
- He was elected President in 1879.
I want to see the President.
14 exclamations
We use a/an with singular countable nouns in exclamations after What.
What a lovely dress!
Note that al an cannot be used in exclamations with uncountable nouns.
What nonsense!
What luck!
15 illnesses
The names of illnesses are usually uncountable in standard British English.
The can be used informally before the names of some common illnesses such
as the measles, the flu; others have no article. American usage is different in
some cases.
I think I’ve got (the) measles.
Have you had appendicitis?
I'm getting toothache. (US ...a toothache.)
Exceptions: a cold, a headache (US also an earache, a backache).
I’ve got a horrible cold.
Have you got a headache?
16 parts of the body etc
When talking about parts of someone’s body, or about their possessions, we
usually use possessives, not the.
Katy broke her arm climbing,
He stood in the doorway, his coat over his arm.

However, when talking about parts of the body we generally prefer the in
prepositional phrases related to the object of a clause (or the subject of a
passive clause).
She hit him in the stomach.
Can’t you look me in the eye?
He was shot in the leg.
This can also happen in prepositional phrases after be + adjective.
He’s broad across the shoulders.
17 measurements
Note the use of the in measuring expressions beginning with by.
Do you sell eggs by the kilo or by the dozen?
She drinks cough medicine by the litre.
He sits watching TV by the hour.
Can I pay by the month ?
a/an is used to relate one measuring unit to another.
sixty pence a kilo thirty miles an hour (OR ... miles per hour) twice a week,
on average a third of a pint
18 place names
We use the with these kinds of place names:
seas (the Atlantic)
mountain groups (the Himalayas)
island groups (the West Indies)
rivers (the Thames)
deserts (the Sahara)
most hotels (the Grand Hotel)
most cinemas and theatres (the Odeon; the Playhouse)
most museums and art galleries (the British Museum; the Frick)
We usually use no article with:
continents, countries, states, counties, departments etc (Africa, Brazil,
Texas, Berkshire, Westphalia)
towns (Oxford)
streets (New Street, Willow Road)
lakes (Lake Michigan)
Exceptions: places whose name is (or contains) a common noun like republic,
state, union (e.g. the People’s Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the
United States). Note also the Netherlands, and its seat of government The
Hague.
In British English, the is unusual in the names of the principal public buildings
and organisations of a town.
Oxford University
Hull Station
Salisbury Cathedral
Birmingham Airport
Bristol Zoo
Manchester City Council
Cheltenham Football Club
In American English, the is more often used in such cases.
The San Diego Zoo The Detroit City Council
Names of single mountains vary. Most have no article.
Everest Kilimanjaro Snowdon Table Mountain
But definite articles are usually translated in the English versions of European
mountain names, except those beginning Le Mont.
The Meije (- La Meije) The Matterhorn (= Das Matterhorn)
19 newspapers and magazines
The names of newspapers usually have the.
The Times The Washington Post
The names of magazines do not always have the.
New Scientist
20 abbreviated styles
We usually leave out articles in abbreviated styles.
Newspaper headlines MAN KILLED ON MOUNTAIN
headings Introduction
Chapter 2
Section B
picture captions Mother and child
notices, posters etc SUPER CINEMA, RITZ HOTEL
instructions Open packet at other end
numbering and Go through door A
labelling Control to Car 27: can you hear me?
Turn to page 26. (NOT ... the page 26.)
dictionary entries Palm - inner surface of hand...
lists take car to garage; pay phone bill;...
notes J thinks company needs new office